Holography

Wave front sensing or 3D imaging

Both amplitude and phase of the wavefront is
detected/recorded
Phase contain information about the state of the
wavefront.
So can be used to image various characteristics of
the object with which the wavefront interacts.
Has immense applications ranging from microscopy
to stress analysis and photoelastic studies.

Whole field (3D) imaging

digital techniques
Semiconductor arrays as detectors (CCD/CMOS
arrays)
Optical recording and numerical reconstruction.
Numerical Reconstruction (by simulation of
diffraction using diffraction integrals) of both
amplitude and phase
Since reconstructions are done numerically phase
manipulation is possible
Methods include digital holography, phase retrieval,
Optical coherence tomography etc.

Phase
Complex amplitude distribution at any plane for
monochromatic waves can be written as
U(P)=A(P) exp[i (P)] (A- amplitude, -phase)
Phase contains spatial and temporal information on
changes in surface shape (height), optical path
length etc.

 Detectors are quadratic measures the absolute

square of the light complex amplitude.
Need fast detectors even to measure the phase
distribution (~10-15s response time).
Fortunately one can convert this phase information
into an intensity pattern.
This is done by combining (interfering) the object
beam with a known reference.

Holography
Inventor Dennis Gabor in 1948
Holo entire graphien write
Means for recording amplitude and phase of a wave
field.
Hologram is the recorded micro-interference pattern
between an object beam and a coherent known
background.
Object is reconstructed by illuminating the hologram
with reference beam
Main difference with photography is that phase
information is recorded.

Hologram
Hologram is an interference pattern between the
wavefront of interest and a known background.
Usually recorded on a flat surface but contains
information about the entire 3D wavefield.
It can then be envisioned as a randomly oriented
phase or amplitude grating.
Hologram diffracts any light incident upon it.
So reconstructed by illuminating it by the reference
beam.
It diffracts the reference beam in the direction of the
object, 3D object can be observed.

Interference pattern due to two plane waves

incident at an angle

Light incident on such a grating gets

diffracted in the direction of the two beams

Interference pattern due to two plane and an

off axis point source

Light incident on such a grating gets diffracted in the

direction of the two beams one a point source another
undiffracted plane wave.

Generation of interference pattern due to two point sources

Light incident on such a set of grating gets diffracted in the

direction of the two beams two point sources and
undiffracted plane wave.

Viewing virtual image using a lens

Hologram Formation

Hologram Formation
Object wave

Reference wave
Rx, y r x, y expi R x, y

Holographic fringes

Ox, y ox, y expi O x, y

Recording
Medium

Object and reference wave interfere at the hologram plane.

This pattern is recorded as a spatially varying intensity
pattern in the recording medium h(x, y)

Intensity at the hologram plane

I x, y O x, y R x, y

O x, y R x, y O x, y R x, y *

R x , y R * x, y O x , y O * x , y O x, y R * x, y R x, y O * x, y

(1)
Holograms are reconstructed by illuminating them with
the reference beam.
This is equivalent to multiplying the recorded
holographic interference pattern (intensity pattern) with
the complex amplitude of the reference wave.

Hologram Reconstruction

Hologram Reconstruction
Amplitude transmittance of the developed photographic
plate is
(2)
Undiffracted reference beam
(zero diffraction order)

Hologram
(intensity pattern)

R x, y h x, y h0 r 2 o 2 R x, y

(3)

r 2O x, y R 2 x, y O * x, y
Reference wave
complex amplitude

Reconstructed object
wave (virtual image)

Distorted real image

Hologram Reconstruction
Object wave
(virtual image)

Object wave
(real image)

Reference wave
Rx, y r x, y expi R x, y

Undiffracted
reference beam

Recording setups

In-line hologram
recording setup
(Gabor)

Object as well as reference beams lie in the same line.

During reconstruction, undiffracted reference, virtual as
well as real images are superposed.
This geometry is not prone to external noise like
mechanical vibrations.

Recording setups
off-axis hologram
recording setup

Object as well as reference beams interfere at an angle.

During reconstruction, undiffracted reference, virtual as
well as real images are spatially separated.
This setup is prone to mechanical vibrations.

Holographic interferometry
One of the advantages of holography is that it can
compare wavefronts existing at two time instances.
This is holographic interferometry.
Finds application in varying fields.
Coherent wavefield from the medium of interest at
two time instances interfere.
In conventional holography this can be realized in
two ways 1) double exposure and 2) Real time.
The interference phase between these two states will
manifest as intensity fringes and can be analyzed to
gain information about the object.

Holographic interferometry
Complex amplitude of the object in the initial state

O1 x, y o x, y exp i x, y

(4)

Deformation of the object produces optical path length

changes equivalent to phase change from to +

O2 x, y o x, y exp i x, y x, y

(5)

The intensity of holographic interference pattern is

given by

I x, y O1 O2 O1 O2 O1 O2 * 2o 2 1 cos
2

(6)

Hologram recording mediums

Amplitude hologram: Holographic fringes are recorded as amplitude

changes of the recording medium
Phase holograms: Holographic fringes are recorded as phase changes
(refractive index) of the recording medium
Any photosenstive medium can record holograms.
Photographic plates
Amplitude/Phase hologram
Dichromated Gelatin
Phase
Photoresist
Phase
Photothermoplastics
Phase
Photopolymers
Phase
Photochromics
Amplitude
Photorefractives
Phase
Semiconductors
Amplitude

Digital Holography
Holography is a two step process 1) formation by
interference and 2) reconstruction by diffraction.
Hologram recording using semiconductors photodetector arrays and their numerical reconstruction
using diffraction theory is Digital Holography.
The recording process eliminates the need of wet
process as in conventional holography.
Numerical reconstruction provides both phase and
amplitude of the object wavefront directly.
Conventional interferometry including holography
require phase shifting techniques to obtain the
phase information.

Theoretical aspects of holographic

Reconstruction
In conventional holography reconstruction is
achieved by illuminating the hologram by the
reference wave. This is Equivalent to multiplying the
amplitude transmission function by the Reference
beam.
In digital holography the reconstruction is achieved
by simulating the diffraction process using scalar
diffraction theory.
Digital holograms can be considered as an aperture
kept perpendicular to the reconstructing reference
beam.
Either Fresnel-Kirchoff diffraction integral or Angular
Spectrum approximation to scalar diffraction theory
could be utilized to simulate the diffraction process.
Both methods have their own advantages and
disadvantages.

Theoretical look on Reconstruction using Fresnel-Kirchoff

Integral

Complex amplitude of the diffracted wave at the image plane

is given by
2
r
exp i

i
1 1

, h( x, y ) R ( x, y )
cos dxdy (7)
r

2 2

Hologram
(transmittance)

Reference wave
complex amplitude

Numerical Reconstruction using Fresnel-Kirchoff Integral

If the image plane is far from the CCD (d>>x or y),
Fresnel approximation gives

x
rd

2d

(8)

2d

The Fresnel-Kirchoff integral can be written as

i
i 2
2
2
d exp

exp i
,
d

d

i 2
2

R
x
y
h
x
y
x
y
,
,
exp

(9)

expi 2d x y dxdy

i 2
2
x y
R x, y h x, y exp
d

Intensity and phase

Numerical reconstruction using diffraction integral
provides the complex amplitude
,

(10)
(9)

The intensity at the reconstruction plane is

I , ,

(11)

Phase at the reconstruction plane is

, arctan

Im ,
Re ,

(12)

Holography of diffuse objects

Hologram recording setup

Numerical focusing (digital hologram)

By varying d in Eq. (9)

Reconstructed
Object

Undiffracted
reference

Hologram of a coin placed

1.18m from a CCD camera
Numerical reconstruction using
Fresnel approximation (intensity
and phase)

Phase
corresponding to
reconstructed
object

Holographic interferometry (HI)

HI compares wavefronts existing at two time instances.

In conventional holography there are two methods for HI 1)
Double exposure technique 2) Real-time technique
DOUBLE EXPOSURE HI Holograms recorded on the same
photo-sensitive medium for initial and final state of the object.
The developed hologram is illuminated with reference beam.
One can see a fringe pattern corresponding to amount of
deformation. Interference between two virtual images of the
object at two time instances. The change of wavefront between
only two time instances can be studied.
REAL-TIME HI Hologram in the initial state of the object is
recorded. This is developed and fixed and kept back exactly at
the position where the initial hologram was recorded. The
original object is still there. The interference is between the
wave scattered from the original object and the wavefront
scattered towards the virtual object. Fringes will form in realtime over the object. Advantage over double exposure
technique is that wavefronts at several time instances can be
studied.

Holographic interferometry
Reconstructed
intensity before tilt

Reconstructed
intensity after tilt

Holographic
interference
pattern

Digital holographic interferometry

Phase before tilt 1
1

y (cm)

x (cm)
-1

-1

-1

y (cm)

x (cm)
-1

-1

Phase after tilt 2

2 -1

-1

Unwrapped

y (cm)
y

x (cm)
x

Measured tilt
Along x-direction

Along y-direction

Deformation measurement

Deformation of a cantilever

Phase change with loading

y (cm)
3

x (cm)
0

Cantilever deformation
Unwrapped

Change in deformation
along x-direction

Complex deformation

Phase map for the complex deformation

y (cm)
2

x (cm)
0

0 z

Removal of tilt component

y

c (deformation + tilt)

deform = c- t

x
z

t (tilt)
x
z

x
z

Deformation

Types of holograms based on diffraction

Fresnel If recording plane lies with in the region of
Fresnel diffraction
Fraunhoffer If the transformation from object to
hologram plane is best described by Fraunhoffer
diffraction equation
Image Hologram is image plane of the object. So a
lens is used.
Fourier Recording plane resides in the Fourier
Transform plane of the object. So definitely a lens is
required.

Types of holograms based on diffraction

Fourier Hologram

Types of holograms based on diffraction

Lens Less Fourier Transform Hologram

Sampling criteria
d/2

d/2

Path difference= x2 sin() = (at

this point) and x1 sin() =0

Path length at difference at any point = x sin ()

Change in path length between points x1 and x2 is
(x2-x1) also corresponds to one bright and one dark fringe,
i.e. 2 fringes with width d.
So (x2-x1)=2d
Also x2 sin () x1 sin ()=
This leads to (x2 x1) sin ()= and d= / [2*sin ()]
Fringe density is 1/d = [2*sin ()] /

Sampling criteria
This is also the maximum spatial frequency to be
imaged/resolved.

Here max=2 or max/2. =max/2 is the angle at which

maximum resolvable frequency results.

Sampling criteria
Nyquist sampling criteria states that each fringe should
occupy at least 2 pixels in the sensor.
If the sensor pixel size is x, then the spatial frequency of
the sensor is 1/x
The sampling frequency (1/x) should be at least greater
than or equal to twice the signal frequency (1/d) for the
fringes to be resolved.
This leads to 1/(2 x)=1/d
Means
This leads to
When the angles involved are small
And the maximum possible angle between the object and
reference beam is max=/(2 x)