Abstract

Inverters are very useful these days in many applications of electrical energy systems. However,
they have a limitation that they produce certain amount of harmonics in the output waveform
which have severe effects on the performance of the systems connected to them. We have used
Multi Level Voltage Source Inverters (MVSIs) instead of Voltage Source Inverter (VSI). MVSI
have many advantages that make it preferable over the conventional VSI. These include the
ability to utilize higher DC link voltage, improved harmonics performance and reduced power
devices (transistor) stress and their performance is better due to stepped waveform output
behavior which mimics the sinusoidal waveform. Harmonic Elimination Pulse Width Modulation
(HEPWM) method has been widely used to remove low frequency harmonics from the output
voltage of MVSIs. However, finding the HEPWM angles is very challenging for us due to its
very tight angular spacing and complex mathematical equations. To find the HEPWM angles
different methods being used like; calculus and Soft Computing (SC) methods. To handle this
complex problem we used the Cuckoo Search Algorithm (CSA) method. This method explains
that HEPWM problem can be solved by using cascaded MVSIs. This emphasis to find the
switching angles trajectories of HEPWM for the wider range of modulation index (M) and
removed the discontinuity in angles trajectories. To verify the validity of this proposed algorithm
than constructing the hardware prototype of seven and five level cascaded MVSI and result of
simulation and hardware will be approximately equal to our assumption.

Chapter 1
Introduction
1.1 Overview
Multi-level Voltage Source Inverter (MVSI) is used for the conversion of DC-AC in high and
low level power applications [1-5]. MVSI has ability to achieve high level voltage at the output
side by using low-power semiconductor switches on this way the stress on the switches reduces
and also the output waveform can be improved in lower harmonics distortion [6-8]. In MVSIs
transformers arent required so it can reduce the cost, ohmic losses and space issue [6]. Many
topologies of MVSI is introduced over the year in which diode clamped [2, 9], flying capacitor
[2, 10] and cascaded inverter [2, 11]. Each topology has its own benefits and drawbacks as
compared to other one [1, 2, 6]. However, cascaded topologies have simpler structure and are
easy to use as compared to other topologies [12, 13].The problem is that even after using any
type of topology still the harmonics distortion remains in our output waveform, due to the
distortion we face the increase in switching losses, degrading the system efficiency [14], reduces
the reliability and life time of the system due to its vibration and torque [15].
In recent years, Harmonics Elimination Pulse Width Modulation (HEPWM) [16, 17] has gained
popularity due to its superior harmonics profile [18, 19]. Obtaining the solution of linear
transcendental equation and to find the angles is challenging for us. The number of harmonics
eliminate depends upon the number of the equations [16, 17]. To obtain a high quality waveform
we should eliminate more harmonics from the output waveform.
To solve these difficulties in HEPWM several computational methods are introduced.(1)
Calculus [16, 17, 20] (2) Soft Computing (SC) approach [18, 19, 21]. In calculus NewtonRaphson method is widely used due to its simplicity [16, 22]. For this method, we assume initial
value which is not taken correct so our result will be far away from our desired result [23]. More
recently, HEPWM schemes using Evolutionary Algorithm (EA) optimization techniques such as
Genetic Algorithm (GA) [3] and Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) are introduced [7]. These
are non-calculus approaches that capitalize on the vast computing power to perform search and
optimization procedures. Suitable initial conditions are not required; they are randomly generated
from the search space. In this project, we will utilize EA to solve the HEPWM equations.

1.2 Motivation
Over the years, many calculus and SC method are used to solve the HEPWM problem but no one
has achieved the goal to overcome the discontinuities of switching angles. Moreover, they failed
to find out the angles for an extended range of (M). After this failure, the trend has now moved
towards the SC approach. The SC contains large family of methods, but particularly Cuckoo
Search Algorithm (CSA) has been shown excel over several other methods in various domains of

search. CS method is simple, accurate and easy to use as compare to others. Hence, due to above
mentioned benefits it is expected that CSA can be effectively employed to fulfill our work.

1.3 Objectives
In considering the overview and motivation given above, the objectives of the work can be
formulated as follows:
1) To develop an effective HEPWM algorithm for MVSI using cuckoo method. The aim is
to remove harmonics from output voltage of MVSI.
2) To mitigate the discontinuities in the solution angles for various values of modulation
index (M) for the wide range.
3) To eliminate the discontinuities in HEPWM switching angle trajectories of MVSI.
The expected outcome of this research is a new algorithm to solve the HEPWM problem of
MVSI.

1.4 Importance of work

Due to the existence of discontinuities in the trajectories of HEPWM switching angles, there is
always a risk of inefficient working of MVSI systems. As this work is focused on mitigating
these discontinuities; so, it will do a greater good for the efficient and reliable working of the
MVSIs system by providing the smooth operation for the whole range of M. Another issue of the
HEPWM problem for MVSI is the unavailability of solution angles for an appealing range of M
which hinders the application of HEPWM for high power applications. This work also focuses
on covering a wider range of M so that the applications of HEPWM can be extended to high
power applications.

1.5 Summary
In this chapter, we have discussed about different topologies of MVSI and the most used
topology is Cascaded topology due to its simple structure. We also have discussed the harmonics
which are produced at output of inverter and studied the different techniques to remove these
harmonics, most popular method of eliminating the harmonics is HEPWM. In HEPWM, we read
different methods to compute the angles in which one is the calculus method and other one is SC
method. In this work, our main motive is to introduce new SC method for angle computation in
HEPWM and to remove the harmonics of inverter by using SC method.

CHAPTER 2

2.1 Background
Inverter is an electronic device, used to convert DC power into AC power. They are widely used
on a large scale in our industries and homes. Inverters generate AC waveforms and are required
in uninterruptible power supplies (UPS), adjustable speed drives (ASDs), active filters and
voltage compensators etc. Apart from their wide applications, they contain large amount of
harmonics. These harmonics can create several practical problems which are as (1) poor power
factor, (2) excessive heating of induction motor, (3) extra heating of transformer, (4) damage of
power factor correction capacitors, (5) excessive heating of neutral conductors. There are several
characteristics that define the performance and efficiency of the inverter like (1) low voltage
stress, (2) small size, (3) simple control system,(4) simplicity of circuit, (5) low total harmonic
distortion (THD), (6) low cost, (7) controllable output voltage [24]. There are several methods of
eliminating the harmonics in inverters the most popular of them is harmonic elimination pulse
width modulation (HEPWM), it is better method rather than others due to its superior harmonics
profile.

2.2 Inverter Topologies

Inverter is used for DC-AC power conversion. Inverter is classified as a current source inverter
(CSI) or voltage source inverter (VSI) [25] as shown in Figure 2.1.

Figure 2.1 Classification of Inverter

2.2.1 VSI

Topologically, VSI is categorized into bi-level and multilevel voltage source inverter (MVSI)
[26] and can produce bipolar [21] or unipolar output waveforms [27]. Example of a typical Hbridge VSI is shown in Figure 2.2, while Figure 2.3 (a, b) shows its bipolar and unipolar output
voltage waveforms respectively. In high and medium power applications IGBT, GCT and GTO
are used as switching devices, while, for low power equipment lower rated IGBTs or MOSFETs
are normally used.

Figure 2.2 H-Bridge VSI

(a)

(b)
Figure 2.3 Output waveform of VSI (a) Bipolar Switching (b) Unipolar Switching
2.2.2 MVSI
MVSI produces a staircase (stepped) waveform that looks like sinusoidal AC waveform [1, 6].
Besides its complexities, it is preferred due to its superior harmonics profile, high power quality,
lower switching losses and lower order harmonics [13, 28, 29]. The transformer less system is
desirable in Renewable Energy (RE) and MVSI can be its potential alternative for high power
applications due to several reasons: (1) it reduces the weight, cost and size of the system, (2) it
results in low power losses and (3) lower rated switches can be used to generate high voltage
output [28, 30, 31].
Various topologies are used for MVSI; the popular ones are the Point Clamp [32], flying
capacitor [33] and cascaded [34] MVSI. Each topology has its own merits and demerits as
shortened by [2, 6]. However, the cascaded type has been the focus due to its simpler structure
and generation of equal number of output voltage levels with lower power semiconductor
devices in comparison with other topologies [12].
Cascaded MVSI
We can build cascaded MVSI by using a number of H-bridge inverters connected in series.
Figure 2.3 shows a single phase cascaded MVSI. Independent dc sources are a common
configuration for RE application, particularly for Photo Voltaic (PV) power systems [35, 36].
Cascaded MVSI is superior to the other MVSI topologies as (1) it requires less numbers of
components for the same output voltage level, (2) it does not require special balancing capacitors

or clamping diodes and (3) it has lower amount of switching losses [12]. In addition, the
maintenance and construction of cascaded MVSI is much simpler due to its modular
configuration [12]. One of the distinguished features of the cascaded MVSI is the use of
numerous dc voltage sources for each module. Since the H-bridge modules of cascaded inverter
are connected in series; hence its output is a stepped sum of all the input voltages. The stepped
output voltage results in improved harmonic profile and higher output voltage. Inputs are
normally equal in voltages in cascaded MVSI. However, in certain applications, particularly in
RE, they can be unequal of magnitude. As cascaded inverters are synthesized using the modular
approach, so HEPWM problem for five and seven level MVSI solved in this work can easily be
extended to any number of levels without the loss of generality.
The circuit topology of a single phase cascaded inverter is shown in Figure 2.4 and its
corresponding output wave form is shown as in Figure 2.5. In this depicted case, the step
waveform of Figure 2.5(a) is not modulated within the voltage levels. Here (N) represents total
number of input sources while 1, 2,,N represent rising transition angles. Another option is to
use the notch HEPWM in which several angles are modulated within a particular level,
creating notches as depicted in Figure 2.5(b). It should be noted that the number of dc sources
(N) is a vital factor in controlling the amplitude and number of levels of the output voltage,
which are related to N as
Amplitude =( NV N )

(2.1)

Number of levels=( 2N ) +1

(2.2)

Figure 2.4 Single phase cascaded MVSI

The output voltage of MVSI contains large amount of harmonics in it. Harmonics creates severe
effects on electrical and mechanical components of energy systems: it will increase the switching
losses of semiconductors, it causes torque and speed ripple for induction motors, it will decrease
the overall performance of the system and it reduce the reliability and life time and of the system
due to torque pulsation, vibration and mechanical fatigue [14, 15].

When connected to the electrical grids, the lower order harmonics create a number of
complicated problems at the distribution system; some of the major effects produced by
harmonics include overvoltage and overcurrent on the network, capacitor bank failure, KWH
metering errors and dielectric breakdown of insulated cables [37]. A lot of work has been carried
out to mitigate the harmonics by improving their modulation techniques which are Harmonics
Elimination Pulse Width Modulation (HEPWM), Multicarrier (SPWM), staircase modulation,
Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation (SPWM) and Multilevel Space Vector Modulation (SVM)
[6, 7, 26]. HEPWM is more popular due to its superior harmonics profile.

2.3 HEPWM
In past years, several techniques were used to mitigate the harmonics but HEPWM [16, 17] has
gained popularity in MVSIs due to its superior harmonics profile [18, 19, 23]. Besides these
benefit, obtaining the solution for the equations that describe the HEPWM switching angles is
very challenging this is due to the fact that these transcendental equations are simultaneous,
nonlinear, and their trigonometric functions are very correlated to each other [16, 17]. In
addition, the number of equations that must be solved depends on the number of harmonics to be
eliminated [16, 17]. To obtain a high quality waveform, a large number of harmonics need to be
eliminated. Therefore more equations need to be solved, which is very difficult.
As discussed, with regard to HEPWM switching there are two possible
approaches. However, our work will be focused on non-notch HEPWM due to
its simplicity and ability to produce higher fundamental value. In non-notch
HEPWM, the number of harmonics that can be eliminated depends on the
number of levels of the output voltage. Thus to eliminate more harmonics,
higher number of output voltage levels is required. This limitation limits the
number of harmonics that can be eliminated as the physical difficulty of the
circuit increases quickly with the number of levels.

(a)

(b)
Figure 2.5 The staircase HEPWM output voltage of the MVSI for (a) non notch
Type (b) notch type

For the non-notch case, the HEPWM angles are computed only for the moments in which the
transitions from one level to another occur i.e. 1, 2,,N, as depicted in Figure 2.5(a). The
generalized objective function that allows the non-notch HEPWM to control the fundamental
output voltage and its harmonics behavior can be written as
N

h ( ) = V i cos n i= h h=1, 2, , N
i=1

(2.3)

Where Vi is the magnitude of ith output voltage step. If s represents the total number of input
sources, then the M is given as
V f , 0.01 M s
4 V dc
M =

(2.4)

2.4 HEPWM Angles Computation

There are significant numbers of proposed HEPWM computational methods, which are generally
classified into two main types such as calculus and the other one is Soft Computing (SC)
approach [16-21].
In calculus method, Newton-Raphson (NR) is the widely used due to its simplicity [16, 22].
However, this method requires an initial guess to find the switching angles. It is very difficult to
choose a good initial condition for large number of angles. Other refined calculus based methods,
for example Walsh function, sequential homo Topy and resultant theory [20] are proposed, but
the requirement of good initial guess remains same. However, with the introduction of low-cost,
highly powerful processors, the trend has moved towards SC approach [18, 19, 23]. In general,
these methods hold universal optimizing and searching ability and are free from the requirement
of good initial guess.
Compare to calculus method, SC converts the problem to an optimization task and solves
it using the evolutionary or search mechanism [38]. It does not essentially require a good initial
guess and its convergence and success rate are superior. Furthermore, due to its diversity, it
increases the chance to attain more than one possible solution sets for the HEPWM angles. The
soft computing methods that are being used are Genetic algorithm(GA), Particle swarm
optimization (PSO), Differential Evolution (DE), Bee algorithm (BA),
Evolutionary
Programming (EP), Ant colony system (ACS) and Bacterial foraging algorithm (BFA) [5, 19,
23].

2.4.1 Genetic Algorithm (GA)

GA [39] is a biological evolution technique that is employed to solve the nonlinear equations.
GA is used to remove the first three odd harmonics of a single phase inverter to improve the
power factor of its unipolar output voltage [40]. Since GA is an optimizer, the equations need to
be converted to a minimization problem, and then assessed using certain fitness function. In [41]
the Real Coded Genetic Algorithm (RCGA) along with the Direct Search (DS) method is
employed to solve the HEPWM problem for VSI with bipolar output. The RCGA is a modified
version of GA, in which binary genes are replaced by the real numbers to reduce the convergence
time and to improve the accuracy of the solution [42]. First, the global searching ability of
RCGA is activated to find the solution with minimum weighted THD (WTHD); then it is finetuned by the local searching ability of DS. In [43] the GA is used to compute the angles for the
cascaded MVSI non notch HEPWM output waveform. To achieve high quality sinusoidal
waveform, forty one and twenty levels MVSIs are proposed. This scheme requires twenty and
ten switching angles to be solved, respectively. Furthermore, twenty and ten voltage variables are
also introduced to improve the regulation of the output voltage of the respective inverters. Once
the values of these variables are found, they are tuned to obtain the possible best value of THD.
In another similar work [44], the HEPWM computation for seven level three phase diode
clamped MVSI is implemented.
2.4.2 Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO)
PSO [45] is based on the behavior of swarms. Each particle is influenced by its own best position
(Pbest) and the best known positions in the search space. The latter is guided by the
neighborhoods (Gbest) best position. An inertia weight (w) controls the velocity of the motion of
the particles. The individual particle position is defined by
G+1

G +1

x i =x i + v i

(2.5)

Where, vi represents the velocity component and is calculated by

v Gi +1=w v Gi +c 1 ( Pbesti x Gi ) +c 2 r 2 (Gbest x Gi )

(2.6)

In this equation, w is the inertia weight; c1 and c2 are the acceleration constants, and Pbest and
Gbest are the personal and global best positions respectively.
PSO is used to solve the more difficult HEPWM problem for MVSIs due to its excellent
searching capability. In [4], PSO is used to find the switching angles for the cascaded MVSI. It is
also used to ensure the discontinuities in the switching angle trajectories for the non-notch type
HEPWM are mitigated in the seven and eleven level cascaded MVSIs.

In [46], PSO is used to compute the HEPWM angles of the non-notch MVSI waveform
for the seven and eleven level diode clamped MVSI. In most papers associated to MVSI, the dc
inputs are supposed to be of equal magnitudes. However particularly for RE applications, the
sources often exhibit unequal magnitudes [47]. Thus, the results gained for the case of equal
magnitude sources are not applicable to most of RE systems. In [48] and [18], non-notch
HEPWM waveform is solved by PSO for the cascaded five, seven and nine level inverters with
unequal dc sources. Objective of these works is to provide HEPWM solution angle trajectories
for practical RE systems.
2.4.3 Differential Evolution (DE)
DE is a stochastic optimizer based evolutionary algorithm (EA). Distinct GA, which relies on
crossover, DE primarily, utilizes the mutation operation as a search and selection mechanism to
direct the search towards the prospective regions in the search space.
In [21, 49] DE is used to solve the HEPWM for a three phase VSI with bipolar output
voltage waveform. In another work [50], an improved form of DE is used to increase the
performance of a three phase induction motor systems by increasing the harmonics behavior of
the inverter. To obtain the maximum number of possible solutions the neighboring area of target
vector Xi, Gof pre-specified radius R(Euclidean distance) is searched inside the whole search
space. Mutation is carried out according to the following equation:
V i ,G =X i ,G + F ( X n

best

,G

X i ,G ) + F ( X r ,G X r , G )
i
1

i
2

(2.7)

In [51], DE is used to catch out the multiple solution sets of switching angles for a bipolar VSI.
However, the lowest THD valued solution is taken as the required solution. Various numbers of
harmonics are removed to show the reliability of DE. From the work carried out in [21, 49-51], it
is revealed that DE shows several features that could be important for HEPWM work like (1) it
has rapid convergence and (2) it uses less control parameters. However, despite the good
efficiency of the algorithm, DE is yet to be applied to MVSI.
2.4.4 Bee Algorithm (BA)
Bee algorithm (BA) [52] follows the foraging behavior of honeybees. The bees are of the three
types (1) employed bees (2) on looker bees and (3) scout bees. Employed bees are half of the bee
colony and equal to the number of randomly initialized food places, although remaining half are
the onlooker bees.
There are three phases of BA. In the first phase, each employed bee is sent to carry out
the searching process on the way to a single food place. They come back and handover the
information of the best visited food places to the onlooker bees after completing their task. In the
second phase, onlooker bees start their search by gathering at the best food locations visited by
the employed bees. At the food points more onlooker bees are gathered and contain more nectar.

During their search process, employed bees and the onlooker bees try to modify and find the best
solution place; which is saved as a new food place only if it has better fitness value. When the
work has been done by the onlooker bees; unimproved food places are replaced by the new
arbitrarily initialized food places. In the third phase of BA search, the employed bees are sent as
the scout bees to find out the best food place which is then memorized by them. The process
continues although the ending criterion is met.
In [19], BA is used to solve the non-notch HEPWM difficulties for seven level cascaded
MVSI. However, BA is unable to solve the discontinuities in solution angle trajectories as certain
solution angles cannot be practically generated. Furthermore, due to three step searching
procedure, it has a slow convergence rate. Hence, BA is not suitable for the solution of notch
HEPWM problem of MVSI.

2.5 Cuckoo Search Algorithm (CSA)

There are several SC methods being used up till now for the calculation of angles in HEPWM for
example, GA, PSO and DE are attracting considerable interests. Now we are using a different SC
method for calculating angles in HEPWM which is Cuckoo Search Algorithm. Cuckoo Search
Algorithm was first proposed by [Yang& Deb] [53]. This algorithm has been validated and
compared with other algorithms such as PSO and GA it show that CSA is superior to these
existing algorithms for multimodal objective functions. This is partly due to the fact that there
are fewer parameters to be fine-tuned in CSA than in PSO and GA [53]. This algorithm is based
on the interesting breeding behavior of brood parasitism of certain species of cuckoos. Usually
there are three types of brood parasitism (1) cooperative, (2) intraspecific and (3) nest takeover.
Some cuckoo species are intelligent as Tapera enough to mimic the color and shape of host bird
that rises the reproduction possibility [54]. Cuckoos are attractive birds; this is not only because
of their beautiful sounds but also of their destructive reproduction strategy [55].
In [56] it is presented that cuckoos lay their eggs at some specific time so that their eggs
hatch some time earlier than the host birds own. After early hatching, cuckoos destroy some host
birds eggs to increase the chance of their chicks getting more food. It is also a common
phenomenon that host birds discover the cuckoos eggs and destroy these. Sometimes they
abandon their nest completely and go elsewhere to build a new nest. Cuckoo search is based on
three idealized rules; (1) at a time only one egg can be laid by each cuckoo, and dump these egg
in randomly chosen nest, (2) for next generations the best nests with high quality of eggs carried
out, (3) the available hosts nest is fixed in number, and the egg laid by a cuckoo is discovered by
the host bird with a probability P a [0, 1]. If the eggs of cuckoos are discovered, host bird can
abandon its nest or destroy cuckoos eggs. Either way a new nest will be generated with a
probability of Pa of fixed number of nest.

2.6 Summary
In this chapter we discuss about inverter and its different topologies. In inverter topologies we
discuss about VSI and MVSI, in MVSI Cascaded MVSI is used due to its simplicity. HEPWM
method can be used for the removal of harmonics from the output of MVSI and we discuss the
different soft computing techniques for the removal of harmonics from output of inverter. There

are several SC techniques but three of them like GA, PSO and DE being given special attention.
At the end of this chapter we have discuss another SC technique which is Cuckoo Search
algorithm, this technique cannot be used for calculating the switching angles of output waveform
of inverter. No one has carried out any work on this technique for this purpose and we will use
this technique for our work because this is the most promising technique due to its superior
convergence and simplicity. It is envisaged that the CSA method can be effectively used to solve
complex HEPWM problems of the MVSIs particularly cascaded MVSI with high number of
switching angles.

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