Francis Bonahon - Low Dimensional Geometry

STUDENT
MATHEMATICAL
SI IAS/PARK
CITY
LIBRARY
MATHEMATICAL
SUBSERIES
Volume 49
Low
- Dimensional
Geometry
From Euclidean Surfaces
to Hyperbolic Knots
Francis
Bonahon
American Mathematical Society, Providence,Rhode

for Advanced Study, Princeton,
New Jersey
Institute
Island
Board of
Editorial
the Student MathematicalLibrary
B. Folland
Gerald
Forman
Robin
Series Editor for
the Park
Brad G.
Osgood(Chair)
Michael
Starbird
Institute
Mathematics
City
John Polking
The photo on the back coverof the author is reprinted with

of the USC Department of Mathematics.
permission
Mathematics
2000
Primary 51M05, 51M10,30F40,
Classification.
Subject
the
57M25.
information and updates on
additional
For
this
visit
book,
www.ams.org/bookpages/stml-49
Library of
Bonahon,
Congress Cataloging-in-Publication
Low-dimensional
p. cm. subseries)
mathematical
(Student
library
4. Knot
knots
hyperbolic
City mathematical
; v. 49. IAS/Park
and index.
references
bibliographical
ISBN 978-0-8218-4816-6
(alk.
1. Manifolds (Mathematics)
surfaces to
euclidean
from
geometry
Francis Bonahon.
Includes
Data
Francis, 1955-
paper)
2. Geometry,
3. Geometry,
Hyperbolic.
Plane.
I. Title.
theory.
QA613.B66 2009
2009005856
516'.07\342\200\224dc22
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14 1312111009
the guidelines
\320\276
la
souns
et a
I'ecureuil
Table
of
IAS/Park
contents
of
Table
contents
Institute
City Mathematics
Preface
Chapter 1.
euclidean
The
\302\2471.1.
Euclidean
\302\2471.2.
Shortest
\302\2471.3.
Metric
\302\2471.4.
Isometries
and distance
length
curves
spaces
for Chapter
Exercises
plane
Chapter 2. The hyperbolic

\302\2472.1.
The
\302\2472.2.
Some
\302\2472.3.
Shortest
\302\2472.4.
All
\302\2472.5.
Linear
hyperbolic
isometries
curves
\302\2472.6. The
hyperbolic
\302\2472.7. The
disk
plane
of the
in the
of the
isometries
and
plane
antilinear
model
hyperbolic plane
hyperbolic plane
hyperbolic plane
fractional
maps
norm
for the
hyperbolic plane
Table
viii
Exercises for Chapter
Chapter 3.
The
\302\2473.2.
Shortest
\302\2473.3.
Isometries
Exercises
\302\2474.1.
48
curves
49
Informal
and the
of gluings
Gluing
the
\302\2474.4.
Proofs
of Theorems
\302\2474.5.
Gluing
4.3 and
4.4
and spherical
hyperbolic
Exercisesfor
torus
55
definition
and quotient spaces 58
of
a
euclidean polygon
61
edges
the cylinder
\302\2474.3.
polygons
89
Gluing examples
euclidean
Some
\302\2475.2.
The
surface
\302\2475.3.
The
projective
\302\2475.4.
The
cylinder
\302\2475.5.
The
once-punctured
\302\2475.6.
Triangular
surfaces
89
97
of genus
102
plane
and the
Mobius strip
125
126
133
Tessellations
133
\302\2476.1.
Tessellations
\302\2476.2.
Complete
\302\2476.3.
Prom
\302\2476.4.
Completeness
\302\2476.5.
Tessellations
by bounded
\302\2476.6.
Tessellations
by unbounded
\302\2476.7.
Incomplete
metric
gluing
103
114
torus
pillowcases
67
79
84
Chapter
\302\2475.1.
Chapter 6.
55
examples:
Mathematical
5.
50
constructions
Gluing
\302\2474.2.
Chapter
47
sphere
for Chapter
Chapter 4.
47
sphere
2-dimensional
\302\2473.1.
contents
39
2-dimensional
The
of
134
spaces
polygon
and
hyperbolic
edges to
compactness
tessellations
135
properties
147
polygons
polygons
surfaces
155
161
163
Table of
Poincare's
\302\2476.8.
ix
contents
169
theorem
polygon
182
Exercises for Chapter 6
Chapter 7.
\302\2477.1.
Transformation
\302\2477.2.
Group
\302\2477.3.
Fundamental
\302\2477.4.
Dirichlet
fundamental
and
actions
Group
domains
185
groups
and
actions
187
spaces
quotient
192
domains
197
domains
202
Chapter 8.
The
and circle
tessellation
Earey
\302\2478.1.
The
Farey
circle packing
\302\2478.2.
The
Farey
tessellation
\302\2478.3.
Horocircles
\302\2478.4.
Shearing
Exercises for
Chapter
The
\302\2479.2.
Shortest
\302\2479.3.
Isometries
circle packing
in the
of the
hyperbolic space
space
hyperbolic
and horospheres
planes
Hyperbolic
Bending
the
\302\24710.2.
Kleinian
groups
\302\24710.3.
First
\302\24710.4.
Poincare's
\302\24710.5.
More
\302\24710.6.
Poincare,
Exercises for
Farey
rigorous
tessellation
example:
11. The
figure-eight
fuchsian groups
Theorem
of kleinian
groups
and Klein
Fuchs
Chapter
limit sets
and their
Polyhedron
examples
227
230
231
234
241
10. Kleinian groups
\302\24710.1.
217
235
Chapter
212
214
227
space
curves
207
207
222
hyperbolic
Exercises for
Chapter
once-punctured torus
tessellation
Farey
Chapter
\302\2479.1.
Chapter
and the
The 3-dimensionalhyperbolicspace
9.
\302\2479.4.
packing
and tessellation
the Farey
and
the
185
241
247
252
257
265
283
286
10
knot
complement
293
crooked
\302\24711.1.
Another
\302\24711.2.
Enlarging
\302\24711.3.
Limit
\302\24711.4.
The
the
293
tessellation
294
\316\2238
299
303
knot
figure-eight
312
11
theorems
Geometrization
12.
in dimension
\302\24712.2.
The
\302\24712.3.
Mostow's
\302\24712.4.
Ford
\302\24712.5.
The
for knot complements
Theorem
Geometrization
Rigidity
general
326
Geometrization
340
Theorem
351
12
Chapter
355
Tool Kit
\302\247T.l.
Elementary
\302\247T.2.
Maximum,
\302\247T.3.
Limits
\302\247T.4.
Complex
Supplemental
References
set
355
theory
minimum,
and
319
324
Theorem
domains
Exercises for
Supplemental
315
315
Knots
Appendix.
contents
sets
\302\24712.1.
Index
Farey
group

Chapter
of
Table
\317\207
continuity.
supremum,
Limits involving
bibliography
infinity
358
360
361
numbers
bibliography and
and infimum
references
365
365
369
377
City
IAS/Park
Institute
Mathematics
The
IAS
City
/Park
1991 as part of the \"Regional

National ScienceFoundation.
Princeton, New
Park
Jersey.
City,
Geometry
In
mid-1993
Institute\"
initiative
the program
in
founded
found
of the
an
Institute for Advanced Study (IAS)in

The PCMI continues to hold summer programsin
at the
home
institutional
Institute (PCMI) was
Mathematics
Utah.
City Mathematics Institute encouragesboth

between
education
in mathematics
and fosters interaction
The three-week summer institute offers
for
programs
The IAS/Park
and
research
the
two.
and
researchers
undergraduate
students,
and
researchers,
postdoctoral
high
undergraduate
all of the
scholars,
graduate students,
teachers, mathematics education
is to make
One of PCMI's main
faculty.
goals
school
total spectrum of activities that

and research: wewish to involve
in education
professional
mathematicians
and to bring modern concepts
in
mathematics
to the attention
of educators. To that end the
summer institute
features
general sessions designed to encourage
interactionamong
the various
the
groups. In-year activities at sites around
form
an
of
Teacher
the
School
country
High
Program.
integral part
occur
participantsaware
in mathematics
of
the
education
XI
\321\205\320\270
IAS/Park
Each summer a
City
Institute
Mathematics
is chosen as the focus of the

Summer School. Activities in the
deal with this topic as well. Lecturenotes from
Undergraduate
Program
the
Graduate
Summer School are published each year in the IAS/Park
Series.
Course materials from the Undergraduate
Mathematics
City
Research
Program
and
different
topic
Graduate
volume, are now being publishedas

Mathematical
Subseries in the Student
City
part
IAS/Park
to
Mathematical
We
are
make
available
more
of the
Library.
happy
as part
of the PCMI.
excellent resources which have been developed
Program, such
of
as
the
current
the
John Polking, SeriesEditor

April
13,
2009
Preface
30
About
years
revolutionized
problems.
of
by
appearance
unexpected
book
This
these
striking
for a
author
more
intends
to
the field of
of hyperbolic
geometry in purely
topological
aims at introducing undergraduate studentsto
developments.
Mathematical
material
preserve
3-dimensional topology was

Theorem and by the
Geometrization
It grew out
three-week coursefor
the Park City

much
ago,
Thurston's
of notes prepared
undergraduates
Institute
in June-July
some
the
by
at
2006. It covers
that
he taught
these lectures, but the written

version
the overall spirit of the course. The ultimate
than
goal,
last chapter, is to bring the studentsto a level where

can
understand
the statements of Thurston's
Geometrization
they
Theorem
for knot complements and, more generally,
of the
general
Geometrization
Theorem for 3-dimensionalmanifolds
proved
recently
of
by G. Perelman. Another leading theme is the intrinsic
beauty
some of the mathematical objects involved,
not
just
mathematically
attained
in the
but visually
as well.
The first two-thirds

of the book are devoted to 2-dimensional
After
brief
a
of the geometry of the euclidean
discussion
geometry.
the
we discuss
plane M2, the hyperbolic planeH2, and the sphere
\302\2472,
construction of locally homogeneous spacesby gluing
the sides of a
of the tessellations
that are
polygon. This leadsto the investigation
associated to such constructions,with a special focus on one of the
\320\245\320\250
Preface
xiv
objects of mathematics, the Farey tessellationof the

At this point, the deformations
of the Farey
hyperbolic
to
us
to
one
tessellation by
lead
dimension
shearing
jump
higher, in order
to allow bending.
a
After
few generalities on the 3-dimensional
hyperbolic
space
H3, we consider the crooked tessellationsobtained
by
the Farey tessellation, which naturally leads us to discussing
bending
kleinian
and quasi-fuchsian
groups. Pushing the bendingof
groups
to
of
the
tessellation
the
we reach the
edge kleinian
Farey
groups,
associated
famous
to the complement of the figure-eight
knot.
example
At this point, we are ready to explain
that
this example
is a
manifestation of a general
phenomenon. We state Thurston'sGeometrization
for knot complements,
and illustrate how it has
Theorem
knot
revolutionized
in particular through the use of Ford
domains.
The
theory
a discussion
of the very recently proved
book concludes with
most
beautiful
plane.
manifolds.
for 3-dimensional
Theorem
Geometrization
We tried to strikea balancebetween

and
mathematical
intuition
Much
of
the
material
is
rigor.
\"picture driven\", as
unapologetically
we intendedto share our own enthusiasm
for the beauty of some of
the
mathematical
involved.
objects
However, we did not want to
sacrifice the other foundation of mathematics,
the level of
namely,
certainty provided by careful

of this compromiseis that
a
with
few
proofs
mathematical
the
exposition
more
which are
somewhat break the
of
flow
discourse.
the
readeris encouraged,on a preliminary

executive summary
beginning,
button
forward\"
\"fast
^0.
The reader may
have thus been

or
intended
to be
generously
skip,
the parts
with
the
later
need
parts
in these
definitions
until
read
in
for
the
the
the
is usually present at
dgT
of the
occurrence
to return
can
but
to some of
and
press
its
the
closing symbol
the
parts
that
mathematical rigor or
refer to specific arguments
sake of
book may
samereason,the bookis not

The reader is strongly advisedto
sections. For the

a linear
at first,
pretty
of the
first
interrupted
difficult,
When this occurs,

to first glance at
the remote control
zapped through,
becausesubsequent
reading,
that
argument
to grab
then
and
the
of
than
lengthy
drawback
One
proofs.
is occasionally
way.
much of
pictures,
the early material
such
as Chapters
in
order
to reach
5, 6, 8, 10or 11,as
Preface
xv
as possible,
and then
or arguments are needed.
quickly
The bookalso has

of
view,
quotient
the
topology
convincing.
very
always
quotient metric
metric
of
a mathematical
It is
spaces.
slightly
the
describes
road
well-trodden
less
point
constructions; this
in cut-and-paste
of gluing
notion
intuitive
not
Prom
idiosyncrasies.
definitions
specific
quotients
focus only on topological spaces,to introduce
that
it accurately
by fiat, and then to claim
to
here
traditional
its
one involves
main
the
to backtrackwhen
is
involves
quotients under
actions.
We decided to follow a different
discontinuous
group
strategy,
on
and
full
in
their
discussing
quotient
very
by
early
(semi-)metrics
This
in
our
much
more
intuitive
but
view,
generality.
approach is,
it comes with a price: Someproofs
somewhat
technical.
become
On
the one hand, these can serve
as a good
introduction
to the
of rigorous
On the other hand, the
techniques
proofs in mathematics.
reader pressedfor time can also take advantage of the fast-forward
commands
where
and zap through these proofs in a first
indicated,
spaces,but
case of
in the
only
reading.
Prom a
a way
purely technical point
knowledge
beyond
provides
to require
The reader
sophistication.
progressively
Each chapter
ends with
the
will
also
mathematical
proceeds
level
that
notice
from
to
early
end
will
that
rigor of many
of mathematical
the level
of exercises,
selection
in such
is written
mathematical
a somewhat higher
as one
increases
text
the
view,
An appendix at the
some of the main
concepts
practice, however,
is likely
of
require much
calculus.
multivariable
kit\" summarizing
\"tool
be needed. In
arguments
it does not
in theory,
that,
of difficulty
later
chapters.
a few of which
can
suitable
material
challenging. The idea was to provide
or
independent study by a dedicatedundergraduate
student,
for a topics course. Sucha coursemight
cover
the main sections of
of the remaining chapters
Chapters 1-7, 9, 12,and whichever
parts
would
for both the time available
and
of the
be suitable
the tastes
be
somewhat
for an
instructor.
The author
believing
is delighted
that the
(which turned
out
to thank
Roger Howefor
PCMI coursewould
to
be
wrong),
and Ed
not
require
Dunne for
him
tricking
that
into
much work
encouraging
him
Preface
xvi
to
the
turn
The
lecture
original
the task would
form
general
the students and
notes into a
book and for
warning
him
that
(which turned out to be right).

of the book owesmuch
to the feedback
received from
who attended
the PCMI lectures, and who
faculty
be very
intensive
labor
who
was the
as \"guinea pigs\"; this includes Chris Hiatt,
numerous
and
assistant for the course.Dave Puter provided
of the
Roland
invaluable comments on an earlier draft
manuscript,
a few more, and Jennifer Wright
van der Veen
contributed
Sharp
were
used
teaching
polished
the
final
version
her
with
excellent
copy-editing.
Finally,
influenced by the
author's own research
in recent
in this area of mathematics, which
a
nd
from
was
Grants
0103511
0604866
partially supported by
years
the National Science Foundation.
the mathematical
content
of
the
book
was greatly
Chapter
euclidean
The
We
are
We
will
all very
encounter
chapter, that
list a series of
in
next
the
Kit
familiar with the geometry

of the euclidean plane K2.
a new type of 2-dimensionalgeometry
in the next
of the hyperbolicplane H2. In this

well-known
chapter,
properties
the
for a
appendix
notation concerning set

and
numbers,
The
euclidean
If 7
valued
is a
curve
properties
which,
the
of
to briefly
infima
theory,
and
the
consult the
basic
suprema
definitions
of sets
Tool
and
of real
length and distance

set
is the
plane
of all
advised
are
succinct review of
=
\320\2262
consisting
euclidean plane
develop the
first
numbers.
complex
Euclidean
1.1.
we
chapter,
close analogy.
Before proceeding,you
in
of the
us to
enable
will
in very
plane
hyperbolic
plane
{(\321\205,\321\203);\321\205,\321\203\342\202\254\320\251
ordered pairs
in
R2,
(x, y) of
parametrized
real
numbers
\317\207
and
y.
by the differentiable vector-
function
\320\275->
(x(t),y(t)),
\316\261<\316\257<6,
1. The
euclidean
plane
2/m
0<f
its euclidean
length êuc(7)
(1.1)
be
will
up of
the initial
made
that
convenient
is
= (7)
Ja
This length is independent

consequenceof the chain
It
The euclidean
1.1.
Figure
of
given by
(t)2+y'(t)*dt.
V*
parametrization
by a well-known
rule.
to consider
piecewise differentiable curves

curves 71, 72, ..., 7n such
differentiable
many
finitely
arc length
the
the
plane
point of each 7i+i is equalto the terminal
words, sucha curve
of 7$.
point
everywhere except at
to
the
points,
corresponding
endpoints of the 7*, where
finitely
many
it is allowed to have
a \"corner\"
(but no discontinuity). In this case,
as
the length
ieac (7) of the piecewise differentiable curve
7 is defined
In other
7 is differentiable
the sum of the lengths 4uc(7i) of its

is equivalent to allowing
the
integrand
finitely
many values of t where, however,
differentiable
in (1.1)
it
has
pieces
to be
finite
7*. This
at
undefined
left-hand
and
right-hand limits.
The euclidean distancedeuc(P,Q)

Q is the infimum
7 going
(1.2)
from
\316\241
to
of the lengths of
Q,
all
between
piecewise
two points
differentiable
namely
4uc (P, Q) = inf
{4uc
(7); 7
goes from
\316\241
to
Q} .
\316\241
and
curves
Metric
1.3.
spaces
Seethe Tool Kit in

a set
of
of real
definition means that

there
facts about the

the
of
definition
infimum
the above
infimum,
well
differentiable
piecewise
every
curves
1.2. Shortest
is
for basic
appendix
curve 7 going from

to
Q must have length greater than or equal
deac(P,Q),and that
close
to deac(P, Q).
are curves whose length is arbitrarily
\316\241
to
It
the
numbers. By
and easily proved (seeExercise

1.2)that
the shortest route between two points.
known
line provides
deuc(P,Q) is equal
The distance
1.1.
Proposition
length ieac ([P, Q]) of

other words, [P,Q] is the
the
line
going from
to
going from \316\241
curve
straight
euclidean
the
[P,Q]
segment
shortest
to
the
\316\241
to
Q.
In
D
Q.
In particular, computing the length of a line segment by using

formula (1.1) for arc length (see Exercise 1.1), weobtain the following.
The euclidean
Corollary
1.2.
(xi,yi)
is equal to
deuc(P0,Pi)=
(1.3)
Metric
1.3.
set
with
its
*o)2 + (2/1
distance
metric space.
X together with
of a
example
consistingof
vOî
(xo,yo) to
P\\
\342\226\241
2/o)2
spaces
The euclidean plane R2,

fundamental
distance from Pq =
function
metric
function
deUC,
apace
d: X
is a
x X
is
pair (X, d)
\342\200\224>
R such
that
Q)^0 and d(P, P) = 0 for every

=
Q;
(2) d(P, Q) = 0 if and only if \316\241
=
for
(3) d(Q, P)
d(P,Q) every P,QeX;
(1) d(P,
P,QeX;
X.
R) < d(P,Q) + d(Q, R) for every P,Q,R\302\243
d
The fourth
condition is the Triangle Inequality. The function
is called the distance function, the metric function,orjust
the
metric
of the metric space X.
A function
d that satisfies only conditions (1), (3) and
(4) above
a
or
a
semi-metric.
is called
semi-distance function
(4) d(P,
euclidean
The
1.
Elementary and classicalpropertiesof euclidean

(M2,deuc) is a metric space. In particular,
In fact,
terminology for the Triangle Inequality.
plane
show
geometry
that
this
the
explains
and its
(M2,deuc)
higher-dimensionalanalogs are typical examplesof metric spaces. See

instead
Exercise 1.3 for a proof that deuc is a distance function which,
of prior knowledge about euclidean geometry,
uses
the
definition
only
of the euclideandistanceby equation
(1.2).
The main point of the definition
of metric
spaces is that the
about
and
that
one
notions
limits
encounters in calculus(see
continuity
T.3
in the TOOL Kit) immediately extendto the wider
Section
context of a metric
space (X, d).
For instance,a sequenceof points P1; P2, ..., P\342\200\236,
...
in .\316\233\316\223
to
for
an integer
the
\316\265
>
there
exists
converges
point P^ if,
0,
every
for
\316\267
such
that
<
This
is
\316\265 every
^ no\321\211
equivalent to
d(Pn,Poo)
the property that the sequence
to 0 as a
(d(P\342\200\236,Poo))
N converges
The point Poo is the limit of the sequence
sequence of real numbers.
(Pn)n\342\202\254N\302\267
a function
Similarly,
number
exists a
there
> 0,
\316\265
with
\316\241
X
\302\243
every
at every Pq G
continuous
will
We
space(X, d).
in (X, d)
The
(open)
such that
\316\264.
The
d'{ip{P),
use of
with
ball
the
of
notion
center Pq
The terminology
is motivated
euclideanspaceM3,
by the property
boundary.
if
it
is
a ball
e X
in a
radius
and
metric
r >
< r}.
and
by
the
d is
where
case where
X is the 3-dimensional
the euclidean metric
deuc
defined
that
4uc(Po, Pi)
course
for
< \316\265
\317\206(\316\241\316\277))
is the subset
\342\202\254
X;d(P,P0)
when P0
for every
is continuous
function
Bd(P0,r)= {P
is of
space (X,d)
X
\342\202\254
if,
X.
extensive
make
\316\264
> 0
<
d(P, Pq)
at Pq
continuous
is
a metric
from
\342\200\224>
X'
X
\317\210:
to a metric space (X', d')
~
= V(xl ~ \317\207\316\270)2
+ \320\253
= (zo.2/0,z0) and
a geometric
Px
ball of
+ (Zl
\320\243\320\276)2
Z0)2
In this case, Bdeuc(P0,

r)
(xx,yi,zi).
radius r centeredat Po, without
its
When
is
Isometries
1.4.
an
disk
open
line (R,d)
is just the
open interval
\342\200\224
R2, the open disk Bdeuo(P0,r)

same
Pq and
with
the
sphere
{P
r}
center
be confused
center
same
the
with
with
3, the open
should not
< r}
plane
r} is not
<
dimension
in
= r}
Pq)
\342\202\254
R3;deuc{P,
euclidean
the
of
reader
the
P0)
R2;deUC(P,
Similarly,
=
\342\202\254
{\316\241
R3;deuc(P,PQ)
\316\222^^\316\241\316\277,\316\263)
real
Bdeuc(xo,r)
\342\202\254
R2;deac(P,P0)
{P
G
ball
ball
remind
In
confused.
=
bounds it.
radius r that
\\x,y\\,
is the
d)
{X,
the
good spot to
circle {P
as the
thing
When
+ r).
r,xo
(xq
Pq.
d(x,y) =
metric
visual
its
with
Incidentally, this may be a

a few definitions which are often
t,he
(R2,deuc)>a ball Bdeac(Po,r)
is the euclidean plane

of radius r centeredat
(X,d)
and
radius.
1.4. Isometries
The euclideanplane has

An
arecalledisometries.
and {X',d') is a bijection
between
isometry
metric space, these

spaces (X, d)
respects distances,
two metric
\342\200\224>
X
\302\267.
X'
\317\206
which
that
such
namely,
In a
symmetries.
many
d>(<p(P)MQ))=d(P,Q)
for every
P,Q
X.
\342\202\254
injective) and onto
inverse
\317\210-1: X'
the
that
the statement
Recall
one (or
inverse
(or
\342\200\224>
X.
an
\317\210-1of
It
isometry
Indeed,
can
\317\210
property
for
We are
(M2,deuc)\302\267
be used
(X,
two
metric
two
between
\317\206
have exactly
to translate any
spaces (X, d)
the sameproperties.
property of
(X,
d) to
the same
d').
here interested
Isometries
\342\200\242
translations
is continuous.
isometry
spaces
definitions that
an isometry.
is also
\317\210
also immediate that an

When there existsan isometry
these
follows from
immediately
It is
and (X', d'), then
is one-tomeans that \317\206

bijection
so that it has a well-defined
is a
\317\210
surjective),
in
where
(X, d)
= {X',d') =
include:
a vector
along
\302\245>(s.2/)
case
the
of (R2,deuc)
(x +
(xo,yo), defined by
xo,y +
yo);
1. The euclideanplane
6
of angle
\342\200\242
rotations
of
an angle
making
cos
\317\206(\317\207,
\321\203) (\317\207
\342\200\242
more
20,
\342\200\224
cos
\317\207
sin 2\316\230
\321\203
of the
above
isometries,
+ yo)
+ ycos0
x sinO
\342\200\224
\316\262\316\257\316\261\316\270
+ xq,
\321\203
20);
form
of the
\317\210
cos0
\317\210(\317\207,\316\275)
(\317\207
(1.4)
y sin
and
origin
x-axis,
composition
any
any map
namely,
the
\316\270
with
2\316\230
+
generally,
passing through the
a line
across
reflections
origin,
\342\200\224
\317\207
cos \316\270);
\316\270\321\203
sin \316\270,
sin \316\270
+ \321\203
cos
\317\206(\317\207,
\321\203) (\317\207
\342\200\242
the
\316\270
around
or
=
(1.5)
the last
For
X
\317\206:
\342\200\224>
\316\245
and
numbers,
the
main
by
the
in
of complex
expressed
in
R2 with
\342\202\254
the complex
Kit
Tool
terms
for a
number
brief summary
of complex numbers.
notation
exponential
(see Section T.4)
e'e = cos\316\270
+ i sin
the
maps
properties
Euler's
Using
(x, y)
T.4
two
\342\200\224>
\316\277 \316\247
\316\226
defined
\317\210 \317\210:
map
better
point
Section
yo)-
X.
Pe
are
the
identifying
= \317\207
\316\266
C. See
+ \\y \342\202\254
of
the
\342\200\224>
\316\245
\316\226
is
-\317\210:
isometries
above
2\316\230
+
item, recall that the composition of
=
\316\277
for every
\321\204
\317\206(\316\241)
\317\210(\317\206{\316\241))
The
cos
+ a;o,xsin20 \342\200\224
\321\203
+ ?/sin20
\317\206(\317\207,\316\275)
(xcos20
(1.4) and (1.5)can then be written
in equations
listed
isometries
\316\230,
as
=
ewz
\317\210(\316\266)
+ z0
+ zq,
and
e2i9z
\317\210(\316\266)
where
Zq
xq + iyo
and where
\342\200\224
= \317\207
\316\266
\\y is
the complex
conjugate
= \317\207
of \316\266
+ iy.
Proposition
there exists
1.3. If
a point zq
=
is
\317\210
isometry
\320\241
and
\342\202\254
el9z
\317\210(\316\266)
\320\241.
\342\202\254
for every \316\266
an
+ zq
an
or
of(\342\204\226.2,deuc)
angle
\316\270
R such
\342\202\254
e2l9z
\317\206(\316\266)
(C,deuc),
then.
that
+ z0
for
Exercises
Chapter
Proof. SeeExercise2.3(and
fundamental
euclidean
space
there
exists
words, a
(X,
Q, by
\316\241
to
sending
in
unit
which sends
the statement
a more
will be
Pi,
As
through
property
every point,
at any
holds
\316\241
also
the isometry
\317\206
to
P\\
v2 at
and
and
P2
vector
the
v\\
is
and
P2 \342\202\254
R2,
of
is an isometry \317\210
Here we are assuming
P2, there
to
$2.
to the
\321\211
using the
precise definition,
it
vector
v2 is intuitively
of \317\210
at
differential \316\214\317\201\317\207\317\210
given in Section 2.5.2.

of the
consequence
isotropy property,
sameat
not
it also
point,
every
the
does
only
looks the
same
direction.
every
for
Exercises
Exercise 1.1. Using

1/1),
(rci,
Chapter
expression
given in equation (1.1) and a suitable
line segment [\316\241\316\277,\316\241\316\271]
from Po = (rccj/o)
going
of [P0, Pi] is equal to
that the euclidean length
the
of the
parametrization
Pi =
P\\
sends
\317\210
that
plane look the
euclidean
in
v\\ at
vectors
(M2, deuc)
point
the euclidean plane is not just homogeneous,

sense that for any two points Pi and
the
isotropic
translating
the
space.
Q.
Actually,
for any
this
metric
the same at
looks
space
this
any two points P,Q \302\243

X,
=
that \317\210(\316\241)
Q. In other
for
d) involving the
of (X,
property
other point
clear;
metric
homogeneous
sinceany
of
\342\200\224*
X such
X
\317\210:
proof of
D
abundance of isometriesof
(R2, deac) is the homogeneity

d) is homogeneous if,
an isometry
for a
2.11)
geometry.
of the
consequence
plane
metric
Theorem
compare
in euclidean
result
well-known
this
show
to
4uc([Po,Pi])= \\/(si-So)2+ (2/i-2/o)2.

Exercise
segment
1.2. The goal of this

exercise
[P, Q] is the shortest curve going
is to
rigorously prove that
from
a piecewisedifferentiable
the
that
or
equal
curve
to
7 going from \316\241
euclidean length ^0(7) denned by equation
to the length
Q]) of the line segment
&s\342\200\236c([P,
a.
the case where

consider
(xq,
= xosame vertical line of equation
\317\207
=
is greater than or equal to |t/i \342\200\224
t/o|
4uc(7)
b.
In the
=
\316\241
First
general case, let
a rotation such that
line
Q.
[P,Q].
j/o) and Q = (xo,2/1) sit on the

Show that the euclideanlength
4uc([P,Q])\302\267
\342\200\224
\302\267-\342\226\272
\317\206:
i/sin0,:rsin0
{\317\207,
\321\203) (rccosfl
and \317\210{0)sit
\317\210{\316\241)
the
Namely, consider
want to show
We
Q.
(1.1) is greater than
\316\241
to
on the
+ t/cos0)
same vertical line. Show
be
1.
curve
the
that
as
length
the
\317\206(0), has
plane
same euclidean
7.
\321\201
Combine
a and b
parts
1.3.
Exercise
going from <p(P)to
^(7),
euclidean
The
above to conclude
prove
Rigorously
>
4uc(7)
distance
euclidean
the
that
that
4uc([P,Q])\302\267
function
deuc,
on R2. You may need

by equation (1.2), is a distance function
to use the result of Exercise 1.2 to show that deuc(P, Q) = 0 only when
= Q. Note that the proof of the
\316\241
Triangle
Inequality
(for which you may
find
it useful
to consult the proof of Lemma
2.1) is greatly simplified by
in the definition of deuc \302\267
curves
our use of piecewise differentiable
defined
as
Let (X,
1.4.
Exercise
a.
Show that
b.
Conclude
dp: X
space.
d(P, Q) - d(P,Q')< d{Q,

that
- d{P,
Q')\\
inequality to show
\\d{P, Q)
above
the
\321\201
Use
d) be a metric
Q')
for every
< d{Q,
Q') for
for every
that
P, Q, Q' e X.
X.
every P, Q, Q' \342\202\254
with
real line \320\232
\320\232
is equal
6 \342\202\254
function
endow the
\316\241
\342\202\254
X, the
by dp(Q) = d(P, Q) is continuous

the distance
the usual metric for which
\342\200\224
to the absolute value
6|.
|o
\342\200\224\302\273
\320\232
defined
if we
between a and
a map from the metric space (X,d) to

is continuous
at Po \342\202\254
X if and only
\317\206
(X', d'). Show that
\316\265
> 0 such that the image \317\206{\316\222\316\254{\316\241\316\277,
of
> 0, there exists a \316\264
if, for every
\316\264))
X is contained
in the ball \316\222\316\254>(\317\206(\316\2410),\316\265)
\320\245'.
the ball \316\222\316\254(\316\2410,\316\264)
\320\241
\320\241
metric
X \342\200\224\302\273
X' be
\317\206:
space
Exercise
metric
Let
1.5.
Exercise
the
of metric
1.\316\230
(Product
On the
spaces.
product
D:
spaces). Let (X, d) and

=
\317\207
\316\247
X'
(X',d') be two
\317\207
\317\207'
\342\202\254
\342\202\254
\316\247,
{(\317\207,\317\207');
\316\247'},define
-\302\273
\317\207
\317\207
\317\207
\316\232
{\316\247
\316\247')
(\316\247
\316\247')
the property
that D{[x,x'),(y,y')) = max.{d(x,y),d'(x',y')}
for
every
x
X
X'.
that
D
is
a
metric
\316\247
\317\207
\316\247'.
Show
function
on
\342\202\254
re'),
(re,
(y,y')
by
Exercise
On
1.7.
Exercise
1.6.
= \316\232
\317\207
\316\2322
consider
\316\232,
the metric
D((x,y), (x',y'))
Namely,
function D provided by
\342\200\224
x'\\,
max{|rc
\\y
\342\200\224for
y'\\}
every
\342\226\240
(x,y),(x',y')eR2.
a.
Show that
for
< D(P,P') < deuc(P,P')
^deuc(P,f)
every
\316\2411
\342\202\254
\316\241,
K2.
b.
Let (Pn)neN
Poo
point
the
c. Let
be a
K2 for
\342\202\254
in
sequence
the metric
Show that
K2.
and
if
{Pn)n& convergesto a
for
converges to \320\240\320\266
if it
only
metric
a map from K2
\342\200\224\302\273
\316\2322
X be
\317\206:
is continuous
\317\206
for the metric
for the
\320\2502
if
space
and
only
(X, d). Show that

if it is continuous
\342\226\240
deuc
Exercise 1.8 (Continuity

space (X,d)
the metric
to a metric
metric D on
and
to
the
sequences).
metric
Let
space (X',
a map from :
X \342\200\224\302\273
X' be
\317\206:
d').
a.
at Po. Show
if Pi, Pi, ..., Pn,
...
that
to Po in (X,d), then \317\210{\316\241\316\271),
\342\226\240\342\226\240
\317\210{\316\2412),
which converges to <p(Po) in (X', d').
\342\226\240\342\226\240\342\226\240
is a sequence
\317\210{\316\241\316\267),
is a
is continuous
\317\210
that
Suppose
sequence which
converges
b. Suppose that
is not continuous
at Po. Constructa
\317\206
and a sequence Pi, P2, ..., P\342\200\236,
...
in X such that
d(Pn,
\316\265
> 0
number
Po) <
^ and
\316\267
for every
> 1.
d(<p{Pn),<p{Po))> \316\265
is continuous
at Po if and only if,
Combine parts a and b to show that \317\210
for every sequence Pi, P2, ..., Pn, \342\226\240\342\226\240\342\226\240
to Po in {X,d), the
converging
\342\226\240
\342\226\240
\342\226\240
\342\226\240
\342\226\240
to <p(Po) in (X', d').
\342\226\240,
sequence <p(Pi), \317\210{\316\2412),
converges
\317\210{\316\241\316\267),
c.
Exercise 1.9. Let
d and d' be two

that
metrics
on the same set X. Show
map Idx: (X, d) \342\200\224>
only if every
(X, d') is continuous if and
to some P\302\273\342\202\254
X for the metric d also
sequence (Pn)neN that converges
Exercise
1.8.
convergesto P\302\273for the metric d'. Possible hint: Compare
the
identity
1.10. The euclidean

of the euclidean plane is an example
metric
\316\241
and
where the distance betweentwo points
metric,
Q is the
of the lengths
of all curves joining
\316\241
to Q. In the plane K2, let
curve
with vertices
U-shaped
region enclosed by the polygonal
Exercise
a path
of
infimum
U be the
(0,0), (0,2), (1,2), (1,1),(2,1),(2,2),
Endow
order.
is the
Q and
\316\241
to
a.
Draw a
b.
Show
the
with
of the
infimum
joining
(0,0) occurring in this

that du(P, Q)
(3,0),
(3,2),
du defined
metric
by
the
property
euclidean lengths of all piecewisedifferentiable

completely contained in U.
curves
picture of U.
deuc(P,Q) for every P,QeU.

\321\201
Show
on U. It may be convenient
that du is a metric function
to use
of the proof.
part b above at somepoint
d. If P0 is the point
give a formula for the distance
(0,2),
du{P, Po) as
that
a function
du{P,
Q) >
of the
coordinates
several cases according
to
of
where
=
\316\241
This
(\317\207,
\321\203).
\316\241
sits
Exercise 1.11 (Lengths in metric

In an
spaces).
(X, d), the length \302\2430(7)of a curve 7 is defined as
^<j(7)=sup<^2d{Pi-i,
In
particular,
the
Pi);Po,
Pi,
\342\226\240.
occur
\342\226\240,
Pn\342\202\2547
may be infinite.
plane (K2,deuc), we want
with the euclidean length
4uc(7)
that
7 is parametrized
the
For
length
euclidean
coincides
suppose
to
\316\257\316\227^7(\316\257)
(\316\267;(\316\257),2/(\316\257)),\316\277<\316\257<6.
a.
Show
that 4jeuc(7)
<
4uc(7)\302\267
show
given
by
formula
will involve
in U.
the
metric
arbitrary
in this
space
order along 7>.
curve 7 in
this length
^\320\270\321\201(7)
by equation (1.1). For this,
a differentiable
that
differentiable
function
b.
interval
the
Cut
=
\316\241,
Set
[o,
b]
= 7(0
7(ti)
intervals
\316\267
into
iAt)
where
derivative vector
=
\316\224\316\257
a)/n.
(b\342\200\224
length
..., n. Show
0, 1,
plane
that
> h'{U-i)\\\\bt-\\K{btY,
deuc(Pi-i,Pi)
= max
\320\232
U] of
[U-i,
i =
for
euclidean
The
1.
10
denotes the maximum
||7\"(*)||
=
7\"(i)
(x'(t),y\"(t))
of the
length
and where
the
length
second
||(\302\253,\302\253)||
(u, v) is defined by the usual formula ||(w, w)|| = y/u2 + v2.

formula
from multivariable calculus,
You may need to use the Taylor
which
that for every t, h,
says
= 7(i) + /17'(t) + h2R!(t,h),
7(i + h)
vector
of a
remainder
the
where
c. Use part b aboveto

d. Combineparts a and
Consider
1.12.
Exercise
(X, d) defined as in
the
by
every (x,y),
that
^0(7) >
b.
Show
that
the
curves going
an example
\321\201
Give
which has
segment
d.
the
-4uc(7)\302\267
a metric
7
space
= (K2, D)
the special casewhere
(-X, d)
with
the product metric D of Exercise1.6,
length
in
\342\200\224 \342\200\224for
\321\202\320\260\321\205{|\320\263\321\201
rc'|, \\y
y'\\}
\321\203),
(\321\205',
\321\203'))
7 going from
curve
every
(-d{\\P,Q\\) of the line
\316\241
to
minimum
\316\241
to
Q.
segment [P,Q] is equal
minimum
has
length
to
among all
Q.
where there is
curve
7 going
Q), and which
another
\342\200\224
^0(7)
length
D(P,
from
is not
\316\241
to
the
Q
line
[P, Q].
7 is
property
=
\316\241
a curve
1.11, in
[P, Q] consequently
differentiably
a condition
on the
If
that ^deUC(7)=
-\302\2430(7)of
D(P, Q) for
length
from
< \\K.
> 4uc(7).
4jeuc(7)
that D((x,
Show
so that
||Jii(i,ft)||
K2.
a.
D(P,Q),
the
that
to conclude
\321\201
above
endowed
property
(x',y') e
that
show
Exercise
is the planeR2=Exl
defined
is such
Ri(t,h)
(x(a),y(a))
parametrized
derivatives
that 7
x'(t)
has minimum
to Q
\342\200\224
relative position of \316\241

and
(x(b),y(b)).
Q with
by
a < t < b, give

which is equivalent
to
over all curves going
from
(The answer depends on the
11->
and
length
(x(t),y(t)),
y'(t)
respect to
each other.)
Chapter
The
The
euclidean plane that

its basic
introduce
the euclidean
with
metric space
is a
plane
hyperbolic
than the
We
plane
hyperbolic
we
properties,
plane
hyperbolic
in the
by proceeding in
much
less familiar
previous chapter.
close
very
analogy
plane.
2.1. The hyperbolic

The
is
which
discussed
plane
is the
metric space
consistingof
the
open
half-plane
H2 =
endowed
imaginary
To
hyperbolic
valued
Im(z)
while
define
length
its
the
> 0}
\321\203
G \320\241;
Im(*)
{\316\266
> 0}
Recall that the

below.
= \317\207
\316\266
number
+
complex
\\y is just the
real part Re(z) is the coordinatex.
metric dhyp, we first define the
hyperbolic
a new
with
part
coordinate y,
R2;
{(x, y) \302\243
of a
metric
dhyp
defined
of a
curve 7
parametrized by the
differentiable
vector-
function
t~(x(t),y(t)),
a^t^b,
as
(2.1)
W7) =
dt.
ye
\320\251
11
2. The
12
an
Again,
application
is independent
length
hyperbolic plane
of the
chain rule shows that
of the
parametrization
of the
hyperbolic length
immediately
ferentiable curves, by taking the sum of
differentiablepieces,or by allowing
finitely
in the integrand
of (2.1).
of
extends
also
the
this hyperbolic
The
7.
hyperbolic
definition
to piecewise diflength of the
many jump
discontinuities
\320\243\320\277
H2<
P^Q'
2.1. The
Figure
The
distance
hyperbolic
infimum of the
7 going from
Q,
dhyp(P, Q)
(2.2)
Note
Chapter
between two points
hyperboliclengths
\316\241
to
the analogy
plane
hyperbolic
of all
piecewise
\316\241
and
differentiable
is the
curves
namely
inf
with
{^hyp(7);
our
7 goes
definition
from
of the
\316\241
to
Q}.
euclidean distance in
1.
distance dhyp is at first somewhat unintuitive.

later sections that the hyperbolic
distance
between the points P' and Q' indicated
in Figure 2.1 is the sameas
the hyperbolic
to Q. Also, among the curves joining
distance
from \316\241
\316\241
to Q, the one with
the
shortest
length is the circlearc
hyperbolic
we will become more comfortable with
represented.With practice,
the
of the hyperbolic plane and see that
it actually
shares ;'
geometry
features
with
the
euclidean
important
plane.
many
The
For
hyperbolic
instance,
we will see in
13
2.1. The hyperbolicplane

But
that the
us prove
let
first,
hyperbolicdistancedhyp
is
really
function.
a distance
Lemma 2.1.
The
defined
by (2.2)
Proof.
We
function
is a
have
distancefunction.
distance
condition
in the
conditions
four
condition
The
the symmetry
the
to check
function.
dhyp(P,
dhyp(Q,P) =
Q)
of a
definition
^ 0 is immediate,
is
as
Q).
dhyp(P,
the Triangle Inequality, considerthree points P,Q, R\342\202\254

\316\265
> 0. By definition
of the hyperbolicdistance
as an infimum
of hyperbolic
a piecewisedifferenthere
exists
lengths,
tiable
curve 7 going from \316\241
to Q such that ^hyp(7) < dhyP(-P,
Q) + \\\316\265,
a piecewise
differentiable curve 7' going from
and
Q to R such that
To prove
H2.
an arbitrary
Pick
<Vp(7') <
R)
^hyp(Q,
and 7', one obtains

whose length is
4yp(7\") =
As
this
R) <
curves
two
7\" joining
Q) +
\320\260\321\212\321\203\321\200(\320\240,
Note
Q) + dbyP(Q,R)
that
our
Q)
dhyp(P,
holds for every
property
differentiable
use of
dhyp(Q,
7
R
\316\241
to
R) +
e.
curves,
R) +
+ dhyp(Q,
\316\265
> 0,
we conclude
\316\265.
that
R)
dhyp(-P,
as required.
piecewise differentiablecurves, insteadof
has greatly
(When 7 and 7'

true for 7\" since it may have
Inequality.
that
<
curve
a consequence,
< dbyp(P,
fact
together these
Chaining
\\s.
+ 4yp(Y)
4yp(7)
dhyp(P,
Since
a piecewisedifferentiable
simplified this proof of
are differentiable,
a \"corner\"
the
at the
same
junction
the
just
Triangle
is usually not
of
7 and
7').
serious thought is the

The only condition which
some
requires
if
\316\241
we need to make sure
that
>
0
\316\246
Q.
Namely,
dhyP(-P, Q)
\316\241
from
we cannot
to
whose
curves
go
Q by
hyperbolic lengths
are arbitrarily
Consider
parametrized
small.
a piecewise
by the
differentiable curve
piecewisedifferentiable
7 goingfrom
function
\316\241
to
Q,
2. The
14
=
\316\241
with
into
argument
If 7
and Q
(x(a),y(a))
two cases.
does not go too high,
= (x(b),y(b)). We
that
so
will
the
split
^ 2y(a) for
y(t)
plane
hyperbolic
every t
\342\202\254
[a,b],
VV(*)2+\302\273'(')2
'hyp (7)
Ja
1
^'(i)2+y'(i)adi_
Ja
=(7)
2y(a)
2y(a)
1 fL..JP.O\\_
^\342\200\242^
\342\226\240
e\\ / \\ \"cut v. J ^ /
2\316\271/(\316\261)
Let
first value
be the
\316\257\316\277
the
1/
namely,
2y(a).
=
\321\203
(to)
t < tQ. Let 7' denote the part of 7

every
values of t with \316\261
This
curve
< \316\2570^ \316\257
7' joins
its euclidean
G L, so that
length 4uc(7')
(x(to),y(to))
\316\241
or equal
to the euclidean distance from
to the line
point
is greater
L,
this happens;
which
for
equation
to the
corresponding
\316\241
to
of
line L of
< 2y(a) for
and y(t)
2y(a)
the horizontal
7 crosses
Otherwise,
than
to
is equal
itself
which
(7)
\302\253hyp
(7
\302\253hyp
Therefore,
\321\203
(a).
~\316\226\316\273
dt
2y(a)4uc(7)
2y(a)
>Ja
>
\321\210\321\203(\320\260)=*\302\267
In
both
we found that ^hyP(7) ^
cases,
C =
which
dinate of
P).
If
a positive
\316\241
and
follows
that
that
Q (remember
dhyp(-P, Q)
>
\320\241
\321\203
(a)
is the
0 cannot
2.2. Some isometries of the

will
hyperbolic
see
that
it
y-coorbe 0 if
P^Q.
The
constant
mm{^deac(P,Q),\302\261}>0,
on
only
depends
for
\320\241
hyperbolic
plane
plane (H2, dhyp) has many symmetries.

Actually, we
is as symmetric as the euclideanplane.
2.2. Someisometries
ofthe
and horizontal translations.

at first. These include the
Homotheties
2.2.1.
15
plane
hyperbolic
Someof these
homotheties
are surprising
isometries
defined
for some
\317\206(\317\207,
\321\203) (\316\273\317\207,
\316\273\317\207)
by
differentiablecurve
\316\273
> 0.
7 is parametrized
under
1^(7)
is
\317\206
\320\253
piecewise
by
a^t^b,
t~(x(t),y(t)),
its image
if the
Indeed,
by
parametrized
a^t^b.
(\\x(t),\\y(t)),
Therefore,
=
4\321\203\321\200(^(7))
xy(t)
\320\233
_ fbV^W\302\261VW,,
~
=
Since
a one-to-one
correspondence between curves
it follows from the
curves joining \317\206(\316\241)
to tp(Q),
metric that dbyP(ip(P), tp(Q)) = dhyP(P,
hyperbolic
Q and
the
of
definition
for every
The
some
This proves that
P, QgH2.
isometry of
G
\320\2660
R are
more obvious
obtained
isometries
are
homogeneous.
Recall
X' -> X\"

\342\226\240\317\210:
isometries of
the
across
\317\206(\317\207,
\321\203) (\342\200\224\317\207,
\321\203)
translations
is
\317\210
homothety
defined by ip(x,y)
translations
The homogeneity
2.2.2.
the
indeed
Q)
an
(H2,dhyp)\302\267
horizontal
reflection
The
4yp(7)\302\267
establishes
\317\206
to
joining \316\241
for
(H2,
= (x + xo,y)
dhyP),
as is
the
y-axis.
property of the hyperbolicplane.
by composing
enough to prove that

that
the composition
homotheties and horizontal

the hyperbolicplane is
X \342\200\224>
X' and
of two maps \317\206:
is the
X -> X\" defined by ip\302\260tp{P) =

map \317\210\316\277\317\206:
\342\226\240\317\206(\317\206(\316\2
\316\241
X.
for every
\302\243
If, in addition, X, X' and X\"are metric spaces,if
is an isometry
is an isometry
from
from (X, d) to (X', d') and if \317\210
\317\206
\316\277is an
to
then
from
to
(X', d')
(X\",d\,")
\317\210
\317\206
isometry
(X, d)
(X\",d\
since
d\"(i>
\316\277
\320\276
\321\204<p(Q))
\317\206(\316\241),
\316\254\"(\317\210(\317\206(\316\241)),
r/>(<p(Q)))
=
<\316\244(\317\206(\316\241),\317\206(0))
d(P,Q).
2. The
16
Proposition 2.2.
Namely, for
Proof.
=
\316\241
homothety
of
\317\206
same
the
and
ratio
=
\316\273
\321\204(\321\205,\321\203)
(x
now
obvious
isometry
inversion
across
sending
inversion.
of (\316\2342,
\317\206
dhyp)
unit
\342\202\254
\320\2502,with
the
\316\241
to
Q.
We
now
(^,\316\254)
translar
horizontal
less
an even
consider
inversion, or
or inversion
circle,
0, the
>
R =
\316\277
The composition \317\210
\317\206
RtoQ.
\316\241
to
b,
point
Q. Then the
The standard
of (H2,dhyP)the
sends
sends
^,y)
The standard
2.2.3.
(c,d)
d as
\342\200\224
\321\201
an isometry
provides
Q =
(a,b)
y-coordinate
tion
is homogeneous.
(H2,dhyP)
there exists an isometry
Q.
\317\210(\316\241)
If
with
every
plane
hyperbolic
Q G H2,
that
such
The
P,
hyperbolic plane
for
is defined
short,
by
This map
is better understood
with polar
point
[\\,\316\270].
See
in
coordinates [r,
The
2.3.
hyperbolic
Proof.
If 7
point
it
sends
the
coordinates
The inversion
plane
(1,0)
(0,0)
Figure2.2.
the
as
with polar
coordinates,
2.2.
Figure
(-1,0)
Lemma
polar
to the
\316\230]
inversion
across
across the
the
unit
unit
circle
circle
is an
isometry of
(H2,dhyP).
is a piecewisedifferentiable
i>-\302\273
(x(t),y(t)),
curve
a^t^b,
parametrized
by
its
curves in the
Shortest
2.3.
inversion
the
under
\317\210{\316\267)
image
17
hyperbolicplane
is
\317\210
\316\257\316\271->
by
parametrized
\316\261^\316\257<6,
(xi(t),yi(t)),
with
'
\342\204\242\"
*1W
*(\316\257)2+
x(t)*+y(ty
2/(\316\257)2
Then
a/ (i)
= (y(t)2-x(t)2)x'(t)-2x(t)y(t)y'(t)
(x(ty + y(t)*)2
und
(*(*)'-y(0V(*)-2*(*M*V(*)
(\302\273(t)a +
\320\275\320\276
that
after
\302\273(*)a)a
simplifications,
*i(*)
+\302\273i(*)
m2
\302\267
ma,a
\320\230*)2+\302\273(*)2)
that
It follows
<-hyp
V^(*)2+2/i(i)2
(V(7))
/'
./a
vMO'
-/ J
=
As
before,
In
is an
inversion \317\210
of the
isometry
curves
Shortest
euclidean
geometry,
line segment
I.he shortest
We
with
these
begin
same
hyperbolic
in the hyperbolic
the
shortest
two
points
curve betweentwo
a special
with
Lemma 2.4. If Pq
the
lrt*)2^
\302\273(*)
plane.
hyperbolic
2.3.
4yp(7)\302\267
shows that the
this
di
2/1 (i)
vertical
length
in the
points
two
is the
points
want
to identify
plane.
hyperbolic
case.
=
(xo,yi)
Pi
(\321\205\320\276,\320\243\320\276),
line, then
among
curve joining
as endpoints. We
plane
the
Une
all piecemse
segment
H2
\342\202\254
[Pq,
differentiable
are
located
the
has
\316\241\317\207]
on
shortest
curves going from
Po to
Po to
Pi.
In
Pi
has
the hyperbolic length

larger hyperbolic length,
addition,
strictly
Pi)
dbyP(P0,
Proof.
Assuming
the hyperbolic
<
yo
yi
without
length of [Po,
lines
hyperbolic
other
of any
plane
curve joining
and
4yP([Po, Pi])
Figure2.3.Vertical
pute
The
2.
18
= In
are shortest
loss of
generality, let us first
Parametrize
Pi]\302\267
this
com-'
line segment
by
i\"
(xo,t),
< t
\316\271/\316\277
< yi.
Then,
1\321\212
VP ([Po,Pi])=
V1^\302\261^dt =
\320\223
>yo
Now,
Pi,
a piece wise differentiable
consider
which
is parametrized
4yp(7)
curve
from P0 to
o<i<6.
fb^WT7W
yd)
rbmdt=inM
Ja
7 going
is
-J J a
>
2/0
by
t^(x(t),y(t)),
Its hyperboliclength
^.
2/(0
\342\204\226\\
fb\\\302\243
2/1
Ja
dt>LWdt
^ u
iny\302\261=ebyp{[POiPl]y
'
\320\243(\320\260)
2/0
2.3. Shortest curvesin the hyperbolic
to be equal to the last one, the above

term
be equalities. Equality in the first inequality
function x(t) be constant, while
in the second
equality
is weakly increasing.
This shows that the curve
y(t)
for the
In addition,
two
the
that
first
must
inequalities
requires
19
plane
one implies that

=
if
7 is equal to the line segment [.\316\241\316\277,-\316\241\316\271]
^hyp(7)
future
For
same
the
we note
reference,
proved by the
second
Pq =
(xq,yo),
is
which
estimate,
following
the
as
argument
\316\240
^hyp([-Po,-Pi])\302\267
the proof
half of
of
2.4.
Lemma
For any
2.5.
Lemma
two
points
H2,
In**
dhyP(Po,Pi)
Pi = (x\\,y\\) G
2/0
of shortest
determination
In our
in
curves
the
plane,
hyperbolic
step is the following.
the next
\320\2502
that
are not on the same vertical
any P, Q \302\243
exists
an isometry of the hyperbolic
such
there
line,
plane
(H2,dhyp)
that
and
on
the
same
vertical
the
are
line.
In
addition,
\317\206(\316\241) <p(Q)
line segment
the
under
is
the
circle
image
unique
\317\206
of
[\317\210(\316\241),
<p(Q)]
arc joining \316\241
to Q and centered on the x-axis.
For
2.6.
Lemma
Proof. Since\316\241
and
Q are
of
line
perpendicular
bisector
R. The
point R is equidistant
so that
there
Q.
is a
that
Note
the
Q intersects
\316\241
and
circle
\320\241
is
the samevertical
not on
from
\320\266-axis
some
at
the euclidean
Q for
\316\241
and
the
line,
point
metric,
at R and passing through \316\241

and
\316\241
that
is
circle
and
passing through
Q
only
\320\241
centered
the
centered on the rc-axis.
The circle \320\241

intersects
\320\241=
some
is
\317\206\316\271
(\320\241)
\320\266-axis
a circle
passing
the equation of
In particular,
Let
points.
to
points
be
a
\317\206\316\271
(0,0).
the origin and
through
cos
\316\230.
Its
image
under
the
in
cartesian
circle
the inversion
coordinate equation
r=
r,
4
2acos0'
equation
two
in
these
of
Then
centeredat
(a, 0).
point
= 2a
\316\275
the
sending one
translation
horizontal
coordinates
polar
is the
\317\2062
the
namely,
is
\320\241
in
= \342\200\224.
\317\207
vertical
coordinates
curve
is
with polar
line L
whose
2.
20
The
plane
hyperbolic
\316\2502\302\260\316\250\\{\316\241)
.\317\21020\317\210\316\220{0\\,
(\316\261,\316\237)
(0,0)
(i.0)
2.4. Circlearcscenteredon
Figure
\316\277 sends
The composition \317\2102
\317\210\316\271
L. In particular, it sendsthe points
L.
line
vertical
of
isometry \317\206
2.6 can
Lemma
that
circle
\316\241
and
\316\277 to
\317\2102\317\2101
Restricting
(H2,dhyp)
the
we were
points
L by
line
located at
to
\320\241
the
the
to
on
case where
L as a circleof
interpreting
infinity
the
rc-axis.
re = a can be seen as the limit

vertical line L of equation
\342\200\224
to +oo or to oo of the circle of radius \\x \342\200\224
a\\ centered
With
this
two
e
convention,
P, Q H2 can be
any
(re, 0).
unique circle arc centeredon the rc-axis.
2.7.
Theorem
centered on the
one
that
is shortest
If
Proof.
\316\241
and
all curves
Among
x-axis
(possibly
for
Q are
the
on the
toQ
joining \316\241
a vertical
hyperbolic
line
vertical
Q to two points on the

in H2 then provides the
looking for.
be extended immediately
Q sit on the same vertical

radius
whose center is
are shortest.
x-axis
the
Indeed, the
re tends
as
at the
joined
point
by a
the circle
line segment) is the
length
same vertical
inM2,
\316\241
and
infinite
arc
unique
^\321\203\321\200.
line,
this
is proved
by
\316\241
and
Lemma 2.4.
Otherwise,Lemma
2.6
provides
an isometry
sending
\317\206
line
L. By Lemma 2.4,
points P' and Q' on the samevertical
the shortest curve from P' to Q' is the line segment [P1,Q'\\. Since an
sends shortest curves to shortest curves,
curve
the
shortest
isometry
from \316\241
to Q is the image of the line segment [P\\ Q'] under
the inverse
statement of Lemma 2.6, this imageis
isometry
\317\206~\317\207.
By the second
the circlearcjoining
\316\241
to Q and centered on the rc-axis.
D
to two
a metric
In
in the
curves
Shortest
2.3.
space
21
hyperbolic plane
distance function
where the
is defined
by taking
the euclidean
curves,
for
there
a
term
\"shortest
and
the
is
technical
plane
hyperbolic
plane,
a
is
a
such
curve\".
More precisely,
curve
that for every
geodesic
7
\316\241
close to P, the sectionof 7
G 7 and for every Q G 7 sufficiently
\316\241
\316\241
to Q is the shortest curve joining
to Q (for the arc length
joining
the infimum of the
arc lengths
of
such as
certain
considered).
For
instance,
1.1 says that
Proposition
plane (R2,deuc) are line segments,whereas

geodesies in the hyperbolicplane (H2,dhyp)
geodesies
are
circle
the
in
2.7
Theorem
euclidean
shows
arcs centered
that
on
the rc-axis. By convention,

and circle arcs may
include
line
segments
of
much
or
none
their
the
same
some,
all,
endpoints(in
way as an
R may be open, closedor semi-open).
interval in the number
line
A
geodesic
complete
is a
geodesic
be extended
cannot
which
to
a larger geodesic.From
the
above
observations,
complete geodesies
lines.
of the
of the euclideanplane are straight
Complete
geodesies
and
hyperbolic plane are open semi-circlescenteredon the re-axis
delimited
two
of
the
re-axis
vertical
half-lines
points
by
(including
to infinity).
going from a point on the rc-axis
For future reference, we now prove the following
technical
result.
Let Pq = (0,yo) and Pi = (0, y{) be two points
of the
=
L
H2
the
with
>
>
\320\241
upper half
y\\
yo,
y-axis,
of
{(0,y);y 0}
and let g be a complete
passing
hyperbolic
through Pq. See
geodesic
Lemma
2.8.
Figure 2.5.
Then
(1) Pq is the
distance
(2)
g is the
namely,
at (0,0)
Proof.
the
Lemmas
geodesic
the
following
point
of g
are equivalent:
that is
closest to
Pi
for
the hyperbolic
dhyp/
complete geodesicgo that is orthogonal to L at Pq,

it is the euclidean semi-circle of radius yo centered
and joining (yo,0) to (\342\200\224yo,0).
2.4 and
2.5 show that for every point
go,
dbyP(Pi, P)^ln^ln^\316\275
=
2/0
dhyP(Pi,
Po).
=
\316\241
on
(\320\270,
\317\205)
2. The
22
plane
hyperbolic
Figure 2.5
Po is
the point
a consequence,
As
closestto Pi
among
all
of
points
50\302\267
if g is
Pq and
Conversely,
through
passes
a point
to find
want
=
\316\241
For
another complete
makes an angle of
\316\241
\342\202\254
g with
that
segment[\316\241\316\271,\316\241]
gives
dhyp(-Pi>
standard
\342\202\254
(\320\270,
\316\275)
g, the
When
=
\320\270
the above
let the
0, we
point
=
\316\241
have that
formula then
gives
2/1
In
<W(Pl,
=
\316\270
unless
particular,
there existsnear Po
P)
^,
(0,2/o)
< 4yp([Pl,
yo and
still
this
Po, we ,
^*o)\302\267
of the line
- t/i) dt
\317\205
that
on
\316\275
the geodesic g
near
Po\302\267
dv
\342\200\224
= cot
du
at
\316\230.
Differentiating
=
\320\270
0,
-^COt^.
yo
derivative
a point
^hyp(Pi>
L at
{v-yi)2 ^yi
\342\200\224
=
\316\275
P])
t(v
vary
(\320\270,
\317\205)
^-4yp([Pl,P])
du
with
+ {y_yi)2
j/i
now
P) <
length is equal to
lû2
y/u2 +
We
\316\270
\317\206
f
parametrization
its hyperbolic
4yp([Pl,P])= /
JO
hyperbolicgeodesicthat
=
\316\241
(it,
is different from 0 and

v) of 5 such that
< 4yp([Pl,Po])=
dhyp([Pl,
Po])\302\267
\316\240
of the
isometries
All
2.4.
2.4. All isometriesof the

hyperbolic
plane
In
inversion.
types of
the
to use complexnumbers.
2:
\342\200\224
\317\207
iy is
+ y2 =
sjx2
= \317\207
\316\266
+ iy.
the form
is of
for a
\320\275->
\316\266
Xz
translation is of the form

=
\320\275->
is of the form \316\266
|, where
\321\211\320\267
where
\\z\\
value).
examples of isometries by compositionof
\316\277of two
Recall that the composition\317\206
\317\210
more
types.
is
\317\210
2.9.
(2.3)
of
y-coordinate
defined
by
=
\316\277
and
\317\210 \317\206(\316\241) \317\210(\317\206(\316\241)),
the
that
of two isometries is an isometry.
composition
Lemma
(H2,dhyp).
framework,
= \317\207
the complex conjugate of \316\266
+ iy and
is its modulus
\\fz~i
(also called absolute
of these
and
\317\206
maps
this
\320\275->
\316\266
\316\266
+ \317\207
\316\277
the inversion
obtain
can
We
isometries
In
>0},
homothety
a horizontal
\316\273
> 0,
\342\202\254
R, and
xq
is
coordinates, a
In complex
with
the
1\321\202(.\320\263)
part
imaginary
real number
translations and the
isometriesof
H2 ={êC;Im(2)
where
of the
isometries
horizontal
homotheties,
(H2,dhyp):
we describe all
this section,
convenient
It is
plane
hyperbolic
have encountered three
So far, we
23
hyperbolic plane
All maps
of the form
\316\271\342\200\224>with
\316\266
a,
cz + d
b,
R and
c, d \302\243
ad
\342\200\224
be =
or
(2.4)
\342\200\224-\342\200\224\320\275->
\316\266
with
a,b,c,d
b
of the
isometries
are
We will
Proof.
an
0, and
hyperbolic plane
show that every

with
\316\271\342\200\224>
\316\266
\316\266
+ xq
horizontal
translations
\316\273
>
R and
\342\202\254
az +
of inversions
\320\275->
4.
\316\266
will prove
isometry,
this
When
\320\260
0,
\321\204
the
map
ad\342\200\224bc=
(H2,dhyp)-
such map is a composition

xq
\342\202\254
R, of
Since
of
homotheties
a composition
\320\263\320\275>\320\220\320\263
with
of isometries is
the result.
of equation
(2.4) is the composition
of
\321\201
6
\320\275->
.
\316\266
and
\316\266*-*
\316\266
\316\266
\342\200\224\316\266\316\266
-\\\342\200\224
\316\233\342\200\224
,
\320\263\320\275-, \320\263\320\270
\316\266
\316\261*
\316\261
\316\261
In
particular,
and is therefore
this
an
map is
isometry
the compositionof
of H2.
several
isometries
of H2
2. The hyperbolic plane
24
(-\342\226\272
\316\266
A, we
0.
plane when \316\261
\317\206
\321\201
a = 0, so that
0,
\321\204
hyperbolic
When
the
map
cz + b
\320\275->
\316\266
which is
an isometry of
translation
H2
by the
\320\263\320\270\320\263-l.It
follows
alsoan isometry
isometry of
plane
this
fact
on the
hinges
Lemma 2.10.
that
that
L =
fixes
\317\206
hypothesis,
For every
the map
that
shows
a =
of
0.
of the
isometry
every
consideredin
2.9.
Lemma
hyperbolic\342\226\240
The proof
of
of the hyperbolic plane (H2,dhyp)

= \316\266
either \317\206(\316\266)
> 0. Then
\321\203
everyfor
every
= \342\200\224\316\266
every
for
\317\206(\316\266)
Let
Proof.
0.
an isometry
for
iy
previous case, and of the horizontal

that the map of equation (2.3) is
following property.
be
\317\206
Let
=
ip(iy)
\316\266
\342\202\254
\316\2272
or
>
{iy; \321\203
every
\316\266.
upper half
be the
0}
of
the
y-axis.
By
of L.
point
the unique hyperbolic completegeo-j

is orthogonal
to L. Namely, gy is \\
passes through \\y
of radius \321\203
centered
at 0 and contained in
euclidean
semi-circle
]
L, let
\\y \342\202\254
that
gy be
and
is an isometry
H2. Since\317\206
and
to a completegeodesic
g passing
to
(2.3) is the
of equation
\342\200\224,
H2 when
Conversely, we will show

is of one the two types
the
the
+ d
\320\275->
i
\316\266
with
composing
is an
(2.4)
a =
when
H2
of
Finally,
desic
of
+ d
cz
such
of
of
composition
equation
the map
obtain
map is alsoan isometry
that this
showing
thereby
(2.3),
with
more
once
Composing
equation
that
prove
</?02/)
through
*2/>
we
know
iy. We
will
that
use
it sends
Lemma
gyi
2.8
gy.
|
j
Indeed, this statement characterizesthe geodesic

by the prop- J
gy
is
the
that
for
of
that
is closest j
>
the
point gy
\321\203,
point
iy
erty
any \321\203\320\263
=
a
is
an
to ij/i. As consequence,since \317\210
isometry,
tp{\\y)
iy is the ,
=
Lemma 2.8 then I
ij/i.
point of ip{gy) = g that is closest to <p(iyi)
shows
g =
that
Now, if
two
points
two
points
gy,
so
that
gy.
is a point of gy, its image

<p(gy) is one of the
are at distancedhyP(-P,
from
iy. One of these
iy)
other one is \342\200\224
\320\270
iv
+
by symmetry.
= \320\270
\316\241
+ iv
of gy that
is P, the
<p(gy)
1
\\
|
1
We
of the
isometries
All
2.4.
that
conclude
= u+iv
ip(u+iv)
or \342\200\224
u+'w
belongs to some geodesic

(since
gy).
it is continous. It follows that
either
ip(u
u + iv
\320\270
+ iv
H2 or
\342\202\254
+ iv)
\317\206(\317\205,
as either
rephrased
25
hyperbolic plane
= -u
for
iv
= \316\266
\317\206(\316\266) for
every
u+iv
for every
H2
\342\202\254
is an
\317\210
Since
isometry,
+ iv) = \320\270
+ iv for every
u + iv \342\202\254
\320\250\320\2232.
This
can be
every
= \342\200\224
\316\266
for
\317\206(\316\266)
\316\266
\316\2272
or
\342\202\254
every
D
\320\263\342\202\254\320\2352.
A minor
of Lemma 2.9 is that
corollary
with
\317\210(\316\266)
a,
1 sends the upper half-space H2 to itself;

and
ad
be
b, c, d G \320\232
This
this
can also be easily checked \"by hand\".
map is not defined
= \342\200\224
*. However,
at the boundary point \316\266
if we introduce a point oo
at
of the real line R (without distinguishing
between +oo and
infinity
\342\200\224
=
-oo), the same formula
to be
R and
\342\202\254
in the
and
which
is made
applies to a map of
2.11.
the
1. These
ad\342\200\224
be =
proof of the
Theorem
exactly
sense,
|.
oo
\317\210(\317\207)
\"obvious\"
The same
d
oo and
\317\206(\342\200\224*)
{oo}
This
is specially
map
lim
designed
\317\210(\317\207)
precise in Section T.3 of
the
Kit.
Tool
c,
<p(oo) =
continuous. Indeed,
lim
in the
-> R
U {oo}
R
\317\210:
by setting
a map
defines
maps
the
form
with
\342\200\224\316\266\342\200\2246,
\320\276,
\317\210(\316\266)
az
\320\276
extensions are
often
convenient,
following
The isometnes
of the form
of the
plane
hyperbolic
(H2, dhyp)
a,b,c,d\302\243
and
ad
\342\200\224
bc=l
mth
\342\200\224\316\266\342\200\224a,b,c,d\302\243
\317\206(\316\266)
az + b
and
ad
\342\200\224
bc\342\200\224\\.
2.9
that
\317\210(\316\266)
cz +
as
statement.
with
\320\276.\342\204\242
or
=
We
Proof.
types
already
isometries
are
let
Conversely,
positive
part
proved
of the
be
\317\206
= {iy;
in
Lemma
all maps
of these two
hyperbolic plane.
an
>
\321\203
of H2,
isometry
of
the y-axis.
0}
and consideragain the

Since L is a complete
2. The hyperbolicplane
26
of
geodesic
H2,
under the isometry \317\206

is also
its image
a euclidean
geodesic
of H2,
points
\317\212,\317\205\316\276\316\234\317\205
{oo}\302\267Here
namely,
goes from
orient L from 0 to
corresponding orientation
of
y>(L)
\320\270
to \320\263;.
the case
consider
First,
that the
of generality
loss
without
if we
distinct
two
when <p(L) is a
oo, we require
oo exactly
be
\320\270
or \320\263;
will
In addition,
half-line.
vertical
a complete
semi-circleboundedby
where
\320\263;
are
\320\270
and
from oo.
different
both
The hyperbolicisometry
.
.
=
\320\244{*)
cEl
a and
with
It follows that
oo.
oo. As
L to
\342\200\224
au
cz
\342\200\224
cv
=
chosen so that ac(u \342\200\224
\320\263;) 1,
\316\277
fixes
the composition \317\206\317\210
sends
the
\317\211
to
two points
\320\263;
to
0 and
\316\277sends
the isometry \317\210
the complete
\317\210
geodesic
= it
\316\277
In particular, \317\210
its orientation.
respects
\317\206(\316\257)
a
and
\321\201
in
the
definition
Replacing by \320\260/\\\320\224 by c\\/i
and
itself,
of
we
\317\210,
to
a point
> 0.
can
arrange
of L
that
\316\277respects
\317\210
\317\206
=
\320\276
\321\204
</?(\320\270/)
iy for
that
is
the
every
= i.
\316\277
\317\210\317\206(\317\212)
at
the same
orientation
hyperbolic distance from

of L, the only possibility
the formula for the inverse function

= \316\266
the equation \317\210(\316\266')
Exercise
(compare
,\321\207
_\321\207
,_i,
cvz
either
first
i as
L
\342\202\254
iy;
is that
= \316\266
\316\277
for
\317\210\317\206(\316\266)
case,
\317\210~1is
obtained
2.10).
In the
In both cases,\317\210(\316\266)
is of the type requested.
It remains to considerthe caseswhere
\317\211
or \320\263;
is oo.
is identical, using the isometries
V>(*)
= oo,
\320\270
and
cz
by solving
second case,
+ au
cz +
1 when
\\y
> 0.
\321\203
where
oc =
each
\316\277sends
\317\210
\317\206
Then,
Lemma 2.10, we concludethat

Applying
= \342\200\224\316\266
\316\277
z
or
for every
z. In the
every
\317\210\317\206(\316\266)
with
0 and
a consequence,
for some t
since
az
\342\200\224
cv
The argument
and antilinear fractional maps
2.5. Linear
ac =
with
\342\200\224
ad
\342\200\224
be =
we
with
In this
of the
\317\206
context, a
ad
maps
coefficients,
generality.
that
shows
algebra
map
complex coefficients a, b,
+ d
cz
is
\317\206
nonconstant
c, d
\302\243
when
exactly
all coefficients
coefficientsa, b,
So far, the
be fixed
by
c,
is not
map \317\206
introducing
with
+ d
by setting
obvious
a, b,
defined
= \320\241
\320\241
U
c, d
=
ad
\342\200\224
be =
of continuity
at
oo
\317\206(\316\266)
and
z-*-i
these
where
Section
T.3
numbers
by
limits
Tool
of the
infinity
1.
However, this can easily

C. Let the Riemann
of
a linear
1 defines
=
fractional \317\206(\316\266)
a map
\342\200\224\342\231\246
\320\241
\320\241
\317\210:
^. This map is continuous

infinity
because
lim
for
\317\206\316\257\316\266)
\342\200\224,
'
\320\263-\320\276\320\276^4
\320\241
are
defined
as in
exactly
Kit, but replacing absolutevalues

values) of complexnumbers.
of
real
(= absolute
moduli
a general
Similarly,
form
\342\200\224\342\231\246
of the
\320\241
\320\241
the
involving
^.
infinity
</?(oo) =
oo and
definition
=
\316\266
Then
{oo}.
\320\241
\342\202\254
and
\317\210{\342\200\224^)
lim
at
oo at
a point
\342\200\224
be =
ad
condition
this
\320\241
\342\202\254
satisfy
sphere be the union
with
of
real)
Dividing
by one of the two complex
\342\200\224
roots \302\261y/ad
arrange that ad\342\200\224bc= 1
be, we can consequently
the map \317\206.
We will systematically
require that the
changing
square
the
higher level
- with
\317\210(\316\266)
\342\200\224
be \321\204
0.
without
cz
to consider
need
not just
(and
and
linear
linear fractional map isa nonconstant
\320\241Elementary
in this
properties
form
with
\321\202\320\260\321\200\320\260
maps.
fractional
complex
arbitrary
these
prove
a, b,
= \342\200\224\342\200\224with
R
d \342\202\254
\320\276,
6, \321\201,
\317\206(\316\266)
\320\276
az
form
maps. Since later we will
fractional
antilinear
of this type
fractional
a few fundamental properties of
we establish
section
this
the
with
\"T~ u
antilinear fractionalmaps
2.5. Linear and

In
\317\206(\316\266)
CZ
called linear
1 are
antilinear
1 are
bc=
form
the
of
dhyp)
Those of
coefficients.
and
\316\240
of (H2,
and ad
del
real
= oo.
\320\263;
isometries
The
c,
1 when
27
convention
antilinear
map is a
fractional
= \342\200\224\316\266\342\200\224\320\241
d \342\202\254
and
with
\320\276,
b, \321\201,
\317\206(\316\266)
b
az +
that
= oo
\317\206(\342\200\224
|)
and
</?(oo)
|.
ad
map
\342\200\224
bc=
\317\206:
1,
2. The
28
See
for another
2.12
on linear
fractional
Some
2.5.1.
encountered
sphere
can indeed
= \320\241
\320\241
U {oo}
Exercise
of why the Riemann

be considered as a sphere.Seealso
a different
of C, which
sheds
interpretation
an explanation
for
2.8
Exercise
hyperbolic plane
light
maps.
fractional maps.
special
(anti)linear
the homotheties
We
already
\320\260\320\254
+ \320\276
\316\271-\342\226\272
\316\266
Xz =
\316\237\316\266
+ \\-\317\204
with
real
positive
also consider
can
ratio
If we
0.
\316\273
>
allow complex coefficients,
we
the rotations
>->
\316\266
e1^ \316\266
+ 0
=
\316\266
0_\320\263
+ \320\265~*2
of
around the origin,
flgl
angle
and the translations

Z
also
Z\"
2.12.
Lemma
Proof.
linear
Every
of homotheties,
\320\276
composition
acrossthe
\316\266
or antilinear
there
Actually,
the
defined
\320\241
is
inversion
by the
the unit circle
fractional
translations,
map
\342\200\224\342\231\246
\320\241
\320\241
\320\263$
\317\210:
rotations, and inversions
circle.
unit
The proof is identical to the

used in the proof of Lemma
with real coefficients.
maps
circle. If
_ Oz +
\\z\\*~~z~ 5+ 0-
we already
tional
Zq
\320\241
\342\202\254
complex numbers \320\263\320\276
the inversion across
considered
for arbitrary
We
the
that
purely algebraicargument
2.9 for linear and linear frac-
reason to prefer the unit

of radius R centeredat
the circle \320\241
is the
antilinear
is no
circle
circle
the
across
property
that
-zo
\317\210(\316\266)
= R2
Di
Z\302\260
\342\200\224
\\z
zo\\z
other
to any
point
fractional
zq
\342\202\254
\\
\320\241,
map
\317\206
or, equivalently,
29
fractional maps
antilinear
and
Linear
2.5.
that
\320\2642~1\320\263\320\27612
\320\267\320\260?_i_
**>
\342\226\240
Rl\\.l
Rz
sends
\316\266
to the point
that is on the sameray issued
from zq
\317\210
and it is at the euclideandistance
This
from
Zq.
i?2/deuc(^,
Zq)
inversion fixes every
of
the
circle
and
the
inside
C,
point
exchanges
Namely,
us z,
of C.
outside
the
iind
There is an interesting
as we let the center

und
of the circle go to infinity.
the
radius
For
t, to and 9q \342\202\254
R,
given
set zq = tel9\302\260and
R = t \342\200\224
If we let t tend to +00, the circle\320\241
toto the line L that passes through
the point
makes
converges
tQee\302\260and
iin angle of \316\2700
the
rc-axis.
On
with
the
other
the
inversion
+ |
hand,
across
\317\206
to the
\320\241
converges
In
this
just
interpret the line L as a circleof infinite

we can also considerthe euclideanreflection
as an inversion across this circle.Note
that
every line L can
centered
across
at infinity,
be obtainedin
this
way.
Recall that if
Differentials.
on
defined
function
\342\200\224
\316\271->
\316\266
e2l9\302\260
\316\266
which
is
+ 2\316\257\316\277\316\262\316\2719\302\260,
map
if we
way,
radius
2.5.2.
of inversions
case
across the line L.
the reflection
of
interior
a region U
R2
\320\241
\342\200\224>
R2
is
U
\317\206:
a differentiable
by
\317\206(\317\207,\316\275)
(f(x,y),g(x,y)),
or tangent map of \317\206

at a point
Pq = (xo,yo) in
R2 \342\200\224>
R2 with
the linear map \316\214\317\2010\317\206:
matrix
the differential
the
limit
U is
\320\250\321\200\320\276)
%po)
\320\264\320\271(\320\240\320\276)
\302\247\316\276(\316\241\316\277)
Namely,
=
DPofi*,
\317\213\316\241\316\260\317\206{*)
for every
The
vector
v =
differential
b)
(a,
(P0)
aff
(a\302\243\302\243(P0) \320\254\320\246(\320\2400),
ftg(fl)))
R2.
\342\202\254
b)
map
the
has
also
\316\214\317\2010\317\206
following geometric
interpretation.
Lemma
2.13.
a region U
parametrized
Let the
containing
curve
differentiable map
the
7 in U
in its
point
Pq
which
passes
be defined
\317\210-.U\342\200\224*\320\2262
interior.
through
Then, for
Pq and
over
every
is tangent to
30
vector
the
at
the
point
under
its image
\316\275
there,
is
\317\206
vector
to the
tangent
\316\214\317\2010\317\210(\316\275)
\317\206(\316\241\316\277).
\317\210{\316\257)
\316\250{\316\212)
\317\210(\316\241\316\277)
DpMv)
Figure
Proof.
2.6. The
Suppose that
the
geometry
map
differential map
of the
is given
\317\206
by
is parametrizedby
if
point Pq corresponds to t = to, namely,
v =
curve 7
the
that
and
'
g(x,
\321\203),
\317\206(\317\207,
\321\203) (f(x,
\320\275+
(rc(i),
Pq =
t/(i)).
\321\203)),
If the ;
(x(to)~,y(to)), then
(x'(to),y'(t0)).
The
of the
<p(x(t),y(t))
at
chain
under
by
parametrized
(f(x(t),y(t)),g(x(t),y(t))y
rule for functions
is equal
\317\210(\316\241\316\277)
is
\317\206
\302\273
the
vector
curve 7
image
Applying
1
i
of several variables, its tangent
to
\\
jt(f(x(t),y(t)),9(mMt)))t=to
=
{jtmt)Mt))t=t0,^9(m,y(t))t=t0)
+
(^(PQ)x'(tQ)
^(Po)y'(to),^(Po)x'(tQ)
^(PQ)y'(tQ)^
\317\213\316\241\316\277\317\210(\316\275).
An
immediate
\342\226\241;!
6
<
consequence
of this geometric
interpretation is the
property.
following
Corollary
2.14.
\316\261
\316\267\316\241\316\277(\317\206\316\277\316\250)
(\317\213\317\206(\316\241\316\277)\317\206)\316\277(\317\213\316\241\316\277\317\206).
The
differential
maps of linear and antilinear
fractional
a particularly nice expressionin complexcoordinates.
maps
have
.
j
Proposition 2.15.If
linear
the
where
rz + d
a, b,
\342\200\224>
\320\241
\320\241
0\316\226\316\277\317\210: at
fractional
antilinear
and
Linear
2.5.
c, d
\320\241
with
\342\202\254
zq
zq
\342\200\224
=
ad
\342\200\224
\321\204 \\ is
(czQ +
If
where
at
for
be
1, its
such
that
the antilinear
a, b, c,
fractional map
=
ad\342\200\224be
\320\241
\342\202\254
with
\320\241
with
\342\202\254
-\320\263\320\276
differential map
d)2
| is such
\342\200\224
\316\246
zq
is
\317\210
1, its
defined
differential
cz ~f~ d
\342\200\224\342\200\224=
\317\210(\316\266)
az + \320\276
\342\200\224>
\320\241
\320\241
\317\213\316\226\316\277\317\210:
by
map
that
Proof.
We will use Lemma 2.13. Given
consider the line segment \316\267
parametrized
= zq and that
that
z(0)
z'(0) = v.
Lemma
by t
z(t)
= lim
/i-\302\273o
h
= lim
aZQ + ahv +
V<
\\ czq + chv +
-.
(CZQ +
h-*0
^(\302\260)))
azo
+ b\\
czq
-\320\2237
ChV
d)(CZo
d)
rr-
+ d)
_
\"
(czo
the property that
d)2\"'
bc=
ad\342\200\224
is identical for
reference,
Complement
vector,
+ tv. Note
^(*(*))|t=0=\320\271\320\270\320\230*(\320\273))
'
future
= zq
\320\275->
The argument
as a
\320\241
\316\275
\342\202\254
interpreted
implies that
then
2.13
dzmv)
For
\317\206(\316\266)
\342\202\254
\320\241.
\316\275
every
using
by
\320\241
\316\275
\302\243
every
for
is defined
\317\210
map
fractional
\320\241
with
\342\202\254
31
maps
2.16.
1.
the
antilinear
we note that
If<p(z) =
fractional
the samecomputation
where ad\342\200\224be
is
map
\317\210. \316\217
yields:
not
necessarily
equal to 1, then
D
D^{v)=i^Vdyv-
32
A
of
a rotation, and the
is the composition
nonzero
vectors
DZoip(v2)
is the
oriented
measuring
of an
with a
differential
map
with
a homothety
fractional map
antilinear
reflection. This has the
consequence.
The differential map
same as
oriented
the
The differential
that
fractional
angle from
from
angle
V\\
any
for
to
two
to
\316\214\316\226\316\261\317\210(\316\275{
v^,
in C.
counterclockwise
angles
in the sense
oriented
the
\342\202\254
C,
\321\211,V2
a linear
of
\316\214\316\226\316\277\317\206
orientation
and
angles
\317\210
respects
of
composition
map
a homothety
of
2.17.
Corollary
map
differential
important
following
is the
fractional map
the
2.15 is that
of Proposition
consequence
a linear
antilinear fractional linear map

and reverses orientation in the sense that
any \342\226\240\342
\321\204
angles
respects
for
the oriented
to
two
nonzero
vectors v\\, #2 \342\202\254
C,
angle from \316\214^\317\206^\316\263)
the
\342\226\241
is
the
oriented
to
v*i
V2;
opposite of
angle from
DZoip(v2)
coincide
2.5.3.
(Anti)linear
fundamental
of
Riemann
the
union
circle
be either
of
the
antilinear
or
linear
\320\241
to
to
\320\241
\321\201
and
a circle
of
map
and circles. Another

fractional mapsis that
they
precisely,
let
a euclidean circlein \320\241

or
point
as circles
a circle in
all lines
include
More
infinity.
line L
of a
{oo}
2.18.
Proposition
at
= \320\241
\320\241
U {oo}
sphere
each
For this, we have
centered
radius
infinite
the
sends
fractional
maps
and antilinear
to circles.
fractional
map.
of linear
property
circles
send
antilinear fractional
with an
cannot
a linear
2.17 shows that
Corollary
Incidentally,
of an
DZoip
map
oo.
fractional
map
\342\200\224>
\320\241
\320\241
\317\210:
\320\241
is a composition
of homotheties, rotations,
By Lemma 2.12, \317\206
across
translations and inversions
the unit circle. Since homotheties,
rotations and translations clearly sendcirclesto circles,it suffices to
consider the case where \317\206
is the inversion
across the unit circle.
In
r
It is convenient to use polar coordinates.
coordinates
polar
Proof.
and
the
\316\230,
circle
\320\241
of
radius
centered at zq =
+ rl-R2
r2-2rr0cos(e~e0)
The
the
point
inversion
sends
\317\206
of coordinates
the
[\302\243,0].
point
The
'
has
\320\263\320\276&1\320\262\320\276
equation
'\342\226\240
= 0.
with polar coordinates [r,

under
of the circle \320\241
image
to
\316\230]
is
\317\210
The
2.6.
of equation
curve
the
therefore
33
norm
hyperbolic
+ r.2-i?2 = o.
_L_^\302\260cos(0_0o)
If
R
\316\246
Iro\316\231
origin 0,
circle
simplifying
radius
of
above
the
\\zq\\
R, we
is a
of course
which
we
Finally,
get the
rl-Rf
and
Then
consequently
is
norm
2r0 cos(0 -
\316\2700)'
In polar
a line.
rr\342\200\224\342\200\224\320\263
for some
2r0 cos(0
r =
equation
has
its image under \317\210
it is a circle passingthrough
the
\316\2300)
2rocos(0
\342\200\224
6q),
origin.
norm
R2, its euclideanmagnitudeor

its usual length
6) is
=
If \316\275
(a,
r =
equation
form r
of the
is
The hyperbolic
2.6.
polar
is
the case where \320\241
to consider
coordinates, its equation

and
\320\223\320\276
6q.
curve of
line.
need
curve is the
at
|\320\2632-\320\2242|
If
the
contain
not
does
\320\241
shows that this
equation
~
=rr; centered
7-5
circle
the
if
equivalently,
or,
a vector in
euclidean
INeuc = Va*+ V.
For
if
instance,
plane,
\316\275
is the
velocity
the
describes
||#||\320\265\321\206\321\201
speed
of a particle moving
of this particle.
In the hyperbolicplane, distancesare

according
If
\317\205
is a
to
where
vector
we are
in
the
based at the
plane,
point
in
measured
euclidean
differently
and consequently
\316\266
\316\2272
its
\342\202\254
\320\241
\320\241,
the
so are speeds.
hyperbolic
norm
is
To justify this definition,

let 7 be a curve in H2, parametrizedby
of 7 at the point
11\342\200\224\342\226\272
vector
a < t < 6. In particular, the tangent
z(t),
and must be considered as a vector
based
z(t) is the derivative
z'(t),
at z(t). Then the euclidean and hyperboliclengths
of 7 are given by
the very similar formulas
4uc(7) = /Vwileuc
Ja
dt
The
2.
34
plan
hyperbolic
and
dt.
4yP(7) = J/Vwilhyp
a
image
see the
by
Lemma 2.19. If \317\210

is an
but
everV
for
We could
Proof.
easier to
it is
the
Consider
with
a,
b,
c,
based
vector
vector
then
isometry
o/(H2, dhyp),
U based at zq \342\202\254
H2.
go back to basic principles

use a straight
computation.
case where
R and
at zq el2,
d G
ad
is
\317\210
\342\200\224
=
its
\317\210(\316\241)
given
\316\214\317\201\317\210
be
1. By
\\czQ
\\\\DZoip(v)\\\\.
metric
the
about
fractional
a linear
\\\\DzMme
On the
P,
at
based
2.13.
Lemma
IKIIhyp
at
based
vector
map is a vector
geometric interpretation of the differential
differential
under
the
\316\214\317\201\317\206(\316\275)
Indeed,
s is a
map and
a differentiable
is
\317\206
If
dhypr,
\317\210(\316\266)
'
CZ
Proposition 2.15, if
;s
+ d;
is
\317\205
d\\2
other hand,
1
MpW) = ^
(v(zo)
Zq
azo +
=
<\321\200\320\253)
%(
czq + d
azo
+ bs
czq + d,
\342\200\224
2i \\czQ +
Zq
d\\2
\\czq
+ d\\2
bn(z0).
Therefore,
ImbNleuc
The
cz
map
is essentially
argument
+
\316\271
\\ =
\317\206(\316\266)
-7\342\200\2247.
az + b
l|iT|lhyp\302\267
identical for an
antilinear
fractional/
\317\200
\342\226\241
of the hyperbolic plane. We now

property
euclidean plane, the hyperbolic
H2 is iso-1
plane
Recall
means
not
can
we
send
that
this
that
point
tropic.
any
only
H2
an
\342\202\254
H2
to
other
e
of
z\\
point zi
any
by
isometry
\317\210 (H2,dhyP),'
2.6.1.
show
The
that
isotropy
like the
The
2.6.
norm
hyperbolic
35
at
sends
arrange that \317\210
any given direction
a
at
As
the
direction
z^.
consequence, hyperbolic
uny arbitrary
looks the same at every point and in every
direction.
possible
can
we
but
even
Proposition
based
\316\267
vector
2.20. Let V\\

at z-i G H2
sends
Let 9sKbe
(iuclidean
of
the angle from

after
namely,
way,
translation
moving
and
Zi
precise value is really

is again
d cannot
let
v*2
be
is an
differential
usual
z^ by a euclidean
point
R2.
R such
exists c, d \342\202\254
that cz\\
d amounts
to solving a linear
=
sin
and
X\\ + ij/i, one finds \321\201
-\317\201 \302\247
one can
Then
and
in the
v2 measured
the
to
v\\
\342\202\254
H2,
and whose
z^
to
V\\
There
r.
to
z\\
Z\\
plane
Then
there
HÎL\302\267\342\204\242\302\267
||î||hyp
which
biometry \317\206
of (\316\2272,
dhyp)
sends
v\\ to V2map \316\214\316\226\316\271\317\206
Proof.
based at
a vector
be
with
to
Z\\
d =
\320\265-,\320\267.
Indeed,
of two
system
cos
finding
If
equations.
\342\200\224
sin
\317\210-
f, but
the
irrelevant.
find
a,
(many)
a simplelinear
equation
be both equal to 0.
Let \317\210\\
be the
choiceof
d =
that
R such
\342\202\254
after
problem
ad
1. This
\342\200\224
be =
observing
that
and
\321\201
=
defined by \317\210\\
Because
(\316\266) ^^.
is
shows
that
2.15
a,
b, c, d, Proposition
\316\217\316\226\316\271\317\206\\
the complex
of
\316\230.
the
rotation
multiplication
by ew, namely,
angle
As a consequence,
still comparing angles and directionsin the usual
=
to \320\263\320\2232
euclidean
is parallel
and
in the same
points
way, \320\263?\320\267
DZl \317\206\316\271(\321\211)
linear
fractional
of our
direction.
Let z%
Z2. As in our
can
even
an
Let
be
\317\2102
\317\206\316\271(\316\266\317\207).
proof of the
that
arrange
the
H2
of
homogeneity
is
\317\2102
of H2
isometry
composition
of a
\316\277 sends
\317\2102 \317\206\316\271
\316\277
sends
Vi
\316\214\316\226\316\257\317\210\\
\317\213\316\2263\317\2102
is based
which
By
Lemma
at
Z2
and
to a
to Zi,
\316\226\317\207
vector
is parallel
to
and
=
\320\251
=
\\\\DzM*i)hyp
to
with
In particular,
it.
its differential
=
\316\214\316\226\316\271\317\206
\317\213\316\226\316\271\317\206(\316\275\316\271)
\316\214\316\2263\317\2102{\316\2753),
\320\263\320\2232.
2.19,
ll*2||hyp
z%
2.2, we
homothety
so that \316\217\316\2263\317\2102
is a homothety.
translation,
sends
each
vector
to
one
which
is parallel to
\316\217\316\2263\317\2102
horizontal
=
Then \317\210
sending
in Proposition
=
\320\222\320\224\321\214\321\203\321\200
Hullhyp\302\267
The
2.
36
The vectors tf2 and

they point in the
norm.
and
z%
\317\206(\316\266\316\271)
The
2.7.
an isometry
found
have
therefore
and they
direction,
they
Consequently,
We
the samepoint z?, they are parallel,

have the samehyperbolic
must be equal.
based at
vi are
same
plane
hyperbolic
of
\317\206
(H2,
dhyp) such
that
DZl<p(vi) = v2-
for the hyperbolic
model
disk
\320\236
plane
model for the hyperbolic

plane, namely, anis
to
which
isometric
space (X, d)
(H2,dhyp)\302\267This model,j
for
is sometimes more convenient
Another
performing
computations.
less important but not negligible, is that
side
benefit,
mathematically
it often
leads to prettier pictures, as we will have the opportunity
to
We
describe
now
a new
metric
other
in later
observe
chapters.
B2
The disk model
4\302\267\302\267.
I
for
the
hyperbolic
plaae
at 0 in the com- ;
C, namely,
plex
plane
spaces introduced in -I
in the euclidean
Section
1.3, the ball \320\224\320\263\320\265\320\270\321\201((0,0),1)
plane (M2,deuc). .
at the point \316\266
For a vector
\316\275
G B2, define its B2-norm as
based
-j
Let B2
be the open disk
\\
2.7.
\342\226\240
-i
Figure
in
radius
of
sense
the
1\320\230\320\270=
i_uia
where
and
is
the
euclidean
||\320\263?||\320\265\320\270\321\201
plane,
hyperbolic
curve 7
in
B2
ll'?Heuc.
norm of V.
define the
parametrized
1 centered
of metric
by
Then, as for
B2-lengthof
a piecewise
\316\271-\302\273 \316\261
\316\257
^
\316\266(\316\257),
t ^
the
euclidean
differentiable
6, as
\302\243\316\2622(\316\257)
for the hyperbolic plane
disk model
The
2.7.
37
their
two points P, Q \342\202\254
define
B2,
of
the
as
lB2-distance \320\260\320\2502
as
infimum
the
7 ranges
lengths ^32
(P, Q)
over all piecewisedifferentiable
from \316\241
to Q.
curves
going
given
FinaUyi
\316\231\316\231^'\316\257\316\237\316\231\316\231\316\271\302\273^*\302\267
\316\231\316\261
Let
defined by
linear map
fractional
the
\316\246
be
\342\200\224z
+ i
\320\263\302\267
\316\246(\316\266)
do
not satisfy
the visual
relation
coefficients of \316\246
all the coefficients
could be achieved by dividing
by
one of the complexsquareroots \302\261y/\342\200\2242i,
the resulting
but
expression
be clumsy
and cumbersome.
would
the
that
Beware
ad
\342\200\224
1. This
bc=
an
to
from (H2,dhyp) to
isometry
conclude that
0, we
\316\246(\317\212)
induces
\320\263
\316\246(\316\266)
1 when
that
\316\266
\342\202\254
R, so
a consequence,\316\246
sends
to either the insideor the outside

=
\342\200\224z
+ i
map
\320\271\321\211\320\263).
(\320\2222,
\\\316\246(\316\266)\\
circle. As
unit
the
that
Note
Proof.
The linear fractional
2.21.
Proposition
the
is
\316\246(\316\2272)equal
to the
{\321\201\320\276}
H2
half-plane
upper
circle in
unit
of the
R U
\316\246
sends
Since
\320\241
U
{00}.
inside B2 of
the
unit
circle.
->
the differential \316\214\316\226\316\246:
\320\241
Complement 2.16,
Consider
\320\241
of
\316\246
at
\320\2222.
\316\266
\342\202\254
By
2.15 and
Proposition
1|\320\224\320\263\320\244^)11\320\2222
1_|\321\204(\320\263)|2||-\320\240\320\263\320\244(\320\263;)||\320\265\320\270\321\201
2i
2
|2
(* +
i)2
|2 + i|2-|-2 + i|2
(*
=
From
\320\2502
to
this
\316\246(7)in
the
Taking
infimum
=
an
isometry
i)(-S-i)'
=
imWM=IMIhyp\302\267
a curve 7 in
sends
we conclude that \316\246
=
that tBi (\316\246{\316\267))
\316\257\\^\316\241{\316\267)\302\267
B2 such
of the
\320\2713\320\267(\320\244(-\320\240),\320\244(<3))
dhyp(P,Q)
\316\246
defines
i)(*-i)-(-*
i(jb)H
computation,
a curve
lengths of
for every
from (H2, dhyP)
to
such
curves,
P, Q
H2.
\342\202\254
it follows
In other
(\320\2222,^\320\262\320\267).
that
words,
D
2. The
38
In particular,
this
dB2 is
that
proves
Q) = 0
(namely that dw(P,
metric
property that we had implicitly
2.22. The geodesiesof

in euclidean circlesthat are orthogonal
including
straight lines passing through
Since
Proof.
of
\316\246
is
an
a semi-
just
is a
which
Q),
so far.
ore
(M2,d&t)
the
the arcs
circle S1
to the
contained
B2,
bounding
origin.
to (B2,^), the geo-S
from (H2,dhyp)
isometry
are just
(B2,^)
=
\316\241
when
assumed
Proposition
desics
a metric and not
only
plane
hyperbolic
the imagesunder
\316\246
of
the
geodesies
of:;
(tf.dbyp)\302\267
\\
to circles(Proposition2.18)i
the
result follows
respect
angles (Corollary 2.17),
immediately*
that
the fact
geodesies of (H2, dhyp) are exactly circle arcs ini
and
from
fractionals
linear
Because
euclideancirclescenteredon
to this
send circles
the
\320\266-axis
orthogonal^
equivalently,
or,
Di
\320\266-axis.
The isometries
2.23.
Proposition
to B2
strictions
of all linear and
are
o/(B2,d^)
antilinear
the
exactly
of
maps
fractional
re-'j
the\\
\316\257
form
\316\261\316\266
+ \316\262
\316\273
or
' = \342\226\240%
\317\210(\316\266)
\316\216\316\232
+ \316\254
\316\262\316\266
with
|\316\261|2
\\\316\262\\2
\316\261\316\266
+ \316\262
=
\317\210(\316\266)
^w
\342\226\240%
+ \316\254
\316\262\316\266
1.
Since \316\246
is an isometry
from (H2, dhyp)
are
exactly those maps of the
da2)
Proof.
tries
of (B2,
is
\317\206
an
\316\231
to
(B2, dBa),
form
the isome-
where-j
\316\246\316\277^\316\277\317\206-1
of (H2, dhyp).
isometry
If
is
\317\206
b, c, d
fractional
a linear
R and
\342\202\254
ad
\342\200\224
=
be
map of the
form
indicated
cz
+ di)z
+ b+
+ (-oi-6-c
*
d\\)z +
(oi
\321\201
+
for
a =
and
\317\206(\316\266)
; with
+ d
\317\212
\316\261,
(ai-b+c
(-oi
is of the
form
1, then
\320\266 ,
\320\273-1/\302\267
s
\342\200\224^
I z)
\321\204\320\276\321\221\320\276\321\204
+ 6-
+ di)
\321\201
+ di)
\302\253
\321\207
|
j
1
+
-(\320\276
\316\262
=-(-\320\260
6i
\342\200\224
ci +
\320\253
+ a
'i
d)
+ d).
I
s
for
Exercises
(lonversely,writing
=
+
\316\262 \320\253
CiZ
-=
\316\271->
\320\263
any map
e R,
for some
\316\246\316\277\317\210\316\277\316\246-1
39
Chapter
c, d
a, 6,
with
1 is of
the
form
1.
be
fractional
antilinear
c,
o, 6,
maps.
for Chapter
Exercises
\342\200\224
=
ad
\342\200\224
ci
|/?|2 =
|a|2
R with
\342\202\254
is identical for
The argument
\342\200\224
=
\316\261
\316\262
d and
\316\262
\342\200\224
with
Exercise
2.1.
\342\200\224>
\320\2302
that a horizontal translation
prove
\317\206:
\320\2302,
Rigorously
=
for
a
is an
\342\202\254
+
xo
xo,
propery that \317\206(\317\207,
given
R,
\321\203)
\321\203) (\317\207
iHometry of the hyperbolic plane (H2,dhyp).
by the
defined
Exercise 2.2 (An

of this
show
that
the
/x _
\321\210,
D(z,z)-log
b.
when
\321\201!\321\214\321\203\320\240(\320\263,
\320\263') Z)(z, \316\266')
that
Show
= D(z,z')
D(<p(z),<p(z'))
a horizontal
across the
\316\266
for
Z'\\
every
same vertical
on the
\320\263'
are
z, z'
H2 when
\342\202\254
the
or
homothety
\317\206:
inversion
circle.
unit
proof of Lemma
H2.
z, z' \342\202\254
the
every
\320\263
and
translation,
\342\200\224>
\320\2302
\320\2302
is
\321\201
Use
Z'| + \\Z~
lz__l{_lz_zll.
\\Z
that
Show
line.
hyperbolic distance). The goal

distance d\\VP(z, z') from
hyperbolic
to
is equal
to z' \342\202\254
H2 \320\241
\320\241
a.
for the
formula
explicit
is to
exercise
2.6 to
show
that
dhyp(z,z')
= D(z,z')
for
2.3. Adapt the proof of Theorem

2.11 to prove that every isom= zq + zeie or
is
of
the
form
euclidean
plane (R2,deUc)
etry
<p(z)
= zo + zei2e for some
\316\270
\320\241
and
e R.
z0 \342\202\254
\317\210(\316\266)
Exercise
of
Exercise
the two
Let
the
2.4 (Perpendicular
distinct
\316\234
be
points
the
midpoint
complete geodesicthat
a.
Let
be
\317\201
b.
Show
Use
that
part
bisector
perpendicular
of
H2 is
\342\202\254
across the euclidean
sends
\317\201
the
dhyp(P,
R) =
geodesic
to itself
\320\264
dhyp{Q,R) for
circlethat
contains
bpq.
P. and Q.
Possible
hint:
bpq.
and exchanges
every
R e
a.
c. Suppose that
the
inversion
the
Show that
bisector). The
the geodesic bpq defined as follows.

of the geodesic \320\264
\316\241
to Q. Then bpq is the
joining
\316\234
is
and
passes
through
orthogonal to \320\264.
\316\241
and
geodesic
\316\241
and
fc
joining
R are
\316\241
to
on opposite sidesof gpq, in the sense that

R meets bpq in a point S. Combine pieces
fc and
curve
fc' which
p(k) to construct a piecewisedifferentiable
as fc, and
has the same hyperbolic length
goes from Q to R, which
which is not geodesic. Concludethat
< dhyp(P,R).
dbyP(Q,R)
of
2. The
40
hyperbolic
plan^j
d.
converse to part
R & bpq. Possiblehint:
As a
2.5
Exercise
a.
>
R2;y
0}.
b.
In the
case of a
at some point
Q is
dhyp{P, Q') >
Possible
the
\316\231
\342\226\240i
vertical half-line g = {(xo,y) \342\202\254l

a unique complete geodesic\320\233\321\214
is a
\317\201
exists
dbyP(P,Q)
for
apply Lemma
Exercise 2.6
point
is closest
Q'
every
\320\253
j
to P,
\342\202\254
g different
(namely,
that there
in
exists \321\211
cutting
the
sense
thafej
from Q. Possible
equal to a vertical
the case where the geodesic h is

the point \316\241
lies above
Q on this
where
and
half-line
g, show
geodesic
g that
of
point
consider
First
hint:
of!
geodesic
complete
h containing \316\241
and
orthogonally
hint: Use Lemma 2.6.
geodesic
Q.
that
Show
Let g be a
projection).
\316\241
\316\2272.
\342\202\254
generalcomplete
complete
unique
c.
';
cutting g at some
orthogonally
in Q and form an angle of \\ there).
g meet
R) wheneveif
\317\206
dhyp(Q,
\316\241
and
containing
and
dhyp(P, R)
\321\201
part
the case where

there
Show that
consider
First
Use
(Orthogonal
consider a point
H2, and
that
show
b,
then!
half-line,
2.6.
(Hyperbolic
i). For
around
rotation
\316\270
\342\202\254
R, consider
fractional linear map defined by

\316\266
cos
I +
the|
sin I
-zsinf +cos|
a.
Show
that
i is
just the
pute
b.
fixes
\317\210
the
point
of
rotation
and
\342\202\254
H2,
angle
that
Use
\316\230.
Hint:
its
differential
Proposition
atl
\316\214\\\317\210
2.15 to
com-j
JDiî.
For an arbitrary
rotation of angle
\342\200\224\342\226\272
for which
\316\2272
\316\2272
zq
a similar
for the hyperbolic'!

point zo, namely, for the isometry
\317\206:
= zq and
is the rotation
of angle \316\230.
Dzo \317\210
\317\206(\316\266\316\277)
\342\202\254
H2,
give
formula
the
\316\270
around
etry
2.7 (Classification of hyperbolic isometries).Consideran isomof the hyperbolic

plane (H2,dhyP), defined by the linear fractional
\317\206
map
<p(z)
Exercise
with
^^
o, b, c,
R and
\342\202\254
ad
\342\200\224
be =
1.
i
%
ij
I
2
a.
b.
has no fixed point in H2 but fixes exactly

d)2 > 4, \317\210
ij
in this case there exists an 1
of R U {oo}. Conclude that
two
points
\316\272+
such that \317\210\316\277\317\206\316\277\317\204\317\201-1
of (H2,dhyp)
is a homothety
\316\266
\317\210
isometry
\316\247\316\266jj
\316\273
with
Choose ip so that it sends the fixed points to 0 \\
> 0. (Hint:
and
and
|
oo). Find a relationship between \316\273
(o + d)2. A hyperbolic
\"
isometry of this type is said to be loxodromic.
Show
that
if
(o +
has a unique fixed point

in H2. Conclude
(o + d)2 < 4, \317\210
\302\267;
'
case there is an isometry
such
that \317\210\316\277\317\206\316\277\31
V of (\316\2272,
dhyp)
is the linear fractional map of Exercise2.6 for some
\316\270
R.
,
\342\202\254
(Hint:
so that
it sends the fixed
to i). Find a relationship
Choose
\317\206
point
Show
that
that
in this
if
41

(o +
\316\270
and
between
be elliptic.
d)2.
isometry
hyperbolic
type is said
of this
to
if (o + d)2 = 4 and
if \317\206
is not the identity map defined by
has a unique fixed point
then \317\210
in R U {oo}. Conclude that
case there is an isometry \317\210
of (H2, dhyp) such that \317\210\317\214\317\206\316\277\316\271)
is
\316\271\342\200\224>
\316\266
the horizontal
translation \316\266
that
it sends
+1.
(Hint: Choose V 8\302\260
the fixed point to oo). A hyperbolic isometry of this type is said to be
\321\201
Show
<p(z)
in this
that
= z,
parabolic.
Exercise 2.8 (Stereographic

x2 +
Huch that
If
\320\275\320\260
follows.
y2
Let S2 be the unit

R3, consisting of those points
space
= 1.
+ z2
Consider the map p: S2 -> I2 U
in the
sphere
projection).
euclidean
.\320\247-dimensional
R3
\342\202\254
y, z)
(re,
defined
{oo}
then
\321\203,
\316\246
(\320\266,
\316\266)
(0,0,1),
p{x,y,z)=^,Ty-^sR
= oo.
otherwise, p(0,0,1)
a.
=
\316\241
when
that
Show
(re, y,
image p(P) is just the
z) is not
point
=
Pole\" \316\233\316\223
its
(0,0,1),
line NP crosses the rcj/-plane
\"North
the
the
where
inR3.
b.
at every Po \342\202\254
Show that p: S2->R2U {oo}is continuous
S2.
When
= oo, this means that
that
for every large \316\267
> 0 there
Po = N \320\262\320\276
\317\206(\316\241\316\277)
exists a small \316\264
for every \316\241
S2 with
> 0 such that deuc(p(P), \316\237)
\342\202\254
> \316\267
is the origin in K2. (Compare the calculus
\320\236
deac{P,Po) < <5, where
definition
of infinite
T.3 of the Tool
limits, as reviewed in Section
Kit.)
the inverse
that
\321\201
Show
R2 U
every Qo \342\202\254
that
means
other
for every
< \316\265
is a
\317\201
words,
Section 5.1 for
a definition
M.2
p'1:
When Qo
small \316\265
> 0,
for every
deuc(/\302\273-1(Q)>A0
In
function
{oo}.
oo
U {oo} \342\200\224>
S2 is continuous
at
so that
this
p_1(Qo) =
N,
there exists
R2 with
\342\202\254
from S2 to
homeomorphism
>
deuc(Q,0)
such that
\316\267.
U {oo}.
R2
(See
of homeomorphisms).
Exercise 2.9. Let \302\253u,

z\\ and
Zoo be three distinct
= \320\241
U {oo}.
Show that there exist a unique
sphere \320\241
a unique antilinear fractional map \317\210
and
such
\317\210
=
=
\317\206{\317\212)
\321\204(1) z\\ and
p(oo) = V(oo) = \316\266,\302\273.
in the
points
that
Riemann
fractional
linear
^>(0)
map
= ô,
V(0)
2.10.
Exercise
a. Show that
with o, b,
\317\206'1is
that
a large \316\267
> 0
the
the
linear
fractional
\320\241
such
c, d \342\202\254
linear
is
\317\206-1
(\316\266)
the
that
map
fractional map
number
\342\200\224*
\320\241
defined
\320\241
\317\210:
= 1,
ad\342\200\224be
\320\270
such
= \316\266.
\317\210{\316\275)
\317\206(\316\266)
fjjj,
is bijective and that

=
Hint:
\317\206~\316\271{\316\266)
_j^7*.
that
by
its
inverse
Remember
b.
The
2.
42
for the inverse of the
formula
a similar
Give
#*)
plane
hyperbolic
fractional
antilinear
map
*gfwitb\302\253J-uc=l.
Exercise 2.11.
a.
any linear or antilinear

of finitely many
that
Show
composition
b.
that when
Show
of finitely
fractional
can be
map
as the
written
inversions across circles.
a linear fractional
map
\316\271
as the
is written
composition
across circles, the number of inversions is

even.
show
that when an antilinear
Corollary 2.17.) Similarly,
(Hint:
of finitely
fractional
map is written as the composition
many inversions
is odd.
across circles, the number
of inversions
inversions
many
'\342\226\240
fractional
maps and projective lines). Let the real
(Linear
of the
line RP1 consist of all 1-dimensionallinear
subspaces
vector
space R2. Namely, RP1 is the set of all lines L through the origin
R U {oo}, this
Since such a line L is determined
in R2.
\342\202\254
by its slope \320\260
RP1 Slu
an identification
provides
{oo}.
\342\226\240
Exercise 2.12
projective
a.
map defined by
the linear
R2 \342\200\224\342\226\272
R2 be
\316\246\316\261'\302\267
Let
|
\342\226\240
matrix
the
-\320\241\320\255
ad
determinant
with
fractional map
that
Show
line
b.
R
^\320\264:
equal
U {oo}
with
slope
\320\244\320\260{\320\254)
=
\320\2412
consider
RP1
with
\342\202\254
by
-.
4>a{s) =
{oo} to the
R U
\320\260
\342\202\254
slope
=
\302\260
where
\316\261
\317\210\316\261\316\261'
\317\210
\316\250\316\2611,
part
\321\201
Similarly,
defined
{oo}
linear
the
consider
Similarly,
<pa{s)\302\267
a to show that
product of the matrices
Use
-\302\273HlU
line L
the
sends
\316\246\316\261
to 1.
\342\200\224
be
denotes
AA'
the
A'.
and
\321\205
\320\241
\320\241
as
space over the
a vector
field
C,
of all 1-dimensional
complex projective line CP1consist
a complex line L is determined by its
\320\2412.
Such
linear subspaces L \320\241
and
let the
slope
complex
L is
defined
\320\241
U {oo}
\342\202\254
it intersects
\320\241,
{0} \317\207
its complex slope is s
line
not
the
{0}
\317\207
C,
complex linear map defined by

entries
o,
\320\241
and
b, c, d \342\202\254
identification
CP1
corresponds
to the
with
= oo. Let
matrix
determinant
X;d(P,Q)<r}.
.1
that
Show
with
if
the
complex
for the
above
CP1
induced
map CP1 -\342\226\272
by \320\244\320\220
U {oo}
\320\241
linear fractional map ^:CU
{oo}\342\200\224>
\342\200\224-,.
cs +
from
Exercise 2.13 (Hyperbolicdisks).Recall
(X,d) the ball of radius r centered at
space
(l,a);
C2 \342\200\224>
C2 be
\316\246\316\261-
-4=1
1.
If
property.
point
{oo}, the
SCU
defined by 4>a{s) =
the
by the following
\320\241
at the
{1} \317\207
Section
1.3 that
\316\241
X is
\342\202\254
in
Bd{P, r)
a metric
= {Q \342\202\254
for
Exercises
a.
b.
43
Chapter
the
\320\236
be the center of the disk model B2 of Section2.7. Show
that
ball Bd.2 (O, r) in B2 coincides
with the euclidean open diskof radius
tanh j centered at O.
Show
ball Bdbyp (P, r) in the hyperbolic plane
that
every hyperbolic
Let
H2 is a
euclidean
the ball
that
open disk
euclidean
center
of this
2.14
Exercise
Possible hint: Use part a,

of Proposition 2.21, Proposition
r)
\320\224^ (\316\241,
Possible
Let
H2
p:
\342\200\224>
H2 be
convenient;
b.
double
that
Show
2.2
Look
hint:
vertical line passingthrough
the standard
one
alternatively,
integrals
= //
in H2,
inversion.
Possible
hints:
can
use the
(see part c).

of H2 sends
an isometry
//
JJ<HD)
to
\316\2272
\320\241
function
every
by
for double
\342\200\224>
the
R, and to borrow computations from
2.21 to evaluate the determinant
det Z)* of the
r) of radius
r))
\320\263
in H2
has hyperbolic
= 27r(cosh\320\263
1) =
=
First consider the case where
\316\241
\321\201
and
2.13a.
the
of
Exercise
result
part
Hint:
(infinite)
of
a region
dxdy
JJd
differential map \316\214\317\206.

Show that a ball
(P,
Bdbyp
be the
\320\242\320\265
may be
/: $(D)
of Proposition
Exercise2.15(Area
formula
variables
\320\230
|detZ)*|
/(\320\244(\321\205,\321\203))
f{u,v)dudv=
has the
p{D)
coordinates
change of variablesformula
\320\220\320\263\320\265\320\260\320\275\321\203\321\200
(Bdbyp (P,
let
P.
define its
that
Show
Polar
each region
be convenient to use the changeof

in this case says that
integrals, which
d.
the
-^dxdy.
It may
proof
and
\316\2272
is
\342\202\254
\321\203)
(\317\207,
the same hyperbolic area.

\321\201
Let \316\246
be the isometry
from (H2, dhyP) to (B2, dBa) provided
Proposition 2.21.
Show that for every region D in H2
for
isometry
and with euclidean

2ysmhr
at the two points where the
(Hyperbolic area). If D is a region
same hyperbolic area as D.

for
the
as
area
Areahyp(Z))
a.
radius
disk meets the
=
\316\241
at
centered
euclidean
with
(x,2ycoshr).
boundary
hyperbolic
(B2,dBa)
2.18.
Proposition
\321\201
Show
disk.
open
->
\320\244:
(H2,dhyP)
of hyperbolic
hyperbolic
triangles).
triangle
with
(1,0)
sinh2
4\317\200
^.
\316\246_1(0),
For every \316\270

with
=
e'e
i,
vertices
area
and
0 <
use
\316\270
^
cos0+i sin
f,
\316\230
The
2.
44
and oo.
the
1 centeredat
right
on the
origin,
area Areahyp(Te),
that the hyperbolic
Show
a.
the
left
the
the
by
euclidean
y-axis,
and on;
= cos \316\230.
\317\207
line
by the
bounded below by
region of H2
is the
\320\242\320\265
Namely,
circle of radius
plane:
hyperbolic
in Exercise
as defined
2.14,.
is finite.
b.
Show
c.
Let
d
7\320\223
\342\200\224
= \342\200\2241.
= \342\200\224
-\320\263:
Conclude
that \320\220\320\263\320\265\320\260\321\214\321\203\321\200
\316\270.
\320\220\320\263\320\265\320\260\321\214\321\203\321\200(\320\242\320\262)
that
a finite
\316\244
be
Let
in
three
the
a,
Show
vertices.
three
its
the hyperbolic
plane, namely, the region
geodesies joining any two of three distinct
be the respective
at\342\226\240\342\22
/3, 7 \342\202\254
angles of \316\244
[\316\237,
\317\200]
triangle
of H2 bounded by
points P, Q, R.
that
Areahyp(T9)
Hint:
infinite
chosen
parts
Exercise 2.16 (Crossratio).

Z3,
Z4
= \320\241
\320\241
U {oo}
\342\202\254
of the hyperbolic areasj

triangles, each isometricto al
combination
hyperbolic
a and b.
as in
\320\242\320\265
triangle
;
1
of four
crossratio
The
distinct points
using the straightforward

of the Zi is equal to 00.
extension by
K(z\\,
formula
of this
=
continuity
For instance,
\342\202\254<L,
to K(zi,Z2,Z3,Zi)
is
and
then
X\\,
X2
for every antilinear

the property for a
2.17
passingthrough
this order on
few simple
{00} be
and
Z\\
g.
use the
Exercise
Exercise 2.17
2.18.
holds
Z2,
property
= log (Zl
f- -
\321\207,
z2)
conjugate?
complex
\342\200\224*
\320\241
\320\241.
Possible\"
\317\206:
(anti)linear fractional maps,'
case where
for the
for
the
crossratio
X2){Z2
X\\)
';
\316\271
\342\200\224i.
\342\200\224^\342\200\224
Xl)(Z2
X2)
=0 and
\317\207\316\271
X2
crossratio proved in
Show that a crossratioformula

in the disk model (B2,dB2)of
invariance property
lineari:
hyperbolic distance). Given two> 0}, let*

{z \342\202\254
C;Im(z)
two
the
of the complete geodesic g
endpoints
in such a way that Xi, z\\, zi and X2 occur
in
First consider the
invariance
every
plane H2 =
(Zl
hint:
map
for
that
Show
,
,
dbyp(*i.
Possible
the
for the
formula
(Another
= MU
equal to
fractional
zi, zi of the hyperbolic
points
eR
it is
thatr
2.12.
Lemma
apply
Exercise
distinct
that
\342\200\224>
\320\241
and
\320\241,
\317\210:
one
when
Z1~*8. Show
\316\2262,
Z3,00)
equal
\316\232(\317\206{\316\266\316\271),\317\206(\316\2662),\317\206(\316\2663),\317\206(\316\2664,))
map
Z2,\\
of K(zi,Z2,Z3,Z4,)
hint: First check
z\\,
is
Z3){Z2
-Zj)
_ \321\207
_= (gl
\316\232-\316\257,
,
r
\316\232(\316\226\316\271,\316\226\302\2672,\316\2263,\316\2264)
\320\263\321\202
(Zl
Z4,){Z2
-Z3)
fractional
\316\262
\342\200\224\321\203.
as a linear
this area
Express
of six suitably
- \316\261
\342\200\224
\317\200
00, and theai
Exercise
to
similar
Section
2.7.
proved in Exercise
2.16.
that to
Hint: Use the
2.16.
\\

(The projective model for
disk of Section 2.7. Consider
2.19
Exercise
the
unit
open
45
by
a. Show
that
\316\246
is bijective.
b. Show
that
if g
centered on
pe: B2
\321\201
Let
O.
Combine
d.
..2)\302\267
a circle arc
line segment
which
is
(\320\2222,
\321\201!\320\262\320\263)
is
\316\246(<?)
euclidean
the
endpoints.
the euclidean rotation of angle
a and b to
parts
a vector
its image
+ y2
the
\316\270
around
origin
\316\277 =
\316\277
\317\206.
\316\246
\317\201\316\270
\317\201\316\270
to the
g of (B2,dp)
For
\342\200\224>
B2 defined
1y
\342\226\240
,l , -2
\342\200\2362'
4 + x2+y2'
+ x2
complete geodesicof
\342\200\224>
B2 be
that
Show
\320\244:
B2
map
(\316\271
, V2
rc-axis,
same
the
with
is a
the
Let B2 be
plane).
hyperbolic
the
2rc
*(*'\302\273)
the
at
\316\275
based
that
show
each
\316\246
sends
line segment
euclidean
with the
complete
geodesic
same endpoints.
norm ||v||Proj =
its projective
differentiable curve 7 in B2
=
define
its projective
length as ^Proj(7)
new
metric
B2
the
on
by the
dpr0j
\316\241
define
\342\202\254
\320\2222,
piecewise
For every
;|\302\243>\321\200\320\244-1(\320\263\320\223)||\320\2222.
parametrizedby
t~*
that
b,
consider
dpIoj{P,Q)
\316\246
is now
particular,
t ^
Finally,
||/7/,(i)||projcii\302\267
property
a ^
7(i),
P, Q
for
every
\321\201\320\263\320\2673(\321\204-1(\320\240),\321\204-1(\320\264))
an isometry from
B2.
\342\202\254
In
to (B2,dproj).
\321\201^\320\267)
(\320\2222,
distance dpr0}(P,Q) is
P, Q \342\202\254
B2, the projective
of the projective lengths
of all piecewise
to Q in B2. Show
differentiablecurves
that
this infimum is equal
going from \316\241
of the euclidean line segment from
to the projective
to Q.
\316\241
length
e. Show
for
that
equalto the
f.
Given a
and
the
every
infimum
based
vector \316\275
to
parallel
unit circle
tf,
and
at
S1 bounding
B2.
The computations may be

is on
\316\241
to the case where
this
the general case from
the
draw
\316\241
\342\202\254
\320\2222,
A and
let
\320\222
be
Show
a little
the
line L passing through

two points where it
\316\241
meets
that
easier
if
the rc-axis, and
first
one
use
then
restricts
part
attention
\321\201
to
deduce
one.
g. For
S1 be the points where the

\320\222
two distinct
\342\202\254
P, Q \342\202\254
B2, let \320\220,
any
occur
line PQ meets the circle S1 in such a way that A, P, Q, \320\222
in
this order on the line. Combineparts e and f to show that
dproj
(Compare
The
metric
(H3,dhyp),
the
space
Q)
(\316\233
crossratio
(B2,dproj),
is called the
(A,Q)deuc(P,B)
2 log ^^ {A p)4uc (p)Q).

formula of Exercise 2.17.)
which is isometric
projective model or
the
to
the
hyperbolic
Cayley-Klein
plane
model
46
2. The
hyperbolic plane;
the
of the 3- !
plane. It is closely related to the geometry
hyperbolic
denned
in close analogy with
dimensional projectiveplane \320\250\320\2402,
the
pro- >
and
line
MP1
of
Exercise
2.12
of
all
lines
consisting
jective
passing through;
are euclidean line segments
the
its geodesies
origin in R3. The fact that
this
model quite attractive for some problems.
makes
projective
for
Chapter
2-dimensional
The
sphere
and the hyperbolic plane (]HP,dhyp)

fundamental
property that they are both homogeneousand
well-known
2-dimensional
isotropic. Thereis another
space which
shares this property, namely,
the
2-dimensional
sphere in R3.
The
euclidean
have
the
plane
This is a
relatively
(M2,deuc)
familiar
but,
space
as
become
will
chapters, its geometry is not as fundamental

geometry or, to a lesserextent, euclideangeometry.
in later
its discussion will be somewhat

de-emphasized
need a brief description of this space and
of
For
in this
its
apparent
as hyperbolic
main
this
book.
reason,
We
only
properties.
The 2-dimensional sphere
3.1.
2-dimenaional
The
S2 = {(x,y,
at euclidean
sphereof
Given
entiable
those
of
consisting
is the
sphere
points
distance 1 from
radius
1 centered
z)
set
\342\202\254
M3; x2
in the
the
+ y2 +
z2 =
1}
3-dimensional space R3 which are

Namely, S2 is the euclidean
origin.
at the origin
=
\320\236
(0,0,0).
two points P, Q \342\202\254

S2, we can consider all piecewisediffercurves
are
to
that
7
completely contained in S2 and join \316\241
47
2-dimensional sphere!
3. The
48
\302\267.(
(
!
\342\226\240I.
\\
Q. The
The 2-dimensional sphere
3.1.
Figure
spherical distance from

=
Q)
dsvh{P,
{4uc(7); 7
of their usual euclideanarclengths
euclideanarc lengthof
a piecewise
defined as
Q is
\316\241
to
goes from
\316\241
to
êuc(7)\302\267
Q in
the
infimum
S2}
as in Chapter 1, the
curve 7 parametrized;
Here,
differentiable
by
t^ (x(t),y(t),z(t)), o<i<6,
is
by
given
4uc(7)
\321\203/*$)*
+
\342\204\226)*
*\342\204\226#.
J a
immediately shows
definition
The
deuc(-P)
Q)
dsph(P,Q)
Lemma
2.1,
Triangle
Inequality.
3.2.
A
great
this
that
spherical
distance
usual euclidean distance

equal
\316\241
to
from
In particular, this proves that
Q in R3.
= 0
=
only when \316\241
Q.
By the same arguments as in
also
satisfies
the
Symmetry Condition and the
d8ph
êph(-P) Q) is greater than
This
passing through
proves
that
d8ph
is really
a metric.
curves
Shortest
circle
to the
or
in the
the
sphere S2 is the intersection
origin.
Equivalently,
a great
of
S2 with
a plane
circle is a circleof
49
Isometries
.4.3.
contained in \302\2472.A
nidius 1
an arc contained in
arc is
circle
great
circle.
\316\267
great
geometric considerations
joined by a great circlearc of
Elementary
be
\342\204\226
can
litis circle
arc is unique unless\316\241

and
=
if \316\241
Q = (\342\200\224x,
\342\200\224y,
\342\200\224z)
lliere are many great circle
show that
<
length
Q are
antipodal,
and
When
(\317\207,
\321\203,\316\266).
arcs of length
\317\200
going
two
any
\317\200.In
P, Q
addition,
namely unless
Q are antipodal,
from
3.1. The geodesieso/(S2,d8ph)are exactly

The shortest curves
two points
P, Q e
joining
\316\241
circle arcs of length
to Q.
< \317\200
great
from
going
\316\241
to
Q.
Theorem
the
arcs.
S2 are exactly
the
We sketch
Proof.
Note that
is
not
a proof of
great circle
of a
geodesic7 the
shortestcurve joining
of
yeodesica
of
of 7
part
>
length
\316\241
to
is that
to their initial
return
circles
great
this
happens
in the definition
be the
to P.
closed
provide
are closed
which
geodesies
\302\2472,
namely,
they
that
\317\200.
Recall
to Q is required
to
that joins \316\241
when
is
close
only
Q
sufficiently
new phenomenon
Another
sensethat
arc
3.1.
curve joining its endpoints;
the shortest
necessarily
for every
circle
great
phenomenon, where a geodesic
here a new
encounter
we
in Exercise
result
this
\342\202\254
curves in the
point.
3.3. Isometries
[\316\267
a
\316\2323,
arc
rotation
O, then
rotation
around
\317\210
euclidean distancesand
the rotation axis L passes through

the
S2 to itself. Consequently, any
passing through the origin induces an isometry
in addition,
If,
lengths.
origin
L respects
a line
around
\317\206
the
sends
\317\206
a line
sphere
of(S2,deph).
These
homogeneous
and
Proposition
3.2.
P, and a vector
there
exists
such
that
Given
w
a rotation
=
Q
\317\206(\316\241)
by the
as indicated
isotropic,
S2 at
to show that
sufficient
are
isometries
two
P,
points
tangent
to S2 at
around
\317\210
a line
and Dp<p{if)
the sphere is
statement.
following
\316\261
vector
\342\202\254
S2,
Q such that
passing
\316\260\316\220.
through
\316\275
tangent
to
||\320\263\320\223||\320\265\321\206\321\201
||\320\263\320\270||\320\265\321\20
the
origin
\320\236
Proof. One easily
whose axis is orthogonal

\316\214\317\201\317\210\316\271
(if) is a vector tangent
Then,
that
Q,
\317\210\316\271(\316\241)
the
to
to S2at
OP
lines
=
there exists
a consequence,
differential map
OQ whose
composition
Dq<P2
=
\302\260 sends
\317\206 \317\2102 \317\210\316\271
sends
\320\276
Dpipi
\316\275
to
Neuc
IMIeuc\302\267
rotation
unique
sends
\316\241
to
Q,
the
around
\317\2062
Then
to \316\260\316\244.
\316\214\317\201\317\210\316\271
(\316\275)
and
its differential
provides
flection across
th|
w.
that a rotation \317\210

around
an isometry of S2. If we
saw
already
origin
lm|
\316\214\317\201\317\210
classical property (see Exercise3.2),the composition

is also a rotation around
a line passing
of two rotations
\317\210\316\271
\316\277(/?\316\271
the origin.
We
an<|
whose
Q
\317\210\316\271(\316\241)
By a
the
foj
H-DpVl(iOlleuc
Dq<P2
sphe:
length is
cuclidean
As
such
\317\206\316\271
a rotation
instance
OQ.
a rotation
finds
2-dimensional
The
3.
50
the plane orthogonal
L at
to
\321\211
\317\210
throug
L passing
a line
through
O, we obtain a
rej
the
with
\317\206
compose
rotation^
reflection.
sj
rotations
that
Note
the identity map,
include
angle 0. As a consequence,
reflections acrossa plane passing
tion of
and
tations
proof
of
Exercises
a.
can be
\"
o/(S , deph)
ore\302\267
exactly
the
above
ro-\\
3.1
proved by an argument
See Exercise 3.4.
which
is very
close to
2.11.
Theorem
Exercise
also include
origin.
rotation-reflections.
This
Proof.
the
a rotad
\342\226\240\302\26
The isometries
3.3.
Theorem
rotation-reflections
through
is
which
the
Q
for Chapter 3
of the
(Geodesies
sphere S2).
in R3 parametrized by t t->
be a piecewise
curve
b.
t
For
each
let
a
<
<
t,
7(i),
p(t), 0(t) and <p(t) be the spherical
coordinates of 7(i). Show that the euclidean
length of 7 is equal to
Let
diflferentiable
4uc(7)= Ja
/
y/p'it)2
+ P(t)2
formulas
Hint:
Remember
the
terms
of spherical
coordinates.
sinV(t)
0'(*)2 +
P(i)2^'(*)2dt.
expressing rectangular coordinates
in
the
hi
t),
(x, 0,
in
let
\302\2472,
sphere
z)
the
any curve
that
to
or equal
\316\261
be
point (0,0,1) and let Q

vertical circle axe going
euclidean
Kxercise
euclidean
(lie
3.2. The main

=
\320\236
goal
are
the
0.
Show
than
(0,0,0)
a line
around
<
\317\200
going
length
of (S2,rfSpi,)
to
that
show
iu the
axes pass
whose
rotations
shortest
the
\302\2472,
arcs.
circle
great
exercise is to
of this
composition of two
is also a rotation
R3 the
space
origin
the geodesies of S2
that
point
\316\241
to
greater
length
that
if \316\241
and
of the sphere
Q are two points
curves going from \316\241
to Q are the great circle arcs of
from \316\241
to Q.
Possible hint: Use a suitable isometry
reduce this to the case of part b.
Show
from
of a.
that
\321\201
Show
<l.
be the
equal to
\316\270
is constantly
Q has
\316\241
to
from
going
the
coordinate
spherical
the
\316\241
be
Let
\317\207
> 0.
with
where
\302\2472,
51
Chapter 3
Kxercises for
passing
through
the
through
1 ii'igiu.
be the plane
R3, let L be a line contained in a plane \320\237.Let \320\237'
\316\240
obtained by rotating
L by an angle of ^0, and let r and
r'
around
\316\240
and
be the orthogonal reflections acrossthe planes
\316\240'.
respectively.
\316\277
\317\204
Show that the composition \317\204'
is the rotation
of angle \316\270
around
L,
and that \321\202\320\276\321\202'
is the rotation
L. Possible hint:
of angle \342\200\224\316\230
around
You
of \317\204\316\214\317\204
and
find it convenient to considerthe restrictions
may
In
\320\270.
\321\202\320\276\321\2021
to each
plane
to L.
\316\240
orthogonal
b. Let L and L' be two lines passing through

and
Ra, and let \317\201
p' be two rotations around
the
L
origin
and
=
\320\236
iu
(0,0,0)
L', respectively.
\320\276
the composition
is a rotation
around \320\275
line
\317\201
\317\201
passing
\316\240
the
the
L
Possible
hint:
Consider
plane
through
origin.
containing
and L', and use the two properties
of part a.
\302\267
c. Show that iu R3. the composition \320\277\320\276\321\202^\320\276\302\267
of an even number of
\302\267\316\277\317\2042\316\267
\320\236
is a rotation
reflections
across
\317\204,\302\267
through
orthogonal
planes passing
(possibly the identity).
Show
that
(0. 0.
0) and
the
is a
if \317\201
composition
equal to a
is also
L' passingthrough
plane
\320\237'
orthogonal
Without
\320\237.
since
loss
otherwise
this
a plane
across
reflection
then
goal of
The main
3.3.
Exercise
orthogonal
is to
exercise
\316\240
passing
rotation of migle 0 tuound

is a rotation-reflection.
r \316\277
\317\201
compositionr'
\320\236
and
to V
where
is a
\317\201'
\316\277 where
\317\201',
r' is the
L is uniquely
containing
the rotation
of angle
if r is an
=
origin \320\236
through O.
This means that \321\202\320\276\321\200

rotation across a line
reflection
orthogonal
we can assumethat
done. Then, the plane
determined.
\342\200\224
around
\\d
that
across
the
at O.
of generality,
we are
show
the
through
a line L passing
Let
\320\251be
L, and let
L is
not orthogonal
\316\240\316\271
orthogonal
the
to
to
\316\240
and
under
image of \316\240\316\271
plane orthogonal
be the
\320\237\320\267
3. The 2-dimensional
spheref
52
both
to
Let
at O.
\316\240\316\271
and
\316\240
be the
\321\202\320\263
and
\316\267
reflections across :
orthogonal
the planes\316\240\316\271
and
\320\251,respectively.
a. Show
';
when
x, \342\200\224y,
\342\200\224z)
(\342\200\224
=
\316\241
b.
Show
that
c.
Let
L'
\316\277
\316\277
\317\204
\316\267
ts(-P)
at
=
r \316\277
\317\201r'o
that
\316\277
so
\317\204',
\317\201' \317\201'
Hint: First use Exercise3.2ato
the
Adapt
of the
\320\276
\317\204
is a
\321\200
that
rotation-reflection.
=
\316\277
\316\2442.
\317\201\317\204\316\257
that
show
b. Show
that
isometry
across planes
of the
every
passing
of the
sphere (S2,dsph)
a rotation,
of Exercises 3.2c
either
is,
conclusions
the
Use
3.3d.
and
3.5 (Spherical
Exercise
S3 bounded
sphere
their
Let q, /3,
between
equal to
consisting of all
with
triangle
unit
and
\320\270
an angle
cos(q
(\316\237,\317\200).
vectors \320\231,
v, vl in R3
\342\200\224
\317\200
to
the
equal
\316\261,
angle
and w is
the angle between \316\275
of the sphere S2
hemispheres
noncoplanar
\320\270
and
\316\260
is
\316\261,
\316\262,
\316\267.
and
(1,0,0)
vector
to a single point.
\316\241
\342\202\254
S2 with OP-u>
^ 0, \316\237\316\241-\316\260^\316\237,
\316\237,\316\270\316\241-v
= U DVDW
is a spherical
that the intersection \316\244
angles
=
\320\271
Consider
exists a
points
Show
found
angle
reduced
not
interval
the
is a region \316\244
of
of S2 meeting
of \316\244
at each of its
E3
\316\225\316\271,
\302\2432,
the
that
\342\200\224
and
\316\262,
equal to \317\200
U, V and W be the
\342\200\224
\317\200
7. Let
respectively.
arcs
\316\244
is
three
between
angle
w is
\320\270
and
in
triangle
spherical
that
three numbers
the
geodesies
and
\317\200,
we have
that
that
three
We also require
less than
7 be
and
Suppose
such
triangles).
by
endpoints.
three vertices is
with
that
show
reflections
(0,0,0).
isometry
every
of
rotation-reflection.Hint:
or a
at
2.11 to
composition
=
\320\236
origin
(S2,tieph)).
sphere
of Theorem
proof
the
through
b.
\316\240
\316\2402
\316\2403.
\302\267
of an odd number
of
that in R3 the composition \321\202\\
\320\276\321\202\320\263\320\276\302\267
-oTsn+i
a
\320\236
is
rotation-:\302\267!
reflections
across
\316\267
orthogonal
planes passing through
reflection.
Hint: Use Exercise 3.2c.
sphere (S2,deph)is a
a.
L' =
Show
Exercise 3.4 (Isometries
only
P in the line
\342\200\224\316\241
for every
the
might help. :
line.
some
d. Show
the
a picture
to :
orthogonal
orthogonal reflection across the plane \316\240'
\316\277
O. Show that
is a rotation
around the line I/. ;;
\317\204\316\271
\316\267
p' = r'o r \316\277
:
that
First use the result
of Exercise
3.2c to show
p' is a rotation
around
a.
\342\200\224\316\241
denotes
\320\237\320\267
(where
\321\203,
\316\266)).
Drawing
(\317\207,
the
\317\204'
be
Hint:
e.
P e
= \342\200\224\316\241
\316\277
\317\204
for every
\317\204\317\207(\316\241)
that
point
=
\317\205
cos a,
(\342\200\224
sin a,
0).
=
with
\321\201
\302\267\316\260
0 making
6, \321\201)
\317\206
(\316\261,
\342\200\224
if
\317\200
with \316\275
if and
of
+
only
<
\316\262)
\342\200\224
cos
7 <
cos(q
\342\200\224
\316\262).
Show
that
an angle of
there
\342\200\224
\317\200
\316\262
that
\321\201
Show
53
Chapter
the double
inequality
for
Exercises
b is
of part
equivalent to the
condition
that
\342\200\224
\342\200\224
\316\262,\316\262
j<
\342\200\224a}<n
min{a
max{a
is equivalent
which
itself
Hint:
Note that
to the
\342\200\224
2\317\200
\316\262,
(a + \316\262)},
that
condition
\317\200<\316\261
+ *\316\263<\317\200
+ 2
+ \316\262
min{a,
d.
Combine
parts
-\317\200
<
a, b and
\317\200
< q +
and
\316\262
+7
<
<
\316\262,
j}.
\316\261
<2\317\200and
+\316\262
that
\321\201
to show
\317\200
\317\200.
angles
\316\261,
\316\262
j <
0 <
if
\317\200
+2min{a,\316\262,j},
a spherical triangle
exists
there
\342\200\224
\316\261
\316\262
<\317\200,0
\316\244
S2
\320\241
with
respective
7.
T' \320\241
S2 have
and
the same
spherical triangles \316\244
exists
an
to T\".
of
\317\210
angles q,
isometry
(S2, dsph) sending \316\244
Hint: In part b, there are only two possible unit vectors iZf.
e. Show
if two
that
\316\262,
7, there
3.6
Exercise
a. In the
(Area of
S2, consider
sphere
to the
Pole\" (0,0,1)
or a
coordinates
b.
Let
Pole\"
semi-circlesjoining
(0,0,
-1),
at these poles. Show that

these
two arcs is equal to
by
bounded
digon
two great
\"South
other
each
with
spherical triangles).
\"North
the
and making an angle of

the
surface
area of the
2a.
Hint:
Use
spherical
argument.
proportionality
a spherical
Let
and
\320\241
be
\320\222
\316\262,
\320\220,
triangle with angles \316\261,
\316\267.
of
T.
of
S2
that
each
the
Show
circles
contain
of
three
great
edges
that
these
spherical
great circles subdivide the sphere S2 into eight
\342\200\224\342\200\224
\342\200\224
triangles whose angles are all of the form a, /3, 7, \317\200q, \317\200/3 or \317\200\316\267.
\316\244
be
the
c.
Combine
to q
d.
parts
+ 7
\316\262
a and b to show
\342\200\224
\317\200.
Hint:
Show
that
necessarily
show
that
0 <
a +
Solve
that
the area of the triangle
a system of linear equations.
\317\200
< \316\261+\316\262
+*f
+ f
\316\262
\342\200\224
\317\200
<2a.
<
\317\200+
2min{a,/3,7}.
\316\244
is equal
Hint:
First
Chapter
constructions
Gluing
This
and
chapter
interesting
the
plane,
We
different.
which are locally identical to the

hyperbolic
plane or the sphere, but are globally
start
with the intuitive idea of gluing
together
paper,
but then
construction
of
spaces
spaces
go on
obtained
hyperbolic polygons.
nspectsof
various
the
the
with
by
This
construction,
gluing
chapter
while
the
of
of euclidean and
with the theoretical
edges
is concerned
the next
very
pieces
rigorous
mathematically
together
euclidean
chapter
will
investigate
examples.
Informal
4.1.
one are devoted to the construction of
the following
metric
examples:
torus
We
first
by
gluing.
discuss
in a
Precise
very informal
definitions
the cylinder and

way
will be
the
the
idea of creating new spaces
rigorously developed in the next
section.
If one
to the bottom
Figure
4.1,
it
of paper
and glues the
piece
to
the
orientations
indicated
side
respect
is well known that one gets a cylinder.
takes a
rectangular
so as
can be deformed to
This
paper
cylinder
dimensional space but they all have the same
do not stretch the paper, the euclideanarclength
many
of
As
a curve
in
in
positions
metric:
top side
long
3-
as we
drawn on
55
4. Gluing constructions
56
4.1.
Figure
the
equal to the arc

One can
to
glue
after
Namely,
length
also try,
in
addition
the left side

the
gluing
we can
cylinder,
the
the
of
piece of
paper
and
deformations,
it is
actually
pieces of curve
corresponding
in
the
rectangle.
original
under
remains constant
cylinder
side,
a cylinder from a
Creating
to gluing
to the
right
the top
side
top and bottom
glue the
left
of
piece of
sides together to
curve
boundary
sideto the bottom
the
of the
paper,
obtain
cylinder to
This
is harder to realize physically
in 3-dimensional
crumpling the paper but if we are willing to use rubber
of paper
and to stretch the cylinder in order to put
instead
its two
this
a torus, namely, an
sides in contact, one easily seesthat
creates
inner tube or the surface
of a donut.
See Figure 4.2.
one.
right
space without
3^7\320\267
*\"^l
Q
7i
Figure
Qi
4.2.
Love story
on a
torus
Informal
4.1.
us
Let
to understand
try
and the torus
the cylinder
examples:
the
from the
torus
this
of
geometry
57
bug crawling over it. For instance,suppose

in order to meet its lover
to Q along the
Uiat
the
bug walks from \316\241
4.2.
To measure the distance
curve 7 indicatedon the right of Figure
l.liat
it needs
to travel, one could considerthe euclideanarc length
of 7 for a given position of the torus in 3-dimensional
but this
space,
point of view
will
of
a little
on the
depend
that position.
However,
of
piece
original
to
distances,
decompose the curve
pieces
7 into
paper, and then take the sum of the
is to
consider
to
torus
the
moving
in prestretching
are interested
we
if
the natural thing

coming from the
that occurred when
stretching
lengths
pieces. For instance, in the situation illustratedon
the
curve
4.2,
Figure
7 comes from three curves
71, 72 and 73 on the
.square, in such a way that each 74 goes from a point Pi to a point
=
Pi, Q\\ is glued to P%, Q% is glued to P3, and
Qi, and where \316\241
=
as measured
The
distance
traveled by our critter friend,
Q3
Q
on the original piece of paper,
is then the sum of the euclideanarc
of 71, 72 and 73 on this pieceof paper.
lengths
In order to introduce some mathematical
to this discussion,
rigor
let us formalizethis construction.We begin
with the rectangle
of these
X = [a,b] \317\207
[c,d]
{(\317\207,\316\257/)\316\27612;\316\261\316\237<\316\234<!/^}\302\267
space obtained
be the
Let
Some
points
from
by doing
the
indicated.
gluings
correspond to exactly one point
of X
of
in
(located
of the rectangle),some points

of
correspond
X (locatedon opposite
sides
of the rectangle), and one
point correspondsto four points of X (namely, the corners of the
the interior
to two
points of
In other
rectangle).
of
of one of
(1)
set
2-element set
the 2-element
(4)
the
These subsets
form
by a
is described
a <
with
{(\320\266,
\321\203)}
(\317\207,
{(\320\266,\321\201),
d)}
set {(a, y), (b, y)}

4-element set {(a, c), (a,d),
(3)
of
subset
types:
following
the 1-element
(2) the
of X
the
words, each point
a partition
of X.
\317\207
<b
and
with
a <
with
\321\201
< \321\203
<d;
(b,c),
\317\207
< b;
(b, d)}.
This means that
belongs to exactly one such subset.
\321\201
< \321\203
< d;
every
point
4. Gluing constructions
58
\342\226\240';
define the distancebetween

of X by taking the
points
lengths of curves joining them, as in the exampleof our
a definition
bug walking on the torus. The next sectiondevelops
is equivalent
to this idea, but is somewhat easierto state and to
We could
infimum
little
that
<
of the
use.
\\
\"\342\226\240>
!
]
J
s
of X.
tition X
\342\226\240
a par- ;
d) be a metric space,and consider
of X is a family
a partition
X of .!
above,
X belongs
each point \316\241
to one and only ;
\302\243
Let (X,
Partitions.
indicated
As
that
such
\320\220
X
\320\241
subsets
spaces
quotient
4.2.1.
and
of gluings
definition
Mathematical
4.2.
one such subset
A.
In particular,
every element of the set X
can therefore consider that the set X is obtained
is a subset
from
\320\220
X.
\320\241
We
by deciding
'
the partition
all the points in the subset .
single element of X. In other words, all the
points of A are now glued together to give a single point in X. So
the formalism
of partitions
is a good way to rigorously
describe
the
of
X
It
intuitive
idea
of gluing points
together. takes a while to get
used to it though since a point of X is also a subset of X.
subset A
that for each

A
now
The following
point of
The
4.2.2.
function
the
in the formalism
such
that
of partitions,
semi-metric.
set X,
\316\241
X
\320\241
is the
element :
\316\241
P.
\302\243
along
the
We
lines
now
of the
a distance
introduce
informal discussion of
section.
\316\241
and
Q are
two points
walk
a discrete
respectively,
=
\316\241
quotient
on the
previous
If
the corresponding
\316\241
X denote
\342\202\254
of the partition
If \316\241
X is a
\342\202\254
point of X after the
be convenient.
often
will
notation
X, let
Namely,
gluing.
of
to a
correspond
\320\240\321\214
Qj,
P2,
Q2,
of X
w
to
corresponding
from
to
\316\241
P\302\273,
\320\240\320\267,
\302\267\302\267\302\267,
Qn-i,
Qn
\316\241
and
\302\243
X,
Q is a finite
=
Q of
sequence
points of X
such
a discrete
walk
every i < n. Namely,
alternates travels in X from P* to Qi and jumps from Qi to a point
Pj+i that is glued to Qi. The d-length(or just the length if there is
d considered) of a discretewalk
no ambiguity
on the metric
w is the
such
that
Qi
= P*+i for
distances
travel
the
of
sum
59
definition of gluings
Mathematical
4.2.
\316\267
*\342\200\236(\302\253;)
\316\243difl.Qi)\302\267
is the exact translation of our informal

of the little
discussion
we are now requiring
the bug
bug walking on the torus, exceptthat
to follow
a path
that is made up of straight line segmentsin the
the
should be a grasshopper instead of a
rectangle.Namely,
bug
snail.
As it follows a discrete walk, it alternatessteps where
it hops
in X from one point P* to another
it is
point Qi, and steps where
from
to
the
beamed-up
process.1
Qi
Pj+i by
gluing
This
To make the descriptionof a discrete

~ P'
is convenient to write \316\241
is
when \316\241
\342\200\224
\316\241
\316\241'.
Exercise4.2). Then
=
\316\241
our
also
(Compare
to P',
glued
of equivalence relations in
w from \316\241
to Q is of the form
=
~ P\302\273,
Qn
Q- This makes it
discussion
walk
discrete
to follow, it
namely, when
w easier
walk
\302\267
\302\267
\302\267,
Qi ~ Pa, Q2 ~ -\320\240\320\267,
Qn-i
easier to remember that the consecutive points Qi, \316\241\302\273+\316\271
are
the
to
a
to each other, while
travel of
pairs Pi, Qi correspond
Pi,
a little
glued
in X.
length d(Pi,Qi)
We
d(P, Q)
for any two
In
that it
this
defines
d on
walk from
discrete
X by
\316\241
to
Q}
X.
The above number
P, Q
of the points
consequence,
a distance function
= inf{^d(u>);
points P,
4.1.
Lemma
to define
like
would
of the
d(P, Q) is independent
As a
X.
P, Q \342\202\254
X
used
\342\202\254
to represent
a function
d: \316\247\317\207
R.
X \342\200\224*
this function d is a semi-distanceon X,

the
satisfies
following three conditions:
addition,
(1) d(P,Q)ttO
and
P)
= 0
for every P,Q
eX
the
sense
(Nonneg-
Condition);
ativity
(2) d(P,
d(P,
in
choice
Q) =
d(Q,P) for every
P,
Q e
X (Symmetry
Condition);
(3)
d(P,
(Triangle
R)
\316\266
d(P,
Q)
+ d(Q,R)
for every P,Q,
ReX
Inequality).
The original Park City lectures

between these two types of moves.
involved pedagogic
sound effects
to distinguish
4. Gluing
60
constructions!
\302\247
To
Proof.
the
prove
first
P'
such
that
Q' e
=
d(P',Q') d(P,Q).
X
two other points PA

We need to show that|
consider
statement,
\316\241
and
Q'
Q.
~ P2,
\342\200\224
discrete walk \316\241
\320\240\321\214
Qi
Q2 ~ P3, ..., Qn-i ~5
=
\316\241
\316\241
to
from
and
at Q, we can;
\342\226\240Pn,
Q from
Q, starting
Qn
ending
=
consider another discretewalk w' of the form P'
Po, Q0 ~ Pi,5
is a
If
Qi ~
P2,
taking
P0 = Qo
using
and
d(P,Q) = d(P',Q').
This
To
Pi,
Pi =
Qi,
the same
\316\241
from
orf
defined.
Condition (1) is immediate.
Condition (2), note that

Symmetry
~ Pn, Qn
\302\267
\302\267,
Qn-i
Qi ~ P2, Q2 ~ P3, \302\267
a discrete
Q provides
P2
X \342\200\224>
\342\204\226.
is well
d: \316\247\317\207
the
prove
=
\316\241
we conclude;
Q', is lessthan
The Nonnegativity
walk
= i(w) as;
that the function
proves
byj
walk|
the roles of Pf\\

Q. Exchanging
so thaij
< d(P^,Q'),
d(P,Q)
and
Q), denned using \316\241
that
we
obtain
similarly
Q',
P',
w,
P' and
Q'
discrete
length i(w')
such discretewalks
defined
d(P',Q'),
new
This
Q'\342\226\240
same
the
to d(P,
equal
Q
\"distance\"
Pn+i, Qn+i =
Qn ~
Pn,
has
over all
infimum
the
Taking
that the
\320\240\320\267,
\302\267\302\267\302\267,
Qn-i
= P' and Pn+i = Qn+i
P', endsat Q', and
w' starts at
w.
Q2
walk
Q to
Qn, Pn ~
P. Since
length, one immediately
discrete!
every
= Q from
\316\241
td
\302\267
\302\267,'
Qn-i, Pn-i ~ Qn-2,\302\267
these
two
that
concludes
d(P,
have*
walks
discrete
Q) = d(Q, P).;'
Finally,
Triangle
Inequality (3), consider a discretewaffi
~ Pn, Qn =
~
\302\267
10 of the form \316\241
P2, Q2 ~ P3, \302\267
\302\267,
Qn-i
Qi
Q\\
=_Plf
\316\241
from
to
w' of the form Q = Qi,
Q, and a discrete walk
going
~
Ri ~ <?2i \302\267\342\226\240\302\267>
\320\271\321\202-i Qmi
Rm = R going from Q to P. These
a discrete
walk
two
discrete
walks
can be chained together to give
for
w\"
of
the
form
the
=
\316\241
Plf
~ Q2, \302\267
~
\302\267\302\267.,
Qn-i
Rm = R going from
Qi
Ri ~
P\342\200\236,
Qn
Q[,'
~
\316\241
\302\267
to
P.
Since
\302\267,
\320\271\321\202-i Q'm,
Q'2, \302\267
=
the
all
such
discrete
infimum
over
+
id(w\")
id(w) id(w'), taking
\316\217
walks w and w', we conclude that d(P, R) < d(P,Q) + d(Q, R).
The
only
If this
process
is
missing
property
for the
d(P, Q) = 0 only
property holds, we will
is that
function
proper.
The metric
semi-distance d to bea distance

=
\316\241
when
say
that
Q.
the partition
or
gluing
space (X, d) then is the quotient space
4.3.
ill'
the
Gluing
metric
the
ih the
will
'Plie same
on.
in Sections
for
hold
will
However, there
Kxercise4.1 for
other
obtained
torus
the
prove
an
61
polygon
the partition. The distancefunction

induced by d.
metric
In the caseof
euclidean
(X, d) by
space
quotient
rectangle,we
of a
edges
many
sides
the
gluing
that
we
examples
also exist partitions
gluing
is proper.
later
consider
will
not
are
which
See
proper.
glued to
each point is
where
example
of a
the
4.3 and 4.4 that
by
one
most
at
point.
quotient map. Forfuture
4.2.3. The
Let
\317\200:
X \342\200\224>
X be
the
the
reference,
following
be convenient.
map defined by
quotient
For every P,
4.2.
Lemma
often
will
observation
elementary
P.
\317\200(\316\241)
G X,
d(P,Q)^d(P,Q).
the quotient
\316\233\316\261
a consequence,
map
\317\200:
X \342\200\224>
X is
Proof. The inequality is obtained by consideration

=
w from
\316\241
to
discrete walk
Q defined
by \316\241
=
definition of d, d(P, Q) < t{w) d(P,Q).
The
consequence
4.3.
This
of
continuity
of
this
gluing
together
torus
obtained
quotient
euclidean
half-lines
also
impose
an
immediate
a euclideanpolygon
the edges of
to the
edges of a
is devoted
the
by
gluing
together
X
is obtained
special case where
as
in
the
polygon X,
exampleof
sides
of
a
opposite
rectangle.
plane M2. Namely,
whose boundary
and
\317\200
is
Qi
Pi,
one-step
= Q. By
4.3.1. Polygons and edge gluing

the
map
of the
inequality.
Gluing
section
the
continuous.
data.
Let
X is a regionof
is decomposedinto
finitely
many
X be
the
by
the
a polygon
euclidean
line segments,
in
plane
lines
meeting
only at their endpoints. We
Ei can meet at any given point.
X are the
The line segments, lines and half-lines
Ei
bounding
The
where
two
meet
are its
of
the
X.
points
edges
edges
polygon
vertices.
E\\,
that
E2,
\302\267..,En
at most two
4. Gluing constructions.)
62
We
and the \302\2437,\302\267

are
closed,
that X
in addition
require
that they contain all the
points
of
K2
that
to
the
this specific case,this is equivalent
However,
be
senses
boundary. In
that the polygon J
property
its vertices.
in the
we allow X to go to infinity,
or unbounded in (]R2,cieuc).A subset
its
all
contains
bounded
edges
is bounded when
it
and all
in some
is contained
in the
are in their
\\
that it may';
a metric space.]
sense
of
ball
\316\220\316\231
')
Bdruc(P,r)={QeX;dtluc(P,Q)<r}
with finite
radius r
the radius r), one
< oo.Using
easily
the
that
sees
of the
chosen
as center
the point \316\241
it is not bounded.
when
4.3.
Figure
Figures 4.3
\316\241
to
with
the
property
contained
few
euclidean
bounded
a lew
in
restriction
of the
\316\254\317\207
that dx(P,
Q) = dcuc(P,
Among
the
and 4.4. Xj
is
polygons
the
only
depend
ori^
unbounded]
..\302\267.*
and 4.4 illustrate
Q is
does not
ball. The subset is
X.
euclidean
be con-;
segment
[P, Q] i
will
in addition
the
line
such a
metric r/tuc.
for every
\316\247\316\273,
\316\2472,\302\267..,X7
one that
of polygons.
endow
We
Q)
polygons
examples
In most casesconsidered,the polygon

vex in the sense that, for every P, Q e
joining
(and changing 1
Inequality
Triangle
this property
P,
defined
by
the
Qe X.
described
is not convex.
convex polygon
in Figures
4.3
63
4.3. Gluing the edgesofa euclidean

polygon
4.4.
Figure
X is not
When
convex,
Q e X the infimum
We
call
will
the
X. Note that
of the
dx(\316\241,
Q)
segment
See Exercise1.10for
aeuc(P,
Q) for every
[P, Q] is contained
in
when
locally
with
In the
is convex.
with aeac
of a small ball
the center
path
the path metric \316\254\317\207

coincides
coincides
metric
\316\241
X is
\342\202\254
the
euclidean
\316\254\317\207
euclideanmetricaeac
general case, the path

every
function
distance
this
polygon
the restriction
that
P,
all
length 4uC(7) \302\260f
in
Q and contained
is a metric on X is
> deuc(P,Q).
dx(P,Q)
to consider for
convenient
euclidean
example.
explicit
of
polygons
and
curves 7 joining \316\241
the function \316\254\317\207
so defined
that
noting
immediate,
metric
of the
dx(P,Q)
that
fact
The
an
more
is
it
euclidean
differentiable
piecewise
X.
unbounded
A few
in
sense
the
Bdtuc(P,e)
such
Q &\320\245\320\237Bdeuc(\316\241,\316\265)
(because
the
that
line
X).
We will occasionally allow the polygon X to be made

up of several
\316\241
and
X which
cannot
disjoint pieces, so that there exist points
Q \342\202\254
be joined by a piecewisedifferentiable
curve
contained
7 completely
in
we
extend
[0, +00],
conventions
(o <
= +00
case, \316\254\317\207(\316\241,
by convention. This requiresthat
Q)
to take values
the definition of metrics to allow
them
but the extension is immediate provided we use the obvious
numbers
and additions involving
infinite
for inequalities
In this
X.
00 and
= \321\201\321\216
\320\276
for every
+ \321\201\321\216
\320\276
etc
\342\202\254
[0, \321\201\321\216],
).
in
and
be
X can
\342\202\254
polygon X is connectedif
joined by a piecewise differentiable
the
Namely,
Q
pletely contained in X.
notions of
these
After
glue
about
\\
two
we now describe how
polygons,
together.
For
we
this,
first
..., {E2p-i,E2p},
an isometry '
we
specify
{E2k-i,E2k}
</?2fc-i is an isometry for the restrictions
pairs
{E3,Ei},
{Ei,E2},
Here
metric \316\254\317\207
to the
edges E2k-\\ and E2k,
the restrictions of the euclideanmetricdeac
of the
with
the
such pair
each
\342\200\224\342\226\272
Ew
E2k-i
<P2k-i-
we are using here
polygons.
preliminaries
edges into
for
then
with some
familiar
path connectedness;however,
edges of a polygon Xcl2
the
group these
and
of that of
points
7 com-
\\
\316\241
\\
curve
is already
con-
be
to
two
any
that the definition
notice
are equivalent for
definitions
to
The readerwho
will
topology
reminiscent
more
happen is said
this does not
which
for
polygon
nected.
is
constructions
4. Gluing
64
is equivalent to the
property that
the edge E2k-i to a line

Note that in particular,
edges. This
line segment in
the same length in E2kthese
to
each
sends
ip2k-i
of
segment
coincide
also
which
E2k-i and E2k in a given.pair

infinite.
In general,the isometry
length, possibly
is then uniquely determined once we know
how </?2fc-i sends
V?2fc-i
what orientation of E2k-i to which
of E2k- A convenient
orientation
is to draw arrows on E2k-i and
E2k
way to describethis information
It
is
also
to
to
these
orientations.
convenient
corresponding
matching
use a different type of arrow
for each
so that the
pair {E2k-i,E2k},
identified
on the picture.
Figures 4.3 and 4.4
pairing can be readily
must
have
offer
some
the
edges
same
the
examples.
is one
when E2k-i and
There
of the infinite
case where this arrow

E2k are both lines (of
strip
X5 of Figure
length),
defined up to translation in one of these

add extra information to describe<p2k-iThe
isometry
V?2fc-i:
Ei\302\261iby
of i.
notation
\317\2062^:E2k
E2k-i
will
\342\200\224>
E2k-
an isometry
be somewhat
defined
\342\200\224>
E2k-\\
In this
ipf. Ei
sufficient,
as in the
4.4. In this case, \317\206^-\316\271#2fc-i
is only
to
is not
information
infinite
simplified if
as the
way, every
\342\200\224>
where
\302\243?i\302\261i,
and we
lines,
we
inverse
edge E%
is
\302\2611
depends
case
\342\200\224>
E2k
need
will
the
introduce
=
\317\2062\316\272
\317\2062^-\\
glued
to an
on the
of
edge
parity
4.3. Gluing the edgesofa euclidean
65
polygon
\342\200\224>
this data of isometricedge identifications
Ei
\317\210\316\271:
Ei\302\261x,
of the
the
X
describe the gluing
of
edges
polygon
by
a partition
X as follows. Recall that
if \316\241
we denote
\342\202\254
X,
Hpecifying
X the
element of the partition X, consisting
\342\202\254
by \316\241
corresponding
of all the points of X that
are glued
to P. The gluing
is then
defined
With
we
now
can
\320\277\320\275
follows:
point and
no other
the two
of X
points
\316\241
e
the polygon X, then \316\241

is
form
the
\302\267
\302\267
\302\267.
*fc
\302\253\316\271.
\302\2532\316\271
ipik
are
is not
then
a vertex,
to
of
\316\241
consists
\342\202\254
\302\243?i\302\261i;
\317\210\316\257(\316\241)
of
\316\241
consists
of all
\316\241
and
the vertices
\302\267
\302\267
\302\267
\316\277
\316\277
\316\277
\317\210\316\257\316\227_\317\207
\317\206\316\257\317\207
(\316\241),where
indices
the
\302\267
\302\267
\302\267
\316\277
\320\276
<ph (\316\241)\317\202
\317\206\316\257\317\214_1
Ei}
that
such
glued
{\316\241};
E{ and
then
a vertex,
of
=
\316\241
edge E^ and
in a
\342\200\242
if \316\241
is
\342\200\242
if \316\241
is
interior of
in the
\342\200\242
if \316\241
is
for
every j.
The case of
much
it, becomes
vertices
may
simpler
belongs to exactly two

nil elements
considering
of \316\241
for
a vertex
with
appear
a vertex
of
(since
\317\206%1+1
\302\243<\302\273\316\257+1
maps
Indeed,
practice.
at
but
first,
each vertex
because
simple method for listing

The key observation is that when
\342\226\240
to P, we can always
glued
\317\210%\316\227
\302\267\316\277<\317\2014\316\271
\316\277\317\206\316\257\316\220\316\257_1\316\277\302\267
(\316\241)
edges,
cancel
is a
there
P.
assumethat the range\317\206^(\316\225\316\271})

of the
the region
two gluing
a little complicated
map
gluing
otherwise
is different
from
so that
\317\206\316\2261}
these
\317\210^
=
y>\302\273J+1
out).
This leads to the following

Start
with P\\ = P, and let
algorithm:
one
and
let
be
of
the
two
Set
Pi = \317\210\316\2201(\316\241\316\271),
edges containing P\\.
Eix
that
is
different
from
be
the
P2
edge containing
\317\206^
(\316\225^). Iterating
Ei2
this process
and
Pj, P2, ..., Pj,
provides a sequence of vertices
Eix,
tidges
and
Eij+1
Since
there
which
Ei2,
is the
..., Eia, ... such that

edge containing Pj+\\ that
are only
=
Pfe+i
Pj for
easily checksthat
many
finitely
some j ^ k. If
Pfe+i
= Pi,
in the
...
\342\202\254
Pj
Eijf
is different
vertices,
\320\272
is the
and that
=
\316\241
Pj+l
from
\302\245>^(\320\240,-)>
\317\206%\316\257(\316\225\316\257
is an index \320\272
for
such index, one
smallest
there
{Pi,P2,..
\302\267,
Pfe}.
the
X\\ of Figure 4.3,
rectangle
a
For
to
form
single
point in \316\247\317\207.
together
of
to
two
of
the hexagon
the
vertices
each
X4 project
X4,
X4,
points
of them
to three vertices of the hexagon.In Figure
4.4,
corresponding
the
For
instance,
four
corners
are glued
example of
4.
66
the
infinite
one vertex and
another
4.3.2. Edge gluings are

the quotient spaceX that is
of
the
construction^
has
has no vertex. The quotient
\316\247\316\263
space
twoij
to exactly!
to vertices of \316\247\316\263,
one
corresponding
of two vertices of \316\247\316\263.
one
consisting
|
X5
strip
associated
elements
Gluing
proper.
semi-metric
be the
\316\254\317\207
Let
euclidean path
by the
defined
on|
metric
\316\254\317\207\\
XcR2.
polygon
\316\212
edge
together
gluing
is obtained from
If X
4.3.
Theorem
by isometries,
pairs
induced
Namely, the semi-distance \316\254\317\207
is
0 when
that
such
The
\316\254\317\207(\316\241,
Q) >
the
then
by the
on X
polygon X b$
is proper.*
gluing
metric
\316\254\317\207
of \320\251
\316\241
\317\206
Q.
4.3 is somewhat
of Theorem
proof
euclidean
the
is postponed
and
long
Section 4.4.
\"'II
Let us go backto our informal

surfaces.
of
discussion
the torus X, obtained
tape
by
sides of a rectangleX.
Euclidean
4.3.3.
adhesive
and
posite
If
of the rectangle,it
X
<
when
exactly
small
enough,
disks
in X.
which is
euclidean
the
experience
\342\202\254
X which
from
a full
tape,
disk of
rigorously
<
is at
of \316\241
\316\265
\320\251
distance
for
we
an
obtain
objec|
the same radius in
the
property
\316\241
X
\302\243
Then the
located
hold
will
on a
ball Bj(P, \316\265)

is obtained
diameters,
and
\321\211
X of four quarter^
glue together four!
plane.
point
|4
a consequence,
image in
that if we
(invisible) adhesive
undistinguishable
The same
of a
with
quarter-disks
paper
Q
rectangle.As
is
be
X is
\342\202\254
to a point
(\316\241,
\316\265)
\316\222^\317\207
from
know
clear (and will

at distance
op-^
four cornersj
to the
corresponds
point
corners of the
the ball
We
that
intuitively
it corresponds
of the
one
\316\265
from
be
should
4.5) that a
in Lemma
proved
torus
point of the
the
is
\316\241
paper]
gluing
again
it has
at
a point
side of the
X that
\316\241
\342\202\254
rectangle,not
is the
at
image;
a cornerg
half-disks along theii

metric propertiesas a disk. \342\226\240<
by gluing two
the same
on the
little bug crawling
torus X \320\251
to
it is
able
tell
that
addition,
very near sighted, it will not be
This may be compared to th3
walking on a torus instead of a plane.
of
animals
who thought for a long time
other
well-known
(hi)story
a
that
on
that
were
before
plane,
they
progressively
living
discovering
As
in
a consequence,
if our
were
they
4.4
of Theorems 4.3 and
4.4. Proofs
a surface with
inhabiting
actually
67
the
rough
of a very
shape
sphere.
lurge
a crucial
gluing together sectors of paper disks,
property
result to looklike a full disk in the euclidean plane is that the
of these disk sectors should add up to 2\317\200.As is well known
iingles
to anybody who has ever made
a birthday
hat out of cardboard, the
has a sharp cone point if the sum of
construction
resulting
paper
2\317\200. Similarly,
it wrinkles
if the angles add
the angles is less than
more
2\317\200.
will
than
Not
we
encounter the same
up to
unexpectedly,
when
the edges of a euclideanpolygon.
condition
gluing
Let us put this informal discussionin a more mathematical
When
for the
framework.
Two
for
every
metric
spaces
\316\241
X
\302\243
there
at
centered
4.4.
euclidean
from
of
Theorem
A
plane
is then
vertex
the
that
\316\241
of
the
although
X,
\316\241
add
following
metric
space obtained
pairs of edges
together
additional
the angles of X
up to 2\317\200. Then
condition
at those vertices P'

is
locally
(\316\247,\316\254\317\207)
plane (R2,deuc).
idea is
general
exactly the one suggested
discussion, the proof of

cases
to consider. It is given in
above
4.4
quotient
by gluing
(\316\247,\316\254\317\207)
Suppose
to the euclidean
the next
paper-and-adhesive-tape
is rather
several
long with
section.
metric
(R2,deuc)
to consider.
euclidean
the
EquivalentJy,
metric
\316\254
of Theorems 4.3 and 4.4
is devoted
proofs are not
surface.
to the
isometric
metric.
a euclidean
section
is locally
(X, d) which
a
is
euclidean
space
4.4. Proofs
This
be the
(\316\247,\316\254\317\207)
are glued to
Again,
the
X'.
in
\316\222^(\316\241',\316\265)
polygon
every
which
isometric
by
Let
by isometries.
liolds: For
of
a ball
\316\241
and
Theorem
(X, d) and (X1,a') are locallyisometricif

an isometry between someball Bd(P, \316\265)
exists
very
They
to the
difficult
may
perhaps
proofs of
but
be
Theorems
4.3
and 4.4.
little long, with

many
skipped on a first
reading,
are a
These
cases
which
4. Gluing
68
of the
first really
the
are
These
this book. It
is important
more later) at a level
which
command?;
*
complex proofs that
understand
these
is higher
than a
to
to usethe fast-forward
a first opportunity
reader
remote control.
the
gives
constructions*!
this goal in mind, the readeris strongly

a piece
to read them with
of paper and pencil in hand,
of
the
situations
involved in order to
pictures
geometric
the
(and many?!
arguments
simple manipulation
With
symbols.
in ]
encounter
we
off
encouraged,,
and
to draw
explanations.
',!
space (R2,deUC).
v?2fe
this
Throughout
and
will
section,
are also given
We
\342\200\224*
E2k-\\
\302\245>2fc-i: ^2fc
denote
in the
a polygon
euclidean '
isometries </?2fc-i:
E2k-i
the
between
edges
\342\200\224*
\320\2252\320\
\316\225\317\207,
...,
En of (i
the space obtained from X by performing

the correis
X by;
and
the
inducedon
semi-metric
dx
edge gluings,
sponding
the
euclidean
section.
path metric dx introduced in the previous
in the more common case where X is convex,
Recall that
is just the
dx
to
X.
restriction of the euclideanmetric
deac
Then
X.
X is
First we need
for
least
For
P; dx(P,Q)
<
\316\265},
the quotient space(X,d).
balls in
4.5.
Lemma
{Qe
small.
\316\265
sufficiently
Small
4.4.1.
every
exists
\316\241
there
\342\202\254
X,
an
can
sufficiently
of
\317\200
under
For
that
a better
ball
the
Figure 4.5 in
the
in
terms
G
\317\200(\316\241)\316\241
Q) <
\316\265.
of the
X.
Lemma
understanding of the proof,
it may
can
\316\265)
(\316\241,
the
case
of the
to realize
the union of
be useful
significantly
larger than
Bgx
when
\316\265
is not
small. This is
images\317\200(\316\222\316\254\317\207(\316\241',\316\265))
the
in the ball
\342\200\224>
X
X
quotient map \317\200:
4.5 states that for \316\265
is exactly
the ball \316\222^\317\207
the union of the images
small,
\316\265)
(\316\241,
P'
the balls Bdx (P\\ \316\265)
as
ranges over all points of P.
rephrase
\316\241
X
to
\342\202\254
sending
this
that
0 such
>
\316\2650
omd
the point Q \342\202\254
X
is
< \316\265\316\277
X,
every
for every \316\265
Q \342\202\254
P'
\316\241
and
is
a
there
\342\202\254
such
that
if
if
only
\316\265)
dx(P',
Bjx (\316\241,
We
to understandthe balls
BSx(P,e)
at
\316\
better follow\302\253j
be
torus. In these
single point P. The shaded areasrepresent
illustrated by
consists
pictures,\316\241
the
balls
Bjx
of
(\316\241,
\316\265)
lor
in
\316\265;
ball Bdx
the
of
image
of
values
various
dx(P',Q)
statement
for
every
Let \316\241
be
later on
Since
\"if\"
that
dx(P,Q)
part
of the
<
\316\265.
more time to
need
we will
as
prove
of X.
a point
of
Q) <
dx (P,
=
\316\241
P,
Qi ~ P2,
Pu
to prove by
want
a discrete
exists
there
\316\265,
and whose length is such

We
4.2
the
For a number \316\265\316\277

which
will be specified
we consider a point Q \342\202\254
such
X
that
We want
to find a point P' \342\202\254
a
< \316\265
< \316\265\316\277\302\267
P,
namely,
point
is glued
to P, such that dx(P', Q) < \316\265.
form
of the
cases.
function
in
dx (P, Q)
of X which
on
in
Lemma
from
Therefore,
will take
if\" part
\"only
to distinguish
P.
\302\243
restriction
without
holds
The
P'
darker area is the
\317\200.
Balls Bs(P,e)
4.5.
4.5. Recall
of Lemma
69
area, the
shaded
each
under
(\316\241,
\316\265)
Figure
Proof
4.4
4.3 and
of Theorems
Proofs
4.4.
Q2 ~ ft,
=
that
\302\243(w)
walk
dx(Pi,
Qi)
\316\243\316\223=\316\271
<
induction that for every j
from
\302\267
\302\267
\302\267,
Qn-i
\316\241
to
Pn, Qn
< \316\265.
= Q
n,
there
(4.1)
We
can
exists P'
begin
that
\316\241
such
\342\202\254
the induction
with
by taking P' = P.
Suppose
want
as
For this, we
point
induction
an
to show that it
\316\241
X.
\302\243
We
will
holds for
distinguish
1, in
hypothesis
<
< Y^dx{PuQi)
dx{P',Qj)
which
that
case
is trivial
(4.1)
(4.1) holds
for
j.
We
j + 1.
cases
will also specify
to
according
case.
in each
\316\265\316\277
\316\265.
the type
of
the
Case 1.
We choosey
case.
in this
needed
\316\265\316\277
of radius \316\265\316\277
centered
closed disk
the
that
so
number
the
specify
at
is
\316\241
completely^
interior of the
in the
every
polygon.Equivalently,
from
P.
of
at
the
is
>
distance
\316\265\316\277
boundary
polygon
contained
the
In this
is the
case, \316\241
induction
the
By
Qj is
point
no other
point so that
induction
the
with
choice of
> \316\265,
the!
\316\265\316\277
polygon. In particular, it is glued to|

Qj. Combining the Triangle Inequality!
we conclude that
I
Pj+\\
(4.1) and by
hypothesis
of the
oof
point
of P.
only point
interior
the
in
18!
of the polygon X.
the interior
in
\316\241
is
first
We
it
construction
4. Gluing
70
hypothesis,
*=1
This
(4.1) for
proves
Case 2.
Ei of the
In this case,\316\241
consists
on
the
of
Choose \316\265\316\271
> 0 such that
edges Ej,
with
of
\320\263,
\317\206
distance
it. Choose
contains
If
Qj
\316\241
is
any
as the
\316\265\316\277
>
distance
at
point
\316\265
from
\316\271
\317\210\316\257(\316\241)
edge
smaller
other
of
induction
than
that
the edge
Ei\302\261\\
and
62\302\267
\316\265\316\271
(4.1)
hypothesis
Triangle Inequality gives, as in the caseof
other
the
let 62 be such
Similarly,
polygon.
combining the
Pj+i,
one other
of exactly
to E^.
> 62 from
is at
\317\210\316\257{\316\241)
that
the
a vertex.
not at
and
polygon
\316\241
and
is glued
Ei\302\261\\that
edge
1.
j +
an edge
on
\316\241
is
:i
interior
with
the
points,
i+i
+ dx(Pj+i,Qj+1) <53dx(Pi,gi)
4dx(P',Qj)
dx(P',Qj+1)
<e,
\302\273=i
which
(4.1) for
proves
Otherwise,
dx(P',Qj) <
be vertices of
and
Qj
equal to
the
PJ+1
\316\241
or
Pj+i
1 in this case.
are distinct but glued together. Because
these
two points
cannot
choice of \316\265\316\277,
is in the edge E{ and
so that one of them
\316\265
and
< \316\265\316\277
by
polygon,
the other one is in

particular,
j +
to
the
edge
ipîQj).
i?j\302\261i glued
=
Set \316\241\"
<fii(P); in particular it
to
E{ by
the map
that
Note
\317\206\316\2631(\316\241').
is in P.
\317\210{.In
P\" is
just
4.4. Proofsof
We
dx
As a
Qj+i)
(P\",
crucial
the
use
will
distances.
4.3
Theorems
71
4.4
and
that the
property
map
gluing
\317\210\316\271
respects
consequence, dx(P\",Pj+i) = dx(P',Qj) so that

< dx (P\", Pj+i) + dx (Pj+1,
Qj+1)
<
j+i
+ dx(Pj+1,
Qj)
dx(P\\
Qj+i)
Q*) <
\302\253\316\252
53dx(Pi'
\316\265
i=\\
by the
induction
hypothesis.
this
Again,
j +1 in this
(4.1) for
proves
case.
Case 3.
of the polygon.
a vertex
\316\241
is
In this case, \316\241

consists
of a certain number of vertices P' of the
such
is at distance
from
that
Pick
> \316\265\316\277
sq
every point of \316\241
polygon.
the edges that do not contain it.
The proof
to that of
Case 2 with
a couple
only
twists.
of minor
If Qj =
the
identical
is almost
Pj+i,
induction
as
in
(4.1) holds for
the
two cases,
previous
(4.1) and the
hypothesis
the
of
combination
that
shows
Inequality
Triangle
j+ 1.
cases according to whether Qj is

If Qj is a vertex,
since
\316\266
Eq
dx(P',
Qj) < \316\265
P'
be
by the choice of
by the induction hypothesis, this vertex must
P\" = Pj+1 is also in \316\241
since
it is glued to Qj = P', and
\316\265\316\277\302\267
Then,
If
Qj
we
\317\206
Pj+i,
a vertex
of
we found
therefore
distinguish
or not.
a P\"
\316\241
\342\202\254
such
that
j'+i
dx(P\", Qj+1)
\302\253
dx(Pj+1,
Qj+1)
< 53
< \316\265
dx(Pi, Qi)
i=l
as required.
Qj is
Otherwise,
map
Ef.
\317\210}.:
Ek, so that
respects
dx(P\",
not
\342\200\224>
Ef.\302\261i\302\267
By
P\"
vertex
choice
4>k{P') 6
\316\241
is
and
of
is glued
\316\241'
is
\316\265\316\277,
defined.
to Pj+1 by
the
gluing
in the
contained
Since
edge
map
gluing
\317\210^
distances,
Qj+1) <
dx(P\",Pj+1) + dx(Pj+1,Qj+1)
j+i
< dx(P\\
Qj) + dx (Pj+1,Qj+1)< 53 dx
(Pi'
Q^
i=\\
using
the fact that
the induction hypothesis(4.1)holds
for
j.
<
\316\265'
construction
4. Gluing
72
+ 1, as requested.
This
the proof of (4.1) in all three cases,and
completes
4.5 since Qn = Q.
Lemma
The case j = \316\267
proves
Therefore,
Proof
prove
Theorem
Let
4.3.
of Theorem
4.4.2.
for j
holds
now
(4.1)
to
be associated
\316\265\316\277
(P, Q) > 0 whenever
a partition
Because X is
these two subsets
point in common.
of
fact that
the
X,
are disjoint,
Q of X
\316\241
and
Since these subsets

are finite,
is
exists an \316\265\316\271
> 0 such that every point of \316\241
=
of
Set
0.
\316\265
>
point
Q.
every
\316\265\316\271}
min{go,
Then
d~x(P, Q)
a point P'
>
Q) <
dx(P',
4.4.3. Proof of Theorem4.4.For

\316\241
and
an
Fix
\316\265
satisfying
choose
\316\265
small
>
it follows that
at distance
>
3\316\265
from
Bdx
noj
there!
\316\265
from!
\316\271
otherwise provide!
\316\265
< \316\265\316\271,
thereby
contradictir
every
\316\241
\342\202\254
we
X,
point
need
a small ball
X centered
between
\320\241
isometry
\317\206
(\316\241,
\316\265)
\316\222^\317\207
a small ball Bdeac(P'',\316\265)
in the euclidean
\320\2502.
plane
an
balls
have
they
namely,
thatl
implies
of e\\.
the definition
find
toJs
\316\241
\317\206
Q.
\316\241
Q
\317\206
4.5 would
Lemma
\316\265.
Indeed,
that
\316\241
such
\342\202\254
urn
4.5.
Lemma
\316\241
by
all ja
tools needed
the
have
now
We
4.3, namely that dx
,^
for
enough
any
edge
are
\316\265)
{\316\241'\302\267,
the
conclusions
that
each P'
of Lemma
\316\241
is
\342\202\254
atj
4.5. In addition,!
distanc
a euclidean
at
\320\246
does not contain it. In particular,

thel
disjoint and are disks, half-disksor disk!
that
pairwise
in R2, according
to the type of P' \342\202\254
a (euclideanU
P.
Here,
disk sector is one of the two pieces of a euclidean disk Bdeuc (Po, r]i
in R2 delimited by two half-lines issued from
its center
Pq, as in a.1
sectors
slice
of pie.
In
are
at a
\316\265
if Qf
.|
euclidean distance
4.5 says
together the
to P.
Inequality
Triangle
and
\342\202\254
(\316\241',
\316\265)
Bdx
Lemma
glued
the
addition,
balls Bdx
>
Q\"
the
that
shows that the ballsBdx(\316\241',\316\265|

in the
\316\265
apart,
sense that deuc(Q', Q\") >'\316\257
with
\342\202\254
(\316\241\",
Bdx
\316\265)
ball
in
(\316\241',
\316\265)
\316\241'
\316\241\"
e
\317\206
obtained
\316\222^\317\207(\316\241,\316\265)
is
X centered
at the
P.
by gluing!
points P'
Let
that
are
B=
\316\222\316\254\317\207(\316\241>,\316\265)
j
'
P'\342\202\254P
denote
the
union
of these
balls.
4.4. Proofsof
This subset
is the
one
denned,
metrics. The
two natural
with
comes
\320\222
X
\321\201
restriction of the
but by restricting
73
4.4
and
4.3
Theorems
metric \316\254\317\207.
The
second
that
attention to curves
one
first
is similarly
\320\260\320\262
are
contained
in
B. Namely, de{Q, Q') is the infimum

of the euclidean
lengths 4uc(7)
of all piecewisedifferentiable
curves
7 joining
Q to Q' and contained
= 00 if Q and Q' are in distinct
balls
in B. In particular,
de{Q,
Q')
Bdx(P',e)andBdx(P\",e)ofB.
that
shows
geometry
a disk,
Q' are in the sameball
Q and
When
otherwise
to Q'
in
contained
vertex
the
ball
the
\320\222
it
Bjx
case which
only
>
angle
by
deX]C(Q,Q')
is obtained
\316\265)
(\316\241,
by performing
semi-metric
a quotient
inherits
it is
that
the
of
\317\200
(since
In
convexity).
curve from Q
one just needs to checkthat the shortest
the
X is either a single line segment completely
polygon
or the union
in B^x (\316\241',
of two line segments meeting at
\316\265)
P' in Bdx(P',s);
compare Exercise 1.10.
Since
on
B, elementary
Indeed, Bdx(P',e) is
Therefore,
= dx(Q,Q')
e) of
disk sector
of a
that
is
de(Q,Q')
this case,
disk sector.
or a
half-disk
de(Q,Q)
requires some thought
(P',
Bdx
= dx(Q,Q).
entirely denned in terms of
B,
certain gluings
of
The
\320\260\320\262\302\267
advantage
rest
to the
reference
without
is
\320\260\320\262
oiX.
Lemma4.6.
possibility
of
in
than
an
provides
to the
restriction
The
metrics
The
coincide
ball of
radius |\316\265is
\"shortcut\"
of two
(\316\241,
\316\222^\317\207
|\316\265).
to rule out the

Q and Q' closerin
side of Figure 4.5
used
X making
through
=
\320\222.The
\316\222^\317\207(\316\241,\316\265)
example
on the ball
\316\254\317\207
andde
left-hand
such points Q and
Q'
\302\243
Bgx
that
such
(\316\241,
\316\265)
dx(Q,Q')<dB(Q,Q').
Proof
of Lemma
4.6.
for
every
\320\260\320\262(\320\257,\320\257')
a~x{Q,Q') <
dB(Q,Q') for
de is really
To prove
reverse
Q,
Q'
\342\202\254
Inequality.
Bdx(P,
R'
R,
this shows that

the
|\316\265).
In
definition
By
\342\202\254
B.
every
a metric
inequality,
particular,
Q,
of
and
\316\254\317\207
\320\260\320\262,
ax(R,R')
It
immediately
Q' \342\202\254
B3x(P,e).
and not just
we need
ax(Q,Q')
follows
Incidentally,
a semi-metric.
to restrict attention
<
<
that
by
|\316\265
the
to
Triangle
4. Gluing constructions\316\220
74
\320\263\342\200\224
Let
~
Q2,
0\316\212
is
idx(w)
Qi
Q to Q' in X of the form Q = Qi, |

~
\302\267
\302\267
\302\267,
Qn. Qn = Q', and whose dx-length J
Q'2 ~ <9\320\267,
Q'n-i
close
to
sufficiently
dx(Q,Q) that ^dx(\302\2530 < |\316\265. Then ;j
in X and, vising
the
fact that the quotient map is distance \316\257
discrete
\320\263\320\276
be a
Qi+i
\342\226\240!
i
i
4.2),
(Lemma
nonincreasing
walk from
\320\237
\320\237
';
)
Yidx(QuQw)<Yidx(Quqfi)<\\e.
i=l
i=l
use of the
A repeated
then
Inequality
Triangle
shows
that
:i
i-\\
so
all
that
Lemma
Qi
we
4.5,
If
= e,
+ 4^2dx(QvQj+i)<y+^
dx(P,Qi)^dx(P,Q1)
satisfies
Bdx(P,e). Since \316\265
conclude that all Qi and Q'i are
are in
\316\241'
\316\241\"
\342\202\254
then
\317\206
\316\241,
>
dx(P',P\")
3\316\265
by
in
the
conclusions
the
subset
of
choice
i
\320\276\320\246
B.
and
\316\265,
the,
Triangle
Inequality shows that any point of the ball Bdx(P',e) is at;
a distance
from
> \316\265
any point of Bdx(P\",e). Since dx(Qi, QI) < |\316\265,<
ball Bdx(P',e).
we
that Qi and Q,i are in the same
conclude
In;
of Lemma 4.6);
above
the statement
particular, we observed(right
that
What
in
whose
B,
Sincethis
sufficiently
dx(Qi,Q'i).
this shows
consequence,
is
dB(Qi,Q!i)
is that
is also
a discrete
from
walk
Q to
de-length
idB (w) is equal to its dx-lengthidx(w).
^ ^dx{w).
3b(Q,Q')
holds
close
for every discrete walk w whose

to dx(Q,Q'),
we concludethat
length
ds(Q)Q')
As
Q'.
a
\302\243dx(w)
dx(Q,Q').
Because we have already shown

that
the reverse inequality holds,
= dx
for
this proves that dB(Q, \302\243?')
every Q, Q' \342\202\254
(\316\241,
(Q, Q')
Bdx
|\316\265).
D
We
Lemma
point
are now
ready to
prove
Theorem
4.4.
cases according
4.5, we will distinguish
X.
\316\241
X corresponding
to \316\241
\302\243
\342\202\254
the proof of
to the type of the
As in
1.
Case
4.3 and 4.4
of Theorems
Proofs
4.4.
of the polygon X.
interior
\316\241
in the
\320\263\320\260
75
other point so that \316\241

consists
only
our
the
choice
of
ball
\316\265,
by
Bdx
Bdx (\316\241,
\316\265)
is completely
contained
in the interior of X. In particular,
the
ball
X is the same as the euclideanball \320\224\320\263\320\265\321\206\321\201
an
\320\241
\321\201
R2,
\316\265)
Bdx (\316\241,
\316\265)
(\316\241,
plane K2. Also, there are no gluings
open disk in the euclidean
In particular,
Then
of P.
distinct
between
and,
(\316\241,
\316\265)
that
so
(\316\241,
\316\265),
Bdx
one point
every
\342\202\254
(P>
Bdx
\316\265)
\342\202\254
Bdx
(\316\241,
\316\265).
by the
->
\317\206:
Bdeuc(P,e)
\316\222\316\254\317\207(\316\241,\316\265)
every
The
=
\320\222
of
points
Define
to no
glued
to exactly
corresponds
for
\316\241
is
=
\320\222
property that ip(Q) =
Q\342\202\254Bdx(P,\316\265).
map
be an
not
may
\317\206
isometry over the
whole
but
ball,
we
claim that
= dx(Q,Q')
deMQ),tl>(Q'))
for
Q,
every
\302\243
Bix(P,
|\316\265).
Indeed,
= dB(Q,Q')
by
easily sees that
d~x(Q,Q')
Lemma 4.6. Sincethere are no gluings

in B, one
4.3). Finally,
MQ>Q') = deiQ^Q1)(see Exercise
Q')=deuc(i>(Q),
ikociQ,
This
is
from
isometry
(Bjx(P,
of the
convexity
the restriction
that
proves
an
by
\321\204{\320\257'))
of
to
\317\206
ball B=Bdx
ball
the
to
dB(Q,Q')
Bdx
\316\265).
(\316\241,
(\316\241,
|\316\265)
disk
euclidean
the
|\316\265),<\316\226\317\207)
as
requested.
{Bdmc(P, \320\264\320\265),4\320\270\321\201),
the
Having completed
analysis in
to the most complexcase.
2.
CASE
=
\316\241
Write
Pfc
are
P2,...,Pfc}
{Pi,
vertices
the
ball Bjx
of the
vertex of the
Pisa
\320\222
of
the
is
with
=
\316\241
directly
jump
Bdx (Pi,
\316\265),
Bdx
\320\240\321\212
\320\2402,
...,
\320\240\321\212
Namely,
are gluedto P. Lemma

the image under the quotient
balls
now
polygonX.
of X that
in X
\316\265)
(\316\241,
union
Case 1, we
4.5
...,
(\320\240\320\263,
\316\265),
says
map
that
the
\317\200:
X \342\200\224>
X
in
Bdx (Pfc, \316\265)
X.
Because
metric
space
of our
choice of
balls Bdx(Pj,e) in the

of radius \316\265
in R2, and these disk
to work harder than in
now
need
each
\316\265,
of the
disk sector
is a
\316\254\317\207)
(\316\247,
sectors are pairwisedisjoint. We

the previous
case to rearrange these disk sectorsinto
a full disk.
Each Pj belongs to exactly two edges
As in our
and Ey.
E^
of
at
of
can
the end
Section4.3.1,we
choose
description vertex gluings
4. Gluing
76
Pi
constructions^
\320\232
\320\244\320\267(\320\262*\321\205(\320\240\320\267,
*s(Bdx\342\204\226,e))
*i(B^(Pi,s))
3
î3
The polygon X
Figure
the
sends
= Pi
construct
our isometry
i'fc+1
together
the
with
\342\200\224>
pie
(\316\241,
\316\265) Bd\342\200\236Uc
(-\320\240',
\316\265)
For
(R2,deuc)\302\267
we list as
which
map
gluing
\320\263'\320\263.
\317\206:
Bjx
of
Vj
property,
elementary
following
and
isometries
suitable
from
wise
that Pk+i
will
We
vertices
Gluing
vertex
the
convention
4.6.
so that for every j with

1 < j < fc, the
to
and
the edge Ei} to Ey.
Pj
PJ+i
indexings
\317\210\316\257}
Bdenc(P',e)=Tp(Bdx(P,e))\\
this,
we use
for
lemma
the
futuref
reference.
4.7. Let \317\210:

g \342\200\224>
g' be
Lemma
or full-lines g
half-lines
V?:R2-\302\273K2
In
addition,
The
one side of
if we choose
is
\317\206
selected
the
sends
\317\210
isometry
between two
then
line
to an
extends
\317\210
segments^
isometry]
\320\276/(\320\2322,4\320\270\321\201).
can arrange that
g'.
an isometry
andg' inM.2. Then,
uniquely
1
g and
side for
another
g', we
side of g to the one selectedfor

determined by these properties*
a
Lemma 4.7
isometries of
is an
(M.2,deuc)
In particular,
Eii
\342\200\224>
Ei>.
to an
for
immediate
consequence
by Proposition
provided
every
isometry
j,
we can
extend the
gluing
map
\317\206^
(R2, deuc) that sends

X.
opposite
\342\200\224>
\320\2502
R2 of
\317\210\316\271,:
=
\316\277
Vi
\316\246, \317\210\317\212/
of
1.3.
is
that
polygon X to the sideof \316\225\316\263
To define the \317\210$,we begin with any isometry
and inductively define
V>j+i
classification
of the
of (K2,
\317\210\316\271
\342\226\240
\342\226\240
\342\226\240
\302\260
\302\260
\302\260
\302\260
\317\210\317\212*
\316\250\317\212\317\204
\321\207>7?\302\267
the
deuc),
the
particular,
Eii
4>ij+i{Ej)
\316\261
sides
(Pj,
common
(Bdx
i/'j
(.heir
the
<Pj(Pj),
sends
map
for
\317\206\\(\316\241) every
\317\206$
In
j.
to a disk
sector Bdx(Pj,e)
is equal
\317\206j+\316\271
the
edge
under
\320\225\321\206
definition of the extensionof \321\204^to an isometry of \320\250.2,the

and ipj+1 (Bdx(Pj+\316\271,\316\265)) sit on
sectors \317\210}
(Bdx(Pj,e))
= ipj+i(Ei> ). It follows
that
of ipjiEij)
the disk sectors
By
i/'j.
two disk
opposite
77
Similarly, the image of

to the image of
Bdeuc(P',e).
under
disk
the
\317\2103-
disk
P'
sends
isometry
the
of
Hector
same point
Pj to the
l.he vertex
Pj+i =
and because
on j
induction
By
4.4
4.3 and
of Theorems
Proofs
4.4.
and in order
fit side-by-side
all
\316\265))
vertex
P'. See
of increasing j
around
Figure 4.6.
It is now
of
time
to use the hypothesis that the internal
angles
\316\241
This
X at the vertices Pi, P2, ..., Pk \342\202\254
add
up to 2\317\200.
=
the disk sector \321\204\320\272+1(\320\222\320\260\321\205(\320\240\320\272+1,\320\265))
\321\204\320\272+1(\320\222\320\260\321\205(\320\240\
is equal
isometries V'fc+i and
to \321\204\\
In
the
two
(Pi, \316\265)). particular,
(Bdx
to the same point P', send the edge
V'i of (R2, deuc) send Pi = Pk+i
=
issued
from P', and
Ei' to the same line segment or half-line
Eik+X
send a sideof Eik+1 = \316\225\316\263
to the same side of ipk+i(Eik+1)= ipi(Ei').
=
that
the
By
uniqueness
part of Lemma 4.7, it follows
\316\250\316\271\302\267
\320\263\321\200\320\272+\316\271
l.he polygon
that
implies
note
Finally
l.hen
ipj(Q)
when Q
that
We
V>j+i(Q')\302\267
glued to Q'
therefore
define a
\342\202\254is
Ei}
can
(Q)
\317\210^
\342\202\254
\316\225?\316\271,
map
ir.B3x(P,e)^Bdmia(P',e)
the
by
The
that
property
We
balls
corresponding
\317\206(0)
show
will
that
of radius
to
is equal
show that
considerations
above
\317\206j(Q)
is well
\317\206
an isometry
induces
\317\206
whenever
\342\202\254
Bd(Pj,\316\265).
denned.
between the
|\316\265.
two points Q, Q' \342\202\254

Lemma
4.6
(\316\241,
|\316\265).By
Bjx
=
and by the Triangle Inequality,
< |\316\265.Let w
dx(Q,Q')
\320\260\320\262(0,0')
~
= Qi,
be a discrete walk
from
Q
Q to Q' in B, of the form
0\316\212 Q2,
~
~
=
\342\226\240
whose
\302\267
and
\302\267,
dB-lengthidB(w)
\320\257\320\267,
Q,
Q'2
Q'n
Qn-i
For
this,
consider
Qn,_
is
sufficiently
each
Bdx
close
to
that
\320\271\320\262(\320\257,\320\257')
idB(w)
so that
is finite,
d,B(Qi,Q'i)
a
As
consequence,
(Pji:e).
=
deuc(\320\244(0~\320\263),
\320\244\320\250)
Qi and
4uc
<
^\316\267
|\316\265\302\267particular,
Q'i belong to the
(Qi),
\316\250\317\215
(\316\246\317\215
(Qi))
doac(Qi,Q'i)^dB(Qi,Q'i)
same ball
4.
78
since each ipj. is a euclideanisometry.
Then,
Inequality and using the
that
fact
constructions
Gluing
the Triangle4
by iterating
Qi+\\,
Q\302\243
n-l
<
^\320\270\321\201(^(<9),^(<9))
\302\243>\320\265\320\270\321\201\320\234<\320\255\320\263),^(<3<))
i=l
\316\267\342\200\2241
re\342\200\2241
<5>B(Qi,gi)
W\302\2530-
<=\316\271
w
for every discrete walk
close to 3b(Q, Q'), we
holds
this
Since
':!
length
let 7
Conversely,
be the
segment
{Bd{Pji,
disk sector
the
In
7*
walk
Q^_!
Q to
from
Qn, Q'n
tdB
7^
= Q,
goes
Q' of
of
the
It
into}
7 into linei
can split
we
is contained'
each 7\302\273
J
\320\241
-X\",
|\316\265)
to
from
Qi to
form
the
consider
the
7\302\273.If
now
we
Q\302\243,
oriented
endpoints
haye a
~ Q2, Q2 ~
Q1} Q[
lines
of 7^'
discrete^
\302\267\302\267\302\267>
\320\244\320\267>
\316\243dB(Qi>
ofi)=\316\243
i=l
\316\243^\302\253\321\214)
'\302\253*\320\274
i=l
4\320\270\321\201(7)4\320\270\321\201(^(<9),^(<\320\255)).
dB(Q,Q')^deUiC(i>(Q),i>(Q)).
Combining the inequalities (4.2)and (4.3), we

dx(Q,Q') = dB(Q,Q') = deuc(i>(Q),i>(Q))
every
from the
This
X.
ip{Q)
decomposed
that
follows
(4.3)
for
to ip(Q');i,
ds-length
i=l
.;
is
(\316\241',|\316\265)
order, such that
corresponding
^*(7\302\253)
are labelledso that
\\
\\\316\255)).
Bd(Pji,
\320\222
whose
in this
\302\267
\302\267
\302\267,
7n,
disk sector ipjt
in a
in
Q')\302\267
oriented line segment from
that
in the disk Bdeac (\316\241',|\316\265).Recall
Bd,ac
the disk sectors ipj(Bd(Pj,g^))\302\267 Therefore
segments71,72,
Q'
that
conclude
<dB(Q,
^^(0)^(0))
(4.2)
Q to
from
is sufficiently
We
In other
Q, Q e Bgx (\316\241,
|\316\265).
ball (Bdx(P, |e), dx) to the
concludes
have
one
our discussion
case left
words,
ball
conclude
an isometry
induces
\317\206
(\320\224^
(P',
\302\253Uc)\302\267
\302\247e),
of Case 2, where \316\241

is
to consider.
that
a vertex
of
4.5. Gluing hyperbolicand

3.
Case
an edge
in
\316\241
is
of the polygon X, but is

to that
of Case 2. Actually,
The proof is identical

considered as a specialcaseof Case
is glued
that
to it as vertices of X
to
2 by
where
a vertex.
not
the
viewing
the internal
even be
can
it
\316\241
and
point
P'
angle is equal
\317\200.
4.5.
Theorem 4.3 (and

.standard
of their
ingredients
key
the
polygons
spherical
4.4 to specificexamples,let us look

For the proof of
more
detail.
to
Lemma 4.5 before), in addition
proof in
of
proof
of metric
properties
4.3 and
Theorems
applying
the
and
hyperbolic
Gluing
Before
of Theorem 4.4.
the proof
concludes
This
at
79
polygons
spherical
spaces, we
the maps \317\210\316\257

one edge
gluing
polygon to
A critical component of the proof of
distances.
fact that
the
used
mostly
of the
another
preserved
was
4.4
Theorem
Lemma 4.7.
4.5.1. Hyperbolic polygons. All

straightforward
the
in
analogues
these
plane
hyperbolic
have
properties
we
provided
(H2,dhyp)>
appropriate translation. For instance,the euclideanmetric

needs
to be replaced by the hyperbolicmetric dhyp>
euclidean
isometries
isometries, line segments and lines
by hyperbolic
etc
our results automatically extend
geodesies,
by
Consequently,
use the
just
rieuc
to
the
context.
hyperbolic
The only point that

which
property,
4.8. In
Lemma
an isometry
the
two
H2
can
arrange
The
Proof.
that
through
to
\317\210
if
side of g
the selected side
choose
is
\317\210
Pick a
In particular,
point
defines
obtain
let \317\210:g
(IHP^hyp),
and
extends
g
g'. Then, \317\210
plane
geodesies
sends
\317\210
isometry
following
\342\200\224*be
g'
to an
of (H2, dhyp).
In addition, if We
a'.
is the
4.7.
hyperbolic
between
->
\320\2502
\317\210:
isometry
requires somethought
Lemma
replaces
then
one
an
determined
uniquely
\316\241
\342\202\254
g and
by
vector
a nonzero
orientation
an orientation
and another sidefor g', we

of g to the one selectedfor
At
the
properties.
\316\275
tangent
for g, which
of g'.
these
point
to g
at P.
we can transport
=
\316\241'
\342\202\254
g,
\317\210(\316\241)
4.
80
constructions
Gluing
\316\231
-J
\342\226\240J
that
such
and
that
such
g' in the direction of this orientation,

||if||hyp.Proposition2.20,which shows that
||tf'||hyp
is isotropic,
(iP^hyp)
the
vector tangent to
=
be the
v'
let
=
and
\317\206(\316\241)\316\241'
which
geodesic
a hyperbolic isometry
provides
= \317\2051'.
In
\316\214\317\201\317\206(\316\275)
= P',
to Dpip(v)= if' at \317\206(\316\241)
is tangent
\\
\342\200\224>
\320\2502
\316\2272
\321\204:
g to
sends
\317\206
particular,
\302\243
namely,
j
\\
9'-
\316\257
sends
which
of
restriction
The
\316\241
to
the orientation
with
coincides
extends
the
to
\317\206
the
same
point P'
of g to the
on
\317\210
g.
g is an
isometry g
as the isometry \317\210,and
geodesic
same orientation
In other
as
words, the isometry
sends
that
follows
It
\317\210.
\342\200\224>
g' \\
\316\257
\317\206
\342\200\224>
H2
H2
\317\206:
g \342\200\224>
g'.
\317\206:
\\
side of g to the selectedside of g', we 7

let
be
the hyperbolic
reflection across g', \\
Otherwise,
\317\201
the
the
inversion across !
of (H2, dhyp)
induced
namely,
by
isometry
fixes
the euclideancirclecontaining
Because
point of g'-\\
g'.
\317\201
every
=
\320\276now
i
and
its two sides, the hyperbolicisometry
exchanges
\317\210 \317\201\321\204
If
sends
\321\204
are
done.
has
the
required
the
selected
X is
now
are
We
hyperbolic
endpoints. When
M.2may
will
be
unbounded
addition
of H2 that
H2,
E\\, E2
X as
consider
we
dhyp)\302\267Namely,
into
finitely
a subset
of
K2,
its
their
boundary
ia<
real line \320\232

bounding:
the case, note that X
in the
plane H2 in K2 = C; if this is
for the hyperbolic metric dhyp.
we require that
X and the
are in their boundary.
although
(H2,
plane
is decomposed
En meeting only at
intervals
many
from;
translation
automatic
geodesies
also include finitely
hyperbolic
In
in
out our
geometry.
2.10.
Lemma
Let X be a polygon in the hyperbolic

a region in H2 whose boundary in H2
many
the
from
follows
to carry
ready
to hyperbolic
euclidean
.|
D'{
properties.
The uniquenesseasily
not necessarily
in
Namely,
Ei contain
X
and
those
all
points
are closed
the Ei
\320\250.2.
The
Ei bounding X are the edges of the
geodesies
The points where two edges meet are its vertices. As in
at any given
meet
case, we require that only two edges
polygon
the
euclidean,
vertex.
X.
4.5. Gluing hyperbolicand

Figure 4.7
hyperbolic
octagon,
the hyperbolic
with
Ht.rip,
offers a
with
two edges
this
figure,
X\\
is
examples.
The
dhyp\302\267
and no
disjoint intervals, and
In
edges and eight vertices; it
few
eight
metric
81
polygons
spherical
polygon
the
hyperbolic
it
vertex;
touches
is
bounded
for
X2 is an infinite
line R along two
is unbounded
for
the hyperbolic
metric dhyp
of
for
the
The
euclidean
metric
(although
R2).
hyperbolic quadrilateral
is
delimited
our
has
no
vertex
in H2,
X3
edges,
by
=
R
R
of
mid touches
\320\270
four points,
one
which is 00. We
along
{\320\276\320\276}
will meet
these three hyperbolic polygons again
in Sections
5.2, 5.4.2
it is
bounded
mid 5.5, respectively.

H2
Figure
4.7.
few
hyperbolic
polygons
a hyperbolic polygon X, we can then introduce

edge
data
Kluing
by, first, grouping the edges together in pairs {E\\,E2},
and
for each such pair {S2fc-i,\302\243^2fc},
then,
(/?\320\267,\302\243\321\207},...,
{\302\243^2\317\201-\316\271,\302\243^2\317\201}
\342\200\224\342\226\272
an
is
#2fc-i
i?2fc\302\267Here
l>y specifying
isometry tp2k-itfi2k-i
be
an
for
the
to
distance
required
isometry
hyperbolic
dhyp\302\267
For such
and
euclidean case, the edgesE2k-\\
E2k in the same pair
In general,
must
have
the same hyperbolic
length, possibly infinite.
is then
determined once we know
the isometry \317\2102\316\220\316\257-\316\271
how
uniquely
sends an orientation of E2k-i to an orientation
of E2k,
and we
îfc-i
will
this information
often
describe
by drawing matching arrows on
As
in the
and
/'/\342\200\2422fc_i
where drawing arrows is not sufficient

to
of
Ezk-i and E2k are completegeodesies
H2,
semi-circles centered on the real line.
metric
euclidean
the
case, we endow X with
path
The
case
\320\225-2\320\272\302\267
wpecify v?2fc-i is when

full euclidean
namely,
As
in
the
for
which
\316\271\316\220\317\207
dx(P,Q)
all piecewise difFerentiable
is the
curves
infimum
joining
of
the
\316\241
to
hyperbolic
Q in X.
lengths
of
When X
is
4. Gluing
82
sense that the
in the
convex,
is contained
in
the
X,
metric
construction\302\256
geodesic arc joining any
two
with
coincides
\316\254\317\207
clearly
Q G
P,
the restriction
of the hyperbolicmetric dhyp\302\267

4.9.
Theorem
ing
the
semi-distance
that
Q)>0
dx(P,
proof is identical to
of that proof, using the
The
Proof.
each
step
from
Let
4.10.
Theorem
of
X by gib
is obtained from the hyperbolicpolygon
then
the
is
by isometries,
proper.
gluing
\320\230\320\260\321\202\320\265\3
induced
on X by the path metric dx ofXis sucq
\316\254\317\207
when \316\241
\317\206\302\247.
IfX
pairs of its edges
condition
vertices
holds: For
P' of X which
are
to the
isometric
locally
every
Suppose
vertex
glued
space (X, d) which
plane(H2,deuc)
is
is
then
a hyperbolic
a hyperbolic
to
polygons
sphere
of
that
together
the
additiond
following
the angles of X
up to 2\317\200.Then
at
thos$
(\316\247,\316\254)
(H^dhyp)\302\267
Theorem
4.4, provided
tha
4.8.
is locally
surface.
isometric
to the
Equivalently,
hyperbolii
the metric i
metric.
4.5.2. Spherical polygons. The

in the
X,
\316\241
add
hyperbolic plane
Proof.
The proof is identical to
we replace Lemma 4.7 by Lemma
A metric
\316\241
of
that
space obtaine
pairs of \320\265\320\260\320\264\320
metric
quotient
by gluing
(\316\247,\316\254\317\207)
isometries.
folloul
appropriatetranslation.
be the
(\316\247,\316\254\317\207)
polygon
hyperbolic
by hyperbolic
Just
4.3.
Theorem
of
that
same
properties
also generalize
\320\251
(S2,dsph)\302\267
in the sphere (S2,dsph) is a region X of S2 who

is
decomposed into finitely
boundary
many
geodesies
E\\, \316\225\316\271,
En
meeting
only at their endpoints. These Ei are the edgesof tlj
meet
are its vertices.
X, and the points where they
polygon
all its edges and vertices,and tha
before, we require that X contains
meet
every
edge contains its endpoints. Also, exactly two edges
at;'}
A
polygon
given vertex.
We
infinitum
joining

for which
\316\254\317\207
(\316\241,
Q) is \317\215
of the euclidean lengths of all piecewise
differentiable
curve
\316\241
R3.
When
X is convex, in the sense tha
to Q in X \320\241
S2 \320\241
endow
any two P,
X with
X can
Q \342\202\254
be joined by
a geodesicarc of
S2
of length
<;
is
which
the metric
in X,
contained
completely
coincides
\316\254\317\207
clearly
sphericalmetricdeph\302\267
edges together in pairs {E\\,E2}, {\316\225^,\316\225^,
restriction of the
with the
After
...,
83
hyperbolic and sphericalpolygons
4.5. Gluing
the
grouping
E2P}, the
{i?2p-i,
of isometries
consists
used
data
gluing
<p2k-i-
l''-2k-l
\342\200\224*
E2k\302\267
in the
As
4.11. In
Lemma
two
between
S'^S2
following
4.7.
Lemma
of
extension
case, the key property is the
hyperbolic
the
sphere
geodesies
9' be an isometry
to an isometry \317\206:
\342\204\226
9 ~*
\316\250'\302\267
(S2,deph)>
g and g'.
Then
extends
\317\206
0/(S2,deph).
In addition,
if we chooseonesidefor g and
am arrange that
(f.
The
isometry
is
\317\210
then
another
side for g1, we
side for g to the one selectedfor
determined by these properties.
selected
the
sends
\317\206
uniquely
Since geodesies of (S2,daph)are great circlearcs (Theorem

in 3-dimensional
is easily proved by elementary arguments
!l.l),
(Euclidean geometry.
Proof.
this
As before, weendowthe sphericalpolygon

which
\316\254\317\207(\316\241,
Q) is the infimum of the
differentiable
curves joining \316\241
to Q
piecewise
dx
for
with
the path
sphericallengths
metric
of
all
in X.
4.7
4.11, the proofs of
Then, by replacing Lemma
by Lemma
4.3 and 4.4 immediately extend to the sphericalcontext
the following
two results.
give
Theorems
und
Theorem 4.12. IfX is obtained

of its edges
gluing
pairs
the
semi-distance
by
the gluing
then
isometries,
on X
induced
\316\254\317\207
polygon X by
is proper. Namely,
is really
the spherical
from
by
metric.
\320\236
4.13.
Theorem
a
from
i>f
spherical
by hyperbolic
locally
Let
be the
(\316\247,\316\254\317\207)
polygon
every
of X which
isometric
to the
P'
are
Suppose
vertex
glued
\316\241
of
to
metric
quotient
by gluing
\316\254\317\207)
(\316\247,
isometries.
holas: For
conaition
vertices
that
X,
\316\241
add
sphere (S2,dePh).
together
the
space obtained
pairs of edges
following
the angles of
up to 2\317\200.Then
additional
X at those
is
\316\254\317\207)
(\316\247,
\342\226\241
4.
84
As in the
constructior
Gluing
euclideanand
which
is locally
face.
Equivalently,
a metric space
cases,
hyperbolic
isometric to the sphere(S2,dsph) is a spherical
the metric d is then a spherical metric.
(X, \321\201\320\251^
\320\267\320\270\320\263\32
-P
>v
4.1. Let X be the closed interval [0,1] in K. Let X be the par^W

N axe
tition consisting of all the subsets {^r, %k} where
\302\243
m, \316\267
integers^,
and
of all one-element subsets
such that m is odd and 1 < m < 2\342\204\242,
{Pffl
= \342\226\240\342\200\224;
or
Let a\\.uc be theft
where
\316\241
as above.
e [0,1] is not of the form \316\241
\320\251
quotient semi-metric induced on X by the usual metric deuc(P, Q) = |P\342\200\224Q\\
Exercise
of*
=[0,1].
a.
Show
b.
Show
\321\211
that for every P_e [0,1]and every

such that Qi = Qi in -X\\ deuc(0,Qi)
[0,1]
\316\265
> 0, there exists Qi, Q2 \342\202\254$i
and
< \316\265.
< \316\265,
.'\320\250
\321\201&\321\210\321\201^\320\244\320\263)
deuc(0, P) = 0 for every PeX.

deuC is not a metric, and the gluing
In particular,
that
metric
that
\321\201
Show
deuc(P, Q)
is not
the
semi\302\273\302\273
proper.
= Qfor every P,QeX.
Exercise4.2
A relation on a setgf
and partitions).
relations
(Equivalence
a subset 31of the product
XxY.
One way to think of this is tha^
\320\257
a certain property involving
\316\241
and!
describes
two
points of X. Namely,
of
this property
Q e X satisfy
exactly when the pair (P, Q) is an element
\320\230\320\251
~ Q to say that
To emphasize
\316\241
this interpretation, we write
(P, Q) e \320\233.
|
An equivalence relation is a relation
such
that
4
is just
(i)
e X (Reflexivity
Property);
every \316\241
then Q ~ \316\241
Property);
(Symmetry
~ Q
~ Q and Q ~ \320\233,
\316\241
then
\316\241
(Transitivity
if
(iii)
a.
1
|
~ \316\241
for
\316\241
~ Q,
if \316\241
(ii)
an
Given
relation,
equivalence
define
Property).
the equivalence class of
\316\241
e X\302\253
as
.J
P={QeX;P~Q}.
Show
b.
as
that
\316\241
ranges
over
all points
of X.
lence classes\316\241
is a partition
of
let X be a partition
Conversely,
of X,
the
of the
family
equiva*j
\342\226\240\342\2
let
set X and, as usual,
\316\241
X.
Define a relation on X
\316\266.
the
\316\241
\302\243
X\\
the subset that

contains
by the~ Q exactly when \316\241
and Q belong to the samesubset
that \316\241
= Q of the partition.
~ is an equivalence relation.
\316\241
Show
that
denote
property
Exercise 4.3 (Trivial

the trivial
subsets
gluing
~
\316\241
together
in
{P}.
X.
where
Let (X, d) be a metric

the partition X consists only
gluing).
In other words, no two

(X, d) be the resulting
Let
distinct
space,
of
elements
quotient
consider
one-element
of X are glued
and
the
semi-metric
space.
the definition
Ising
for Chapter
Exercises
that
prove
rigorously
of the quotient
the quotient
from (X, d)
mi isometry
Exercise
4.4
(Iterated
(X, d), and let X
be a
terms of discrete walks,

is
by 7r(P) = \316\241
d in
semi-metric
\317\200:
X \342\200\224>
X defined
map
to (X,d).
gluings).
Let X
partition
of
by d
induced
Homi-metric
85
be a
Let d be the
space X.
the_quotient
be the
on X, and let d
metric space
of the
partition
induced
semi-metric
by d
X.
ou
If
a.
b.
\316\241
e
the element
X,
we can
considertheir
partition
X of X.
\316\241
e X.
every
from Pto
=
such
refer
with
in
=
\316\241
walk
PiLQi
=
\316\241
that
Show
X.
of X, and
subsets
of
family
the subsets
Show
that
the
property
~ P2, ...,
~
Pi4 Qi
= \316\241
for
\317\206(\316\241)
that
~
Qn-\\
form
\316\241
P2,=...,
Qn =_Q
Pi,
Qn-i ~ Pi,
w from \316\241
to Q in X, whose length
is
Q forms a discrete walk
the same symbol ~ is usedto
that la{w) < ld{w). (Beware
that
to gluing
with respect to the partition
X in the first case, and
to X in the second instance.) Conclude
if d is the
that
respect
X,
then
Q)
d(P,
< d(P,Q)
for
eX.
P,Q
d. Given a
by d on
induced
semi-metric
quotient
Qn-i
the map defined by

Show that ^> is bijective.
a discrete
w be
\321\201
Let
every
is a
X.
\316\241
\320\241
\342\200\224\342\226\272
\316\247
X be
\317\206:
Let
Qn
= \316\241
\316\241
X
\316\266.
union
small
\316\265
> 0,
Qn =
~_Pi,
let w be
=
\316\241
discrete_walk
Q in X whose
Pto
from
~ P2,
P\\, Qi
length
is
\302\267
\302\267
\302\267,
sufficiently
for every i, choose

Similarly,
Q) + f \302\267
=
~ P,2,
consisting of \316\241
\320\240\320\264,
Qi,i
~
=
\342\200\242
\302\267
to
whose
is
close
\302\267,
Q<
length
sufficiently
Qi,ki-i
P.fci, Qi,kt
that
Show
that
the
can
be
^
+
w\302\273
d(P,Qi)
ld{v>i)
d(P,Qi)
^.
\316\241
chained together to form a discrete walk
w from
in X such
_to_Q
that
Conclude
that
+
*\316\266
\316\266
ia{w)
id{w)
d{P,Q)
d(P,Q)+s.
f.
close to
e.
In
J(P, Q) that
a discretewalk Wj
from
Show that
isometry
other
semi-metric
is an
\317\210
^ d(P,
la{w)
a two-step
words,
space as gluing
to
\316\241
Qi,
from (X, d) to
(X, d).
construction
yields
in one
gluing
together
everything
the same
quotient
single action.
Exercise 4.5. Let
X be the interval [0,2\317\200]\320\241

and let X be the partition
\316\234,
two-element subset {0,2\317\200\302\267}
and
of all the one-element
subsets {P} with \316\241
e (0,2\317\200). Let d be the quotient
semi-metric
induced
on. X by the usual
metric
P\\ of X = [0,2\317\200]. In other words,
d(P, Q) = \\Q
the two endpoints of the interval
(X,ct) is obtained by gluing
together
X = (0,2\317\200) endowed
with the metric d.
consisting
of the
Let S1= {(re, y)

plane, endowedwith
e M2; x2 +
the
metric
y2
1} be the
d$i for which
=
unit
circle
dsi(P,Q)
in the
is the
euclidean
infimum
4.
86
constructions\302\267
Gluing
of the euclidean axelengths

\302\243euc
(7) of all piecewise differentiable
~
-+
to Q in S1. Consider the map
\316\247
going from \316\241
\317\210:
[0,2\317\200]
=
by tp(t)
(cost, sint).
Show
a.
X
\317\206:
map
that
Show
b.
_
if \317\200:
X denotes
X \342\200\224\342\226\272
that
dsi
c.
Q in
is equal
id{w)
from
\316\241
to
to
that
X =
Z?i
are
the
most
X,
that
a discrete
walk
e X.
there
exists
four points of
Consider
that d{P,Q)
<
X, whose length
a shortest curve
dgi
(<p(P),tp(Q))
show
to
that
is
\317\210
an
isometry
from (X, d)
to
D2 and D3 be three
and
\316\222\316\271
angles \316\270\316\271,
X be the quotient
Let
from
obtained
+ 02 = 03 ^ \317\200.
\316\270\316\271
space
U Z?2 by isometrically gluing
one
edge of Z?i to an edge of D2,
vertex
of Di to the vertex of D2. Show
the
that
if dx and dD3
euclidean path metrics defined as in Section
4.3.1, the quotient
euclidean
sending
at
Conclude
of w.
id(w)
P, Q
P,QeX.
Exercise 4.6. In
with
\316\2303
length
(Hint:
\316\254$\316\271(\317\206(\316\241),\317\206((3)).
d. Combinethese results
disjoint
;i
bijective.
$
_
Q in X, there ex-'
going from <p(P) to \317\210{0)in S1
P, Q e
for every
involving
in S1.) Conclude
\317\210(\316\241)_\316\247\316\277\317\210(0)
for every
Q) for every
\316\266
d(P,
show
w from
curve
4uc(7)_is equal to the
(<p(P),<p{Q))
Conversely,
discrete
differentiable
whose length
I\316\257
^ is
that
for every
7J
defined|
map, there existsa uniques
the quotient
=
\342\200\224\302\273\342\226\240
S1 such
Show
that
\317\206 \317\206\316\277\317\200.
_
walk
w from
\316\241
to
ists a piecewise
curves
S1
the
euclidean
disk sectors of
space (X,dx) is isometric
to
plane
radius
(D3,dD3)\302\267
let
\320\2502,
\320\263
and
Hint:
D\\,
respective
Copy
parts of the
proof of
4.4.
Theorem
disjoint
(Euclidean cones). Let D\\, D2, ..., Dn be \316\267
and
\342\226\240
with radius \320\263
with angles \316\270\316\271,
02, \342\226\240
\342\226\240,
respec-;
\316\270\342\200\236,
tively, and let Ei and E[ denote the two edges of Di. Isometrically glue\302\267
each
of Di+\316\271and
edge Ei to E'i+1, sending the vertex of Di to the vertex
=
indices modulo \316\267
Show that the resulting
counting
(so that
E[).
\316\225'\316\267+\316\257
on the radius \320\263
and on the angle sum
quotient
space (X, dx) depends only
=
\316\270
if D[, D'2, ..-, D'n, is another
\316\270*\302\267
Namely,
family of n' disjoint
\316\243\"=\316\271
\320\263
and
euclidean
disk sectors of the same radius
with respective
angles \316\270[,
\342\200\224
\302\267
\302\267
an(^
with
if
these
disk
sectors
are glued:
#21
\302\267,
^\302\267\316\271
%
\316\270'\316\267\316\271
\316\243\316\223=\316\271
\316\243?=\316\271
as above, then the resulting
is isometric
quotient
space (\316\247',\316\254\317\207\316\271)
together
to (X,d~x). Hint:
Use
the results of Exercises 4.4 and
4.6 to reduce the
= \320\263\320\260'
= \316\270\\
and
for every t, and to make sure
\316\270\316\257
problem to the case where \316\267
that
the order
of the gluings does not matter.
4.7
Exercise
disk
euclidean
cone
shape
cone
space (X,d~x) of Exercise 4.7 is a euclidean

a few examples.
4.8 represents
Note
angle \316\230.
Figure
the
cone angle \316\270
is less than,
accordingto whether
The
and
sectors
with
radius
\320\263
the different
equal to,
or

than
more
2\317\200.
When
87
to
\316\270
is equal
the
2\317\200,
cone
is of
angle <
cone
2\317\200
Figure
cone
angle
4.8.
Three euclidean
2\317\200
cone
with
cone singularities).
Let
obtained from a euclideanpolygon
for every
its edges. Show
that
gluing
together
\320\263
such
that the ball B^x (P, r) is isometric
as in Exercise 4.7.
metric
rically
ii.
radius
defined
angle
(X, dx)
with
surface
hyperbolic
and
space
spherical
2\317\200
(X,d~x) be the
space
euclidean
>
cones
Exercise 4.8 (Surfaces

quotient
course isometric to a
disk.
tmclidean
by isometexists
a euclidean
cone,
dx)
(X,
\316\241
\316\266.
X,
to
there
satisfying the conclusions of Exercise4.8 is a

cone singularities.
One can similarly
define
surfaces with cone singularities.
Exercise 4.9.
a.
Let
(C,
\316\270
as in
center
Po, radius
d) be a euclidean conewith
Exercise 4.7. Show that
for every r' < r, the
r) = {PeC;
Sd(Po,
d(P, Po) =
\320\263
and
cone
angle
\"circle\"
r'}
is
Exercise 1.11
b.
curve, whose
equal to Or'.
a closed
is
length
\302\243d(Sd(Po,r'))
in the
sense of
for its
Theorem 4.4 is necessary
gluing together the
Namely,
isometrically
sidesof a euclidean polygon X, there is a vertex \316\241
that the angles
such
of X at those vertices
P' which
are glued to \316\241
do not add up to 2\317\200,
then
the quotient space (X, d) is not locally
isometric
to the euclidean
Conclude
conclusion
that
the
to hold.
plane (K2,deuc)
angle condition of
if, when
Chapter
examples
Gluing
the long proofs of Section4.4, we

through
of our
the fruit
and apply the technology
labors,
have built in Chapter 4 to a few examples.
After
suffering
harvest
We
torus
begin
that
in a
by revisiting,
we had
that
now
we
surfaces
euclidean
Some
5.1.
can
more rigoroussetting,the exampleof

in Section
discussed
informally
the
4.1.
5.1.1. Euclidean tori from rectanglesand parallelograms.

Let
R2
of those (x, y) \342\202\254
X\\ be the rectangle [a,b] \317\207
consisting
[c,d],
the
that a < \317\207
b and
\321\201
d.
Glue
bottom
such
<
*\316\266
\316\266
edge
\321\203
=
to the top edge E% = [a, b] \317\207
\316\225\316\271
by the isome{d}
[o, b] \317\207
{c}
=
\342\200\224> x
\317\207
try
\317\210\317\207\\
(x,d), and glue
[a, b]
{c}
{d} defined by </?i(x,c)
[a, b]
=
=
the left edge E3
\317\207
[\321\201,
d] by
d] to the right edge E4
{b}\317\207
{\316\261}
[\321\201,
=
->
x
x
defined
Namely,
\317\2063\302\267
by
(b,y).
{a}
{bj [c,d]
<\302\243>\320\267(\320\262,2/)
[c,d]
we consider the edgegluing
in Section 4.1 and
that
already
appeared
we reproduce
which
in Figure 5.1.
With
are glued
The
sum
these
together
of the
identifications,
to form a single
the four vertices
edge
point
at these
angles of \320\245\320\263
\316\241
of
vertices
the
of the rectangle
quotient
space
X\\.
is
7\320\2237\320\2237\320\2237\320\223_
+
2
2=2\317\200\302\267
89
5.
90
Gluing
examples
\342\200\224>\342\200\224
\342\226\240Z?2
\316\247\316\271
\320\257,\342\200\236
;;*\320\267
\320\225\320\263
\342\200\224>\342\200\224
5.1.
Figure
sides of
Gluing opposite
a rectangle
We can therefore apply Theorems4.3 and 4.4. Note that X\\ is:'<
so that the path metric \316\254\317\2071
coincides
with the restriciton
convex,
off
the euclideanmetric dexic of R2. Then Theorems 4.3 and 4.4 showj
to the euclidean*
the metric
is locally
isometric
that
space (\316\247\316\271,
<\317\212\317\2071)
metricof the euclidean

is our
This
our
In
plane
first
deuc).
discussion
\320\246
of a
example
rigorous
informal
(R2,
of this
Section
4.1, we exrj
illustrated
on
the right!
torus
the metric. The mathemalM
to
ically rigorous way
this property
and
topology
A
to
express
to say that
the
stretch
the space X\\

from
homeomorphism
space
inverse \317\206-1are
continuous.
is to
usethe languageofj
to the torusA
is homeomorphic
space (X, d) to another

met^
and
such that both \317\206
its^
Kit foi!
Section T.l in the Tool
a metric
X
(X', d') is a bijection\317\206:
ric
example in
plained how Xi can be identified

of Figure
5.1 if we are willing
to
euclidean surface. ,
(See
\342\200\224>
X'
The homeomorphism
the definition of bijectionsand inverse
maps.)
\317\206|
X' to translate
can
be used as a dictionary between X and
back an4,
For
forth
limits and continuity.
al
every
instance,
involving
property
...
to the point P\302\273in X if \320\260\320\277\320\251
sequence Pi, P2, ..., P\342\200\236,
converges
if its
only
image
\342\226\240\342\226\240\342\226\240
to
converges
\302\267\302\267\302\267,
\317\206{\316\241\\),
\317\206(\316\2412),
\317\210(\316\241\316\267),
\317\210(\316\241\316\277\316\2
consequence, if the metric spaces(X, d) and (X', d') aref

a homeomorphismj]
in the sense that
there
exists
homeomorphic,
\342\200\224>
the sameV
exactly
(X, d)
(X',
d') , then (X, d) and (X', d') share
;?
limit and continuity
properties.
in
As a
X'.
An
example
of a
homeomorphism is providedby an isometry from|
However, a general homeomorphism

(X, d) to (X',d').
is much more general in the
sense
that the distance
may
be
very
different
from d(P,Q).
The
only
X
\317\206:
\342\200\224>
X'|
\316\254'[\317\206(\316\241),
\317\210{0)^
requirement
is thai
the
with
quantified
In
small
is
d'(ip(P),ip(Q))
\316\265
and
one examplein
we
should
at
homeomorphisms
go through at least
perhaps
detail.
torus be the
the 2-dimenaional
Let
\316\264).
our discussion of
very informal level. However,
is small (in a sense
when d(P,Q)
exactly
appropriate
we will keep
general,
91
surfaces
Some euclidean
5.1.
T2
surface
3-dimen-
of the
about the 2-axis the circlein

at the point (Ft,0,0) and has radius
r < R, as in the right-hand
side of Figure 5.1. We consider
T2 as a
it with
the restriction of the 3-dimensional
metric space by endowing
R give different
metric
of R3. Different choices of r and
subsets
deuc
of R3, but these are easily seento be homeomorphic.
sional space R3
the
the
X\\
of the
to general
by
the
2-axis
with
point
center
immediate that
Klued
[a, b]
to
the
argument
suitable
case of
rescaling
\317\207
[\321\201,
d] by
together
r sin
\316\230,
\317\206).
r cos\317\210,
0, r
r.
and radius
\317\201(\316\270,
exactly
\317\206) \317\201(\316\270',
\317\206')
to form
cos \317\206)
sin
+ r
9,(R
around
by rotating by an angle of \316\270
sin \317\210)
of the
circle in the xz-
obtained
(R +
(R, 0,0)
p: X\\
\320\270
bijection
defined by
cos \317\206)
cos
is
\317\201(\316\270,
\317\206)
(!eometrically,
plane
rectangles
the map
+ r
((R
\317\206)
\317\201(\316\270,
a singlepoint
\342\200\224>
T2 defined
of
by the
From
this
when
and
(\316\270,
\317\206)
X\\.
it is
description
It follows that
property that p(P)
are
(\316\270',
\317\206')
induces
\317\201
= p(P) for
\316\241
P.
\316\266
The
hat
edges
opposite
variables.
\342\200\224>
Let \317\201:
T2 be
\316\247\316\271
I. lie
the
\317\207
However,
[\342\200\224\317\200,
\317\200][\342\200\224\317\200,
\317\200].
extends
straightforwardly
together
gluing
homeomorphic to the 2-dimensional
the notation, we restrict attention
To simplify
the square
lie
d] by
X\\ is
Then
obtainedfrom
T2.
Proof.
metric space
quotient
\320\245\320\263
[a, b] x [c,
translations.
torus
any
revolving
be the
(\316\247\316\271,\316\254\317\207^
=
rectangle
euclidean
by
is centered
Let
5.1.
Lemma
obtained
that
xz-plane
map
property
is continuous
\317\201
that
is continuous.
\317\201
d(P, Q)
by the
usual calculus arguments.
< d(P,Q)
(Lemma
4.2),
it easily
Using
follows
5. Gluing
92
To prove
at the
the
of
type
point
function p_1: T2 \342\200\224>

is continuous,!
\320\245\320\263
to distinguish cases accordingto the J
inverse
the
that
we
point Qo \342\202\254
T2,
need
Qq.
Consider the most complexcase,where

point Pq
of \316\247\316\271.
If Q = (x,y,z)
\302\261\317\200)
(\302\261\317\200,
under
image
of the
\317\201
all
compute
\316\266
>
= \317\200
\316\262
Qq
\317\201(\316\270,
\317\206)
if
T2 is
\342\202\254
=
that
such
\317\206)
(\316\270,
+ r,
(\342\200\224i?
\316\266
<
0, and
near
Qo, we
=
=
if \320\263
\317\206 \302\261\317\200
arcsin
can explicitly^
\342\200\224
=
\317\210 \317\200 arcsin
Indeed,
Q.
= -\302\273
if \321\203
> 0, \316\262
\320\264+/\321\201\320\276\320\260\321\203
arcsin
0,0) is the
to the four vertices
\342\202\254
X\\ corresponding
\342\200\224
=
arcsin
\317\206 \342\200\224\317\200
0,
examples
0.
\320\251
Similarly,!
if \321\203
<
\320\264+/\321\20108\321\203
\316\270|
it
of the function
arcsin,
follow?!
will
be arbitrarily
close to one of the corners
that (\316\270,
\317\206)
(\302\261\317\200,
\302\261\317\200)
\317\212$
~
is
close to Qo = (~R + r, 0,0).
Q
\321\203,
(\317\207,
\316\266) sufficiently
For
\316\265
the
> 0 small enough, Lemma 4.5 showsthat
ball B^(Pq, ej
\342\200\224>
of
is just the image under the quotient
the
X\\
map
\316\247\316\271 four quarter
of
the
disks radius \316\265
centered
at
four vertices (\302\261\317\200,
of X\\. By the
\302\261\317\200)
T2 \320\251
observations above, there existsa \316\264
> 0 such that whenever Q \342\202\254
= Q is withE
such
with
that
<
\302\243
X\\
\316\264,
any
\317\206)
\317\201(\316\270,
deac(Q, Qo)
(\316\270,
\317\206)
is the
a distance
< \316\265
of one of the vertices (\302\261\317\200,
Since
\302\261\317\200).
p~1(Q)
=
in
we
of
\342\202\254
with
conclude
tha
X\\
image
any (0, \317\210) \316\247\316\271 p(0, \317\210) Q,
d(r4Q).-Po)<\302\243.
and
0 =
=
if
\302\261\317\200
\316\271/0.
Since Po =
(~R + r,0,0).
The
by-case
By continuity
this
p~1(Qo),
at
continuity
proves that
other
the
Qq
T2 is
\342\202\254
at Qo
continuous
/\316\2231is
proved
by a
similar case
analysis.
Figure
We can
rectangleby
translations.
5.2.
Gluing
consider a
a
parallelogram
As in the
sides of a parallelogram
opposite
of
variation
X2 and
case of
the
this
by replacing
example
gluing
rectangle,
opposite
again
the
sides
four vertices
th|
5.1. Some euclidean surfaces
93
single point. Becausethe angles

add
parallelogram
up to 2\317\200,the angle condition of
Theorem 4.4 is satisfied,
and
we conclude
that the quotient metric
the
of a
to a
glued
euclidean
space (J?2)
The
of
shape
d)
the
quotient
can
X2
in such
a rectangle
to the
surface.
euclidean
is a
parallelogram
transposed
that
are
parallelogram
gluing
data
surface X2 is
clearly
way
that
for
X\\.
be stretched to assumethe
the gluing data for \316\247-\317\207
gets
See Exercise 5.1. It follows
again a torus.
5.1.2. EuclideanKleinBottles.
Given
a rectangle
X3 =
[a,b]
\317\207
its sidestogetherusing different

maps.
gluing
For instance, we can still glue the bottom edgeE\\ = [a, b] \317\207
to the
{\321\201}
=
\342\200\224>
x
\317\207
x {d}
the
top edge E2
isometry \317\206^.[\320\276,
b]
{\321\201} [\320\276,
[a, b] {d} by
b]
=
=
x
defined by \317\210\316\271(\317\207,\316\277)
but glue the left edge E3
(x,d),
{a} [c,d]
\342\200\224> \317\207
\317\207
1.0 the
right edge E4 = {b}\317\207
by \317\206^:{\316\261}
[c,d]
{6}
[c,d]
[c,d]
\342\200\224
=
defined
d
the
the
left
by <\321\200\320\267(\320\260,
map
flips
gluing
\321\203) (b,
y).
Namely,
a
down
it
translation.
before
to
the
(dge
upside
sending
right edge by
the
four
of
are
vertices
X3
Again,
glued together to form a single
of
the
point
quotient spaceX3. Sincethe angles of X3 at these four
verticesadd up to 2\317\200,the combination
of Theorems 4.3 and 4.4shows
Lhat
is locally
isometric
to the euclidean plane (R2, \302\2534uc)\302\267
(X3, \316\254\317\2073)
[c,d],
we can
also glue
>
E2
\316\271
\\\320\225\320\267
X3
Ei
\316\225\317\207
>.
Figure
5.3.
Another
way
of gluing
opposite sidesof a rectangle
To understand
the global shape of X3, we first glue the bottom
and top sides together,to form
a cylinder
as in the case of the torus.
Wie then need to glue the left side of the cylinder to the right
side
by
\321\217
This
of
translation
a
the
by
time,
followed
flip.
difficulty
physically
the need for
realizing this in 3-dimensional space goes well
beyond
5. Gluing examples
94
the
stretching
realize,
in
the
toX3The right-hand
to be impossible
to
actually be shown
there is no subset, of R3 which is homeomorphic
It can
paper.
sense that
5.3 offers an approximation, where

a
surface
crosses itself along
closedcurve.
Each
of this
point
self-intersection curve has to be understood
as corresponding
to two
an additional space dimension,
X3.
points of the surface
Introducing
this picture can also be used to represent
an object in 4-dimensional
is
similar
This
to
the
a
space.
figure eight 00 in the plane can
way
be deformed to a curve
with no self-intersection in 3-dimensional
00
side
of Figure
the
Figure
5.4. A physical Klein bottle
space,
on the
of the figure
up and down near the
eight
itself. In the same way, the object represented
side of Figure 5.3 can be deformed to a subset of
space R4 that is homeomorphic to X3.
parts
pushing
by
it crosses
where
point
right-hand
4-dimensional
the
The surface
1925),as
is
an
can be obtainedfrom
interpretation
a regular
base after
the
to
from
comes
it
passing inside of
a bad pun,
or a
the
a better
the
with
previous
bad translation
one)
the
from
is
well
first
one
makes
by the
illustrated
probably
for better
pictures.
physical glass model of
of the
from the web site www.kleinbottle.com
Klein
Klein Bottle, which
offers
bottle-shaped
many
borrowed
5.4,
Acme
company
whereas the
story,
This secondpoint
Figure
Another
bottle.
KleinscheFlasche (Kleinbottle). Thelatter version

provides
(1849-
the Kleinsche Flache (Klein surface) becamethe
in which
German,
surface.
not incompatible
and
(unverified,
claims that
Felix Klein
The \"bottle\"
1882 by
a Klein bottle
to reflect the fact that
wine bottle by stretching its neck and
understood
usually
in
introduced
of pathological
example
connecting it
bottle.
Klein
is a
X3
The Klein bottle was

terminology
95
euclidean surfaces
5.1. Some
products for sale.
5.1.3. Gluing oppositesidesofa hexagon.

beyond
consider
and
quadrilaterals
Let
us
now go
a hexagon X4 where we glue opposite
5.5; compare also Figures4.3

of the quotient space
points
each
More
to
of
three
vertices
X4,
X4.
corresponding
precisely,if we
label the vertices Pi, P2, ..., Pe in this
order
as one goes around the
hexagon, the odd vertices
P3 and
P5 are glued together to form
\316\2411;
one
of X4, and the even
vertices
point
P2, P4 and Pq form another
the
of
we
the
need
point
X4.
hexagon X4 to satisfy
Consequently,
edges
as
together,
and
The
4.6.
on Figure
indicated
vertices
of X4 project
to two
two conditions:
following
(1) opposite edgeshave

(2) the angles of X4 at
the
same
the odd
length;
vertices Pj, P3,
P5
add
up
to
2\317\200.
Recall
that
equal to
the
angles
the
so
4\317\200,
of X4
sum of
that
the anglesof
is always
a euclidean
hexagon
the
is
to
equivalent
property that
(2)
A little
vertices
P2, P4, Pe add up to 2\317\200.
condition
at its
even
5. Gluing
96
exercisein
(1) and
5.7.
Exercise
see
parallel;
shows that in a hexagon

geometry
above,
opposite edgesare necessarily
(2)
euclidean
elementary
conditions
satisfying
If the hexagon X4 satisfiesconditions
apply Theorems4.3and
a
\316\254\317\2074)
is
(X4,
examples
euclidean
4.4
show
to
(2), we
and
(1)
that the
can again
quotient metric space
surface.
P2
Pi
\302\2433
Figure
we
To
understand
can
consider
as in Figure
and
Gluing
opposite
sides of a
hexagon
of X4 up to
of
the diagonals P1P5 and P2P4
the
global shape
5.5. These two
diagonals
cut
the
homeomorphism,
the
X4,
into three
hexagon
hexagon
\342\226\240
the two triangles

P2P3P4
of
the
P4P5
parallelogram
provides a cylinder, whose boundary consistsof the two
the
pieces,
5.5.
\320\250
Pa
\320\240\321\214
parallelogram
P1P2P4P5 and
P1P2 and
the edges
\316\241$\316\241\316\262\316\241\\\302\267
Gluing
P1P2P4P5
\316\257
and
P2P4.
diagonals P\\P$
gluing the two i
Similarly,
and PsPePi together by identifying
the
edge P2P3 I
to the edge P5P6 and the edge P3P4
to \316\241^\316\241\317\207
another
cylinder,
gives
>
i
whose
to the imagesof the diagonals
boundary
again corresponds
of Figure
side
5.5. This proves j
P1P5 and P2P4. See the right-hand
>
that
the quotient space X4 along the imagesof the diagonals
splitting
and P2P4 gives two cylinders. In particular, X4 can be recovered
P1P5
from
these
two cylinders by gluing
them
back together
according to \342\226\240\342
It
:
the
described
on the right
of Figure
5.5.
pattern
easily followsthat
to the torus.
i
X4 is homeomorphic
of the
images
triangles
As
construction
torus
P2P3P4
announced
of
is somewhat
should be
earlier disclaimer, this discussion

of the
from the quotient space X4 to the
informal.
a little
However, with
reflection,
you
convince
this
that
description could be
yourself
in an
a homeomorphism
able to
\\
'-\342\226\240
surface of genus2
5.2. The
made
of homeomorphisms
informal descriptions
will
apply
to
other
on.
later
of genus 2
surface
The
5.2.
The same
if needed.
rigorous
completely
97
in the last section that if we start with

saw
a euclidean
rectangle
or parallelogram and if we glue opposite edges by a translation, we
obtain a euclideantorus.Similarly,
for a euclidean
hexagon satisfying
its
conditions
on
we found out
and
appropriate
edge lengths
angles,
We
that
go one
can
We
again
edges
opposite
gluing
step
X, as on the left-hand
and
further
side
yields a
of Figure
glue
euclidean torus.
opposite
sides of
an octagon
5.6.
Q\302\251
Figure 5.6. Gluing
opposite
edges of
\320\260\320\273
octagon
to the
quotient spaceX is homeomorphic
on
the
of
right
surface
of
genus
Figure
5.6, namely, a
is
handles.
torus
a
one
with
2
handle
with
sphere
sphere
(A
added.)
To see this, one can cut out a smaller octagon from X as
indicated
in Figure
5.6. This smaller octagon X\\ can be seen as a
whose
corners
have been cut off. Gluing oppositeedgesof this
rectangle
we see that the image \316\247\317\207
in X is just a torus from
which
rectangle,
from
the
a square
to
the
removed
triangles
rectangle)
(corresponding
has been removed. SeeFigure 5.7.
We
claim
that the
2 represented
It
X2 of
to
remains
in X.
\316\247\316\271
edgesgives
a big
of square
annulus,
this
annulus
inside
consider
Gluing
square
as
out,
in
four strips forming

the
complement
these four strips together along their short
minus a smaller square, namely,
some
kind
left-hand
side of Figure 5.8. Flipping
the
as in the middle picture of Figure
5.8, and
the
5. Gluing examples
98
\316\230
5.7.
Figure
5.8. The
Figure
then
quotient
outside
the
gluing
the
2 of
The
4.4,
have the
we see that
try
of
X.
the two
gluing
by
gives the
of
surface
to
put
a euclidean
metric on the
octagonX are glued

if we
Consequently,
2\317\200.
Unfortunately,
octagon add up to
to
want
in euclidean
to form
together
Theorems
apply
opposite
at the
a-|
4.3 \\
edgesl
vertices;
the angles of
geometry,
space
quotient
an
6\317\200!
euclideanmetric on X.t.
Therefore,
impossible
can be proved that this is indeed the case, and
that
the surfaced
genus 2 admitsno euclideanmetric; seeExercise
5.16).However,
to put a
it seems
(It
in the
X2
square.
we need to use a euclideanoctagonwhere

same length, and where the sum of the angles
is equal to
of
the image X2 of
their boundaries, which
along
eight vertices of the
single point
and
5.6
Figure 5.6.
Let us now
X.
5.6
of Figure
half
is again a torus minus a

quotient space X is obtained
and
\316\247\316\271
X2
genus
sides,
other
of Figure
space X
Finally,
surfaces
One half
The
Lemma
will provide
geometry
hyperbolic
first
step
5.2.
with angles
is the
In the
us
with
octagon.
following.
hyperbolic plane
f, f and ^.
a suitable
S
.;
H2, there
exists
a triangle
T\\
^
of genus
surface
The
5.2.
See Proposition5.13and
construction
Proof.
hyperbolic
of
will
We
actually
for a
5.15
Exercise
with prescribed
triangles
hyperbolic
99
euclidean
use
more general
angles.
geometry to
construct this
triangle.
0 and \321\201\321\216.
with the hyperbolic geodesicg with endpoints
consider
the
g is the vertical half-line beginning at 0. Then
Namely
to g at the point i. Namely,
complete geodesic ft that is orthogonal
ft is a euclidean
semi-circle of radius 1 centeredat 0. We are looking
for a third geodesic \320\272
makes
both
which
an angle of f with
g and ft.
We begin
For
j/ <
every
1, let
ky
be
the
complete
geodesic
that
through the point \\y and makes an angle of | with g. Namely,

a euclidean semi-circleof radius
esc
\321\203
| centeredat the point
and consequently
meets g as long as (sinf) / (1+ cos f) <
See Figure 5.9.
0
5.9.
Figure
A hyperbolic
The angle ay betweenky
triangle
passes
ky is
cot
\321\203
J/ <
f,
1.
ycotf
with
angles
f,
j and
-|
g at their intersection point depends

= 1, and
to
approaches 0 as
equal
continuously
^ when \321\203
the
tends
to
Intermediate
+
\321\203
(sin|)/(l
cos|). Consequently,by
=
there
exists a value of \321\203
for
which
Value
Theorem
ay
f. By
the
Cosine
Formula to the triangle formed
by the intersection
applying
point of g and ky and by the centers of these euclideansemi-circles,
one
could
find an explicit formula for this y, but this is not
actually
on
necessary.
y. It is
and
5.
100
For this value

the hyperbolic
all
where
to
to
triangle
geodesies g,
edges
and
ky delimit
J
D
exists
X |
an octagon
are equal I
all angles
\342\200\224
4.
Let
Proof.
as P0,
P\\
are
Ti
->
\320\2302
H2
P2 in
5.10.
an
A hyperbolic
with
octagon
all angles
equal to
H2.
We can choose the
point Q \342\202\254
In
for
i.
addition, using Lemma
Q
every
\302\245>\302\273(\320\240\320\263)
arbitrary
\\
isometriesf
4.8,
we
that:
arrange
(1) if
\320\263
is even,
so
tpi-i(PoP2)
if
\320\263
> 1
geodesic,
ii
geodesic,
and
\317\206\316\257
tp,-_i
send
that
T,_!
T,-
and
the edge P0P2 to the same|

have this edge ^\302\253(-\320\240\320\276\320\240\320\26
=|
in common;
is odd, \317\210{
and
</?i_i send the edge P1P2 to the same;1
so that
this
and
have
T\302\273
\316\244\302\273_\316\271
edge \317\210\317\212{\316\241\\\316\2412)
=|
tpi-i(PiP2)
(3)
\317\210\316\257{\316\244).
so that
\317\210\316\257
(2)
copies
triangles
hyperbolic
such that Tt
of T. Namely,
Tj, T2, ..., \316\244\317\207\316\262
|
for which there exists isometries</?\302\253:
I
isometric
16
with
Figure
Pick
triangle provided by Lemma 5.2. Listits vertices

such a way that Pq is the vertex
with
angle
\\.
the
\316\244
be
and
We start
the
can
hyperbolic
examples
\316\244
required.
In the hyperbolicplane \320\2502,there

and
where
have the same length
5.3.
Lemma
y, the
of
Gluing
\321\210
common;
for every i > 1, the

sides
of their common
triangles
edge.
and
T\302\273
Tj-j
sit on
opposite\302\273!
\316\252
of genus
surface
The
5.2.
Since16f
the
2\317\200,
and the last edgeof

When
the
\320\263
is even,
It follows that
the
of
union
arc.
singlegeodesic
union
the
Therefore,
X of
In
\316\244\316\212.
5.10.
arcs ^(PqPj) = \317\206\316\257-\316\271(\316\2410\316\2

at that
angle of ^ + ^ = \317\200
these
two geodesic arcs forms a
the 16 triangles T{
hyperbolic plane H2. Its angles

have
the
the
original
same length, namely,
symmetries
Figure 5.11,which
Section
in
center
are
all equal
twice the
length
is an
to 2^
of
in the
octagon
Its
= j.
the
edge
\320\242.
triangle
The
the
of
edge
and
make
an
\317\210\316\257(\316\241\316\277)
\317\210\316\257-\316\271(\316\241\316\277)
point.
to
first
two geodesic
at
introduced
match the
See Figure
\317\206\316\271\316\262\316\231\316\241\316\271\316\241\316\266)
\317\206\\(\316\241\\\316\2412)\302\267
the point Q,
around
together
nicely
back to
particular,
meet
fit
T\302\273
comes
Tjg
101
edges
all
PqPi of
\320\236
hyperbolic octagon are more apparent in

its image in the disk model for H2,
represents
2.7, if we arrange that the centerQofX corresponds
of this
of!2.
\320\236
5.11.
Figure
disk model
The
hyperbolic
octagon
of Figure
5.10
in
the
Let X be the hyperbolicoctagon provided by Lemma 5.3,and let

the quotient space obtainedby gluing
sides
together
opposite
of X, as in Figure 5.6. Then
Theorems
4.9 and 4.10 assert that the
X be
metric
dx
that the
plane.
a quotient metric dx on this quotient

induces
X, and
space
metric space (\316\247,\316\254\317\207)
is locally
to the hyperbolic
isometric
5. Gluing
102
In
is homeomorphic
5.3.
The
i
(\316\247,\316\254\317\207)
\\
plane
projective
a spherical
construct
now
constructed a hyperbolicsurface
to the surface
of genus
2.
we have
particular,
which
We
examples
surface,
is
which
the
from
different
sphere S2.
Let X be a hemisphere
which
two
into
\320\241
edges
we endow
which
that
is just
\316\254\317\207
E\\
with
on
\342\200\224P\\
the
the
Ei.
We now
the
path
metric
of the
E2 defined
map \317\210\\:E\\ \342\200\224>
a quotient space (X,dx)
to E2
\316\225\317\207
glue
The
X and
polygon
its
Figure 6.12. The
The
consequently
4.13, and
to
angles of
add
up to
show
that
X at
the
sphere (S2,dePh)\302\267
projective
plane.
In Exercise 5.10, we
interpreted
the
space
3-dimensional space R3.
This
show
that
and
equal to \317\200,
4.12 and
Theorems
apply
space (X, dx)
quotient
of lines
plane
are both
we can
quotient
5.12.
in Figure
represented
projective
P2
2\317\200.Therefore,
the
as
and
P\\
are
data
gluing
\320\241
delimiting
sphericalmetricdeph\302\267
by the antipode
\342\200\224\316\241data defines
This
by \317\210\317\207{\316\241)
gluing
Now,
great circle
These two
vertices split
have a sphericalpolygon
X,
X
is
so
Note
that
dx.
convex,
polygon.
and
the restriction
X into a polygon, picktwo
lb turn
S2.
Pi and Pi =
points
will be the vertices of
antipodal
X,
in
space
the projective
passing through
is locally
isometric
called
(\316\247,\316\254\317\207)
is
plane can
the
origin
the
also be
in the
5.4. The cylinderand
their
gluing
unbounded
consider
now
edges
103
strip
the Mobiusstrip
The cylinder and
5.4.
We
Mobius
the
polygons
and the surfaces obtainedby
together.
The simplest caseis that of an infinite strip where the two edges
together which provides a cylinder or a Mobiusstrip. These
somewhat trivial at first,
but
may appear
they
examples
already
are
glued
display
we
that
features
many
in more
encounter
will
complicated
surfaces.
Ei
\320\225\320\273
Xi
Figure
Euclidean
5.4.1.
with
an
parallel
infinite
lines
5.13.
cylinders
strip
in the
\316\247\317\207
Orient
and
E2\316\225\317\207
euclidean
cylinder
and Mobius strips. We can begin

euclidean
plane R2, bounded by two
and
E2 in the same direction, and
\316\225\317\207
these orientations.
E2 respecting
E\\ \342\200\224>
glue them by an isometry \317\210\317\207:
Because there are no vertices on E\\ and E2, this is a situation where
the
is not
determined by these properties.
gluing
uniquely
map \317\210\317\207
Indeed,there are many
possible
other by composition with

Pick any such gluing
quotient
corresponding
hypothesis of
Theorems
4.3
and
space
Theorem
choices
a translation
map
(Xi,
4.4 is
4.4 show that
for
all differing
\317\210\317\207,
of R2
parallel to
\342\200\224> and
\316\225\317\207
E2,
\317\206\316\271:
consider
from each
and
E2.
\316\225\317\207
the
has
no vertex, the angle
dxj. Since \316\247\316\271
satisfied.
Therefore,
automatically
euclidean
is a
\316\254\317\207\317\207)
(\316\247\317\207,
surface.
5. Gluing examples |
104
This
surface
euclidean
be homeomorphic
seen to
is easily
the
to
cylinder.
For another vertical strip X2 in R2 bounded by parallel lines E\\

and
E2, we can orient E\\ and
E2 so that they now point in opposite
\342\200\224>
these
directions
and choose a gluing
E2
E\\
respecting
map
\317\206:
choices
for this gluing
orientations.
different
Again, there are many
map,
differing
by composition
translations
with
to
parallel
E\\
and
Ei.
choice of such a gluing

4.3 and 4.4 shows
that
For each
Theorems
is a euclidean
surface.
(X2, \316\254\317\2072)
The topology of the quotient
Indeed, this space is homeomorphic
another
\317\206\\,
map
the
space
to
quotient
corresponding
(X2,
the
is now
\316\254\317\2072)
famous
of
application
space
very different.
\320\234\320\264\320\253\320\270\320\260
strip.
Xi
Figure 5.14. A
The Mobius
who
conceived
strip is named
of this
euclidean
after
Mobius
August
strip
Mobius
nonorientable surface in
(1790-1868),
1858while
working
\316\257
this work, \316\273~
of \321\217\320\263
~ \302\253
He- never --jr- published
properties
i-jr
polyhedra.
which
was only discovered after his death. Credit for the discovery
I
Benedict Listing J
of the Mobius strip should probably
go to Johann
the Mobius strip 1
who
described
independently
(1808-1882)instead,
in
1858.
made
another important contribution
Incidentally,
Listing
|
to the themes of this monograph.
He coined the word \"topology\"
|
in an 1836 letter, and the first
(or Topologiein the German
original)
|
term
occurrence
of
this
printed
appears in his book Vorstudien zur'
Topologie, published in 1847.
on
\320\276
geometric
5.4.
The
cylinder
and the
105
Mobius strip
5.4.2.Hyperbolic
cylinders.
We
can
make
analogous
completely
constructions in hyperbolic geometry

the euclidean strip
by replacing
a strip
in
bounded
with
the
X3
by two disjoint
hyperbolic plane H2,
are
essentially two
complete geodesies E\\ and E2. However, there
in H2.
for such an infinite
different
shapes
strip
Figure 6.15.
the endpoints
First,
hyperbolic
and
of \316\225\316\273
E2
cylinder
on Ru
may
{\321\201\320\276}
distinct.
there exists
all be
with
linear
fractional
By an easyalgebraicexercise
maps,
an isometry of H2 sending E\\ to the complete geodesicwith endpoints
\302\2611
and
for
E2 to the complete geodesicwith
\302\2610,
sending
endpoints
loss
some a < 1. Consequently,we can assume,without
of generality,
that Ei goes from
\342\200\2241
to +1 and that E2 goes from
\342\200\224\320\276
to +a.
To glue E\\ to E2 we need an isometry \317\210\\
E\\ to E2.
sending
Among such isometriesof H2, the simplest one is the homothety
= \316\261\316\266.
this specific isometry as a gluing
defined
Choose
by \317\210\317\207{\316\266)
map,
and let (\320\245\320\267,\320\260\320\245\320\267)
be the
corresponding
quotient metric space. The
combination
of Theorems
4.9 and 4.10 shows that
(X3,
dXa) is locally
it is a hyperbolic
isometric to the hyperbolicplane (H2,dhyp); namely,
.surface.We are now in the situation of Figure 5.15.
This
cylinder.
However,
cylinder.
shown to be homeomorphic
is very different from
geometry
is easily
surface
its
to
that
of
the
a euclidean
5. Gluing
106
examples
that Xi is the vertical

we
strip
glue E\\ = {(\320\266,y) \342\202\254
{(x,y)
=
=
=
\317\207
horizontal
translation
to
\317\207
\342\202\254
the
\320\225\321\212
R2;
R2;
0}
{(x, y)
a} by
an
Exercise
7.9 in Chapter 7 for
+ \320\276>,
analysis
\317\210\317\207'\302\267
(\320\266!
\321\203)*-*(\321\205
\321\203)(See
that
the general case
of the
other
shows
possible gluing maps, which
Indeed,
<
\342\202\254
R2;0
\317\207
<
is essentiallyequivalent
space
(\316\247\316\271,
dXl)
7t where, for
case, assume
a} and that
euclidean
the
in
the one considered

here.) The quotient
be decomposed as a union
of closed
curves
the image in \316\247\316\271
horizontal
line
of the
to
then
can
each t,
is
*/t
all have
i}. These closed curves
the central
the set of points at distance \316\264
curve 70
from
the curves
consists exactly of the two curves 7,5 U 7_\320\263.In particular,
show
that
\"width\"
the
is
the
the
of
euclidean
7t
cylinder \316\247\317\207 same at
every point.
In the hyperbolic
where
X3 is the strip in H2 delimited
case,
by
segment
\342\202\254
\316\2332;0
{(x,y)
\316\257
<
<
o, j/ =
o, and
length
the geodesies
respectively,
space X3,
quotient
consistingof
all
closed
The
curve
radius
in (H2,<ihyp)
\316\265
only
to
^,
= re1^-9)
\316\266
an isometry
to +a,
\342\200\2241
to +1 and from \342\200\224\320\276
= \316\261\316\266.
the
For
homothety \317\210\317\207
by
(\316\266)
we now have a closedcurve
in
the
79
the image of the euclidean line segment
with a < r < 1.
from
going
is
which
exists
H2. The
E\\
\342\200\224 \316\270
<
<
\316\270
with
every
and
\316\225\316\271
Ei
we glued
E2
70 is geodesic because, for

between a small ball Bj
70
sending
this
\316\241
where
point
and
(\316\241,\316\265)
to
(\316\241,\316\265) a
\316\240
Bjh
requires
\316\241
\342\202\254
70, there
each
of
arc of
a ball
geodesic
checking is when
a little
\316\241
in which case the
to the two points i and oi \342\202\254
X3,
corresponds
4.10 is easily seen
local isometry provided by the proof of Theorem
are never geodesic.
The curves 79 with
\316\270
to satisfy
this
property.
jiO
A few
rather
immediate
computations of hyperbolic lengths show
the following:
(1) The
(2) Every point

m
I0
f
/
,/j
curve 79 has hyperbolic length
r cos
-dt
= rel(-^~9^
\316\266
=
t'
Compare Exercise2.5for
log(sec
the
of 79
\316\270
+ tan
proof
is at
1
r cos
a sec
distance
|0|) from
of (2).
-zdr=log
the curve 70.
\316\230.
5.4. The
cylinder and the Mobiusstrip

for
Therefore,
are
at distance
equivalent
+ tan|0|)
log(sec0
to
the
70
\316\264.
By
0,
set of points of X3 that

of the two curves 7\302\261ewith
this is
trigonometry,
the
consists
elementary
that sec0
property
= coshi.
Therefore,
by
(1)
above,
\316\264.
In
to log \320\276
cosh
the
the
width
of
with
the
particular,
cylinder grows exponentially
distance
\316\264
from
waist\"
for
70, so that 70 forms some kind of \"narrow
the hyperbolic cylinder X3.
The picture on the right-hand
side
of Figure
5.15 attempts to
a sense
of this exponential growth. This picture is necessarily
convey
as one goes toward one of the ends of the
imperfect.
Indeed,
its
width grows faster than that of any surface
of
hyperbolic
cylinder,
the length
revolution
of each
\316\264
>
every
\316\264
from
107
in
of
these
3-dimensional
the
two
curves
euclidean
is equal
space R3.
00
X,
Figure
5.16.
Another
hyperbolic cylinder
In the hyperbolic plane H2, there is another

of infinite
type
strip
bounded by two complete geodesies\316\225\317\207
and
E2 which occurs when
in common in R U {00}. Applying an
Ei and Ei have one endpoint
loss
of generality
that this
isometry of H2, we can assume without
common point is \321\201\320\276,
halfthat
E\\ and Ei are both vertical
namely
we can
lines.
By a horizontal translation followed
by a homothety,
even arrange that E\\ is the vertical half-line with endpoints
0 and
from
1
00.
while
to
These
two
now
delimit
the
\321\201\320\276, E2 goes
geodesies
=
strip X4 {ze H2;0 sj Re(^) sj 1}in H2.
5. Gluing
108
To glue the edgesE\\
examples
the simplest gluing

together,
map
= \316\266
translation defined by \317\206\316\271
+
(\316\266)
be the
1. Let {X4, dhyp)
obtained
this
space
quotient
by performing
on X4. This quotient space is a hyperbolic
surface
gluing
operation
seen
to be homeomorphic
4.9 and 4.10, and is easily
to
by Theorems
is
the cylinder.We should note that our choice of the gluing
map
\317\206\316\271
critical
here. Indeed, we will see in Section 6.7.1 that other choices
leadto hyperbolic
with
cylinders
very different geometric properties.
For every i\342\202\254i,let 7t be the closed curve in the quotient
space
line segment consisting of those
of the horizontal
X4 that is the image
\316\266
of the
\342\202\254
that \\m(z) = e*. By definition
X4 such
hyperbolic
metric,
has
e-i.
it is immediate that
Also,
7t
hyperbolic
length
every point of
from
central
curve
is
at
distance
the
hyperbolic
70. Therefore,
7t
\\t\\
the width
toward one end of the cylinder
of X4 grows exponentially
and decreases exponentially toward the other end.
and
Ei
horizontal
the
\342\200\224\342\226\272
is
\316\225\316\271
E2
\317\206\316\271:
side of Figure 5.16 attempts to illustrate

case of X3, this picture
is necessarily
imperfect for
the end with exponential growth. Surprisinglyenough,the
can be exactly represented as a surface
end with exponential
decay
in the ^-dimensional space M3.
of revolution
the
Again,
right-hand
As in the
behavior.
this
More
those
denote the upper part of X4 consisting of

Im(z) > 7^, and let Xf be its image in X4.
rcj/-plane, consider the tractrix parametrizedby
let Xf
precisely,
such that
\316\266
G X4
In the
it-\342\200\224>
(t
\342\200\224
0 < t
tanhi,sechi),
and let the paeudosphere S be the

obtained
by
Endow the pseudosphereS with the

S,
property that for every P, Q \342\202\254
ds(P,Q)
contained
in
As usual,
distance
between
of all
curves
geodesies
joining
\316\241
to
we endow X%
is
surface
ds defined by
is the infimum of
metric
the
the
piecewise differentiable curves 7
Q.
with
metric
the
Xf
is the infimum
these two
joining
euclidean
semi-circles,
two
in
are
of all
êuc(7)
S and
This
\320\266-axis.
in M3
5.17.
in Figure
euclideanlengths
of revolution
surface
about the
tractrix
the
revolving
represented
< 00,
of
points
it
dx+ for
the
which
hyperbolic
the
lengths
points. Becausehyperbolic
is
relatively
immediate
that
hyperbolic
dx+ on the
space
quotient
induced
space (X^,dx+)
is isometricto
in part
because of the
the
(S,ds).
surface
The proof will
Proof.
several
take
steps,
on
quotient
perhaps be skipped
at
should
least
have
a
atLemma
glance
reading. However, you
which contains the key geometricidea of the proof.
metric.
the
of
definition
Let p:Xj-^S
= (u, v, w)
p(z)
keep
quotient
metric
quotient
to
X\302\243.
The metric
5.4.
Proposition
be the
Let dx+
5.8.
Lemma
compare
metrics;
with
subtleties
(minor)
the
with
distance.
notation because of
a distinct
by
the
of
metric dx+ actually

coincides
it
However, is convenient
so that this
is convex,
Xf
restriction
109
cylinder and the Mobiusstrip
5.4. The
. =
log
It may
be the map which
Then
the point
\"
^tS)\"1'lm(z)
^\320\234*)\320\260-1)
(2.1\320\250\320\234
\">
sin (2\317\200
-\342\200\224;\342\200\224\320\223\320\242
Re(z)).
v
v \"
2\321\202\320\2631\321\202(,\320\263)
p(z)
Geometrically,
t
5.5,
with
=
cos (2irRe(z)),
\316\275
-\342\200\224\317\202\342\200\2247-r
v
v
2\321\202\320\2631\321\202(,\320\263)
w =
\316\266
associates
\342\202\254
X^
to
a first
is better
= log
arccosh(27rIm(,z))
=
p(z)
obtained
(2nlm(z) + y/4n21m(z)2
l) .
\342\200\224
(t
tanhi,sechi
by rotating
parameter
understood by setting
an
by
cos(2\317\200Ile(\320\263)),sech\316\257
the point
angle
of
of
2\317\200
Be(z)
tractrix
the
corresponding
the rc-axis.
about
is
sm(2nBe(z)))
to the
In particular, two points z, z' e X/ have the same image under

\342\200\224
\316\266
is an integer,
and
z'
only if z'
namely, if and only if \316\266
a single
of
are glued together to form
the
point
quotient space Xf.
As
a consequence,
S defined
induces
an injective
map p: Xf \342\200\224>
\317\201
by
\316\241
the property that p(P) is equal to p(P)
for every
\342\202\254
any
X\302\243and
if and
\317\201
element
\316\241
in
the
\316\241
\342\202\254
\316\241,
namely,
quotient
The map
follows
that
p:
for
any point
\316\241
G
Xf
that
corresponds
to
space Xf.
is surjective
\317\201
\342\200\224>
S is
X\302\243
by definition
surjective
pseudosphereS. It
therefore bijective.
of the
and is
page
114
5. Gluing
110
examples
Figure
5.17\302\267The
pseudosphere
is an isometry
from
We will prove that \317\201
is
the
step
following computation.
The key
Lemma 5.5.
a curve in the
the hyperbolic
Let
Proof.
Dzp
sends
The
length
With
After
is equal
to
\316\267.
differential map Dzp.

b)
half-strip X% to
4uc(p(7))
Remember
that
to
%a+wb)
+ iy.
arccoshî/)
|^
= 2ttSechi
euclidean length
(i\302\253+$*, i\302\253+S6\302\267
= x
\316\266
t
curve 7 in the
to (S,ds).
2\317\200\316\262\316\262\316\233\316\257
tanhi,
fjjf
of
^hypM
us compute the
=
the vector \316\275
(a,
every
S whose
surface
d.pw
if we write
sends
\317\201
map
(Xf,dx+)
as before,
we
\342\200\224
that
find
dx
cos (2ira;), and
t 8\316\252\316\267(2\317\200:\317\204).
f| = 2\317\2008\316\265\316\2771\316\2712
simplifications,
ll^P^lleuc
\302\260.s
2\317\200\316\262\316\262\316\2332\316\257
-2\317\200\316\262\316\262\316\233\316\257
8\316\220\316\267(2\317\200:\317\204),
\321\201\320\260\320\260(2\320\266\321
J|
= 2*sechi
||tf||euc= -
||iT||euc
||i;||hyp.
The
5.4.
If
parametrized by s
by s 1-*p(z(s)),
a curve
is
is parametrized
\317\201{\316\267)
t-*
z(s),
s ^
Si ^
82, its image
si < s < \302\2532-Therefore,
4uc(\302\245>(7))= ra||(po2ry(*)||eucd*=
111
and the Mobius strip
cylinder
\320\223||\320\257\320\263(\320\262)\320\230*))||\320\265\321\210>
4\320\243\321\200(7).
\320\223\342\204\226)\320\235\321\214\321\203\321\200^
5.6.
Lemma
ds(p(P),P(Q))^dxt(P,Q)
for every P, Q \342\202\254

X4\".
Let the
Proof.
is i(w)
=
~
\316\241
\316\241\317\207,
Qi
walk w from
a discrete
form
points
\316\241
to
Q.
\302\267
P2, \302\267
\302\267,
Qn-i
The length of
Pi,
Qn =
the discretewalk
Q\302\273)\302\267
\316\243)?=\316\271
<**+ (\320\233,
there is a geodesicarc 7* joining

to Qj
P\302\273
5.5 shows
whose hyperbolic length is equal to dx+(Pi,Qi). Lemma
is a curve joining p(Pi) to p\\Qi) = p(Pi+i)
that the image 7^ = \317\201(7\302\273)
in
S whose
euclidean
length is equal to the hyperboliclength of 7\302\273.
these 7^ provides a curve 7' joining p(P) = p(P)
Chaining
together
=
to p(Q)
is
p(Q) in S. Its euclideanlength
By
of Xf,
convexity
\316\267
\316\267
\316\267
i=l
i=l
i=l
By definition of the
metric ds, this

Since this holds for every discrete
that ds(p(P), p(Q)) < dx+ (P, Q).
Lemma
that ds(p(P),p(Q))
< i(w).
walk w from \316\241
to Q, we conclude
shows
5.7.
djc+(^Q)<ds(p(P),p(Q))
/or
every
Proof.
7
P,
For a
\342\202\254
X4\".
given
going from p(P)
ds(p(P),p(Q))
\316\265
> 0,
want
use the
to
following
exists a
whose
length
curve
is sufficiently
close to
that
ds(p(P),p(Q))
We
there
to p(Q) in 5
decompose
estimate.
< 4uc(7)
< ds(p(P),p(Q))+e.
7 into pieces
coming from
Xf.
For
this,
we
5. Gluing
112
In the
(t
\342\200\224
are
both
surface
sechi,
tanhi,
and
in T,
claim that
\316\261
is
is
\316\262
if
<
4uc(/?)
see
To
0). If
a curve
the
4uc(a)\302\267
parametrize
this,
tractrix \316\244
parametrized
by t t-*
in S whose endpointsP' and Q'
of \316\244
from P' to Q', we
portion
going
the
consider
S,
with
aljysi-\302\273
'
= t(s)-
x(s)
<
y(s)
k
z(s)
s <
b,
tanhi(s)
sechi(s)
cos0(s)
sechi(s)
sin0(s)
and s \316\271-\302\273
The
functions s t-\302\273
i(s)
0(s).
a
where
is
constant
parametrization,
equal
6(s)
computation then yields
curve
to
a similar
has
\316\262
0. An
'
immediate
\320\263\321\214
J/ a
Ja
>/
+ \316\257/'(\302\253)2
+ ,\316\265'(\302\253)2\317\216\316\257
\\\316\233'(\316\262)2
tanh2
\\/t'(s)2
i'(s)tanhi(e)
a consequence,
:
s
sech2 t(s)
+ 0'(s)2
\316\257(\316\262)
ds =
Ja
As
a <
(x(s),y(s),z(s)),
for some
4uc(a)
examples
ds
\\
'.
eeuctf).
1
j
we can
arrange
intersection
the
that
of 7 with
or reduced
single curve contained in T, possibly

J
empty
to a single
and
last points
1
point. Indeed, if P' and Q' are the first
where 7 meets T, we can replace the part \316\261
of 7 going from P' to Q' 3
\316\244
the
of
P'
its length.
to
without
part \316\262
joining
increasing
by
Q'
j
of a
\316\244
consists
now
are
We
is also
the image
points
which
ready to
under
correspond
conclude. The key
of the
\317\201
to two points
that
is
observation
of Xf
\316\244
I
consisting
of X\302\261(located
on the vertical
\"suture\"
of
those
part of the boundary of the half-strip

|
X4\.")
If 7 is disjoint
from
under
of a curve
T, then 7 is the image
\317\201
\\
in
a
\316\241
a
contained
and
from
to
point
7'
going
point Q. By \\
Xf
to the euclidean
Lemma
5.5, the hyperbolic length of 7' is equal
length >
of
7.
dx+
It follows that
(P,Q)
If 7
from
p(P)
<
meets
to a
dx}(P,Q)
\316\257
<
4uc(7)
4\321\203\320\240(\320\243)
T, we can split it
of
point
T, a secondcurve 72
the tractrix
< ds(p(P),
p{Q)) +
\316\265.
j
I
into
a first
contained
piece 71 going
in
\316\244
(possibly
<
The
5.4.
113
Mobius strip
and the
cylinder
from \316\244
to the
point), and a third piece73 going
Then
and
are
the
under
of
73
respective images
71, 72
p(Q).
\317\201
Thereare
curves
and
in
for
one
two
choices
possible
7i, 72
73 Xf.
72,
in each
of the two vertical sides of Xf,
and we just pick one of them.
We have observed that two points of X\302\261have
the same image under
if and
\317\201
only if they are glued together in the quotient
space
Xf.
if P\302\273
the
and
denote
initial
terminal
and
Qi
points of
Consequently,
~ Pi,
each
7i, we have that \316\241
Qi ~ P2, Q% ~ P3 and Q3 ~ Q. In
the
and
w from
\316\241
to Q whose
P\302\273
particular,
Qi form a discrete walk
length is
to
reduced
a single
point
33
euclidean length of
Lemma 5.5. Therefore,
since the
by
dx} (P, Q) < dxt (P,

We
both
have
cases,
i=l
i=l
i=l
Q)
<
(w)
< 4uc(7)
\302\243\316\254\317\207}
proved that
now
to the
is equal
7\302\273
and this for
0.
\316\265
>
*S ds{p(P),p(Q))
7^
\316\265.
in
< ds(p(P),p(Q))+ \316\265
dx+(P, Q)
every
hyperbolic length of
Therefore,
<
dx+(P,Q)
ds(p(P),p(Q)) as requested.
The
dx+(P,Q)
from (Xf,dx+)
5.6 and
of Lemmas
combination
for every
P, Q
to (S,ds).
Proposition
5.4.
\342\202\254
X4\",
This
5.7 showsthat
namely
completes
that
the
ds(p(P),
is
\317\201
proof
an
p(Q))
isometry
of
D
a
We conclude our discussionof Proposition
5.4 by addressing
=
=
of X4 and Xf,
little subtlety. By convexity
dx+ (P, Q) dx (P, Q)
and
in the quotient space
Q \342\202\254
However,
X%.
e?hyp(P, Q) for every \316\241
a
difference
be
there
betweenthe
quotient
might
conceivably
X4\",
of
of X4.
the
the
metric
metric
and
restriction
quotient
dx+
dx
metric dx involves discrete
of the
quotient
Indeed, the definition
whereas
is
denned
walks valued
in X4,
using discretewalks that
dx+4
of Lemma 5.12 in
are constrained
to X\302\261. Compare
our discussion
the next section.
5. Gluing
114
examples
the
In
worry
5.8. On
coincide.
Because
Proof.
the
subspace
and dx+ coincideon X4, every

valued
in
follows
that
a discrete walk
X^.
and
otherwise
Xf
that
and
Re(Qi)
definition
dhyP(-Pj>
below
lies
all
^ ^hyp(Pi,
7'
be obtained
line of
the
length,
hyperbolic
Considering
let
Qi)
on the line right
that sits
of
the
P* if
of the
point
Qi to be
define
Q be
the
belong to
Q both
to
Qn
Pn,
is
P\302\273
in
X\302\261,
of
boundary
Qi
if
\342\202\254
X4
is a
curve
if Q \302\243
X%.
joining Pi to Qi in X4,
segment
..., Qn-i ~
P2,
and
where \316\241
let P/ be equal
in X4
\302\243
Xf.
\302\2431
that
claim
dx
is also
X%
P, Q
every
-î be
in
for
let P/ = Re(Pj) +
above P\302\273.
right
Similarly,
sits
piecethat
__X4
each Pi,
For
the metrics
w valued
walk
and
dx+
lengths id + (w) and id*4 (w) coincide.It
\320\240\321\214
Qi
valued
upper half-strip
metrics
two
because
and
X4
discrete
=
\316\241
let
in
sj dx+ (P, Q)
(P, Q)
dx
Conversely,
We
the two
and
X4,
of X4, the
Xf
is contained
Xf
do
we
that
out
distinction:
this
about
Lemma
dxT4
consideration, it turns
case under
specific
to
not need
such
it is
curves 7
if 7
Qi)\302\267Indeed,
from 7 by replacing each
equation Im(z) =
that
above
piece.
immediate that 4yP(7')
and 7', it
that
follows
line
the
with
From the
^hyp(7)\302\267
^
<2\321\214\321\203\321\200(\320\24
dhyp(Pi,Qi)\302\267
Since
P[
Q\\ ~ P'2,
dhyp(-P/,
^d
...,
Qi)
As
<
and
P\\
Qn_x
P'n
~
dhyp(P\302\273,
a consequence,
dx (P,Q).
all
Therefore,
id
(w) ^
Q'n
P\302\243,
Qi),
(\320\263\320\276).
Considering
this
=
we now have a discretewalk \316\241
P{,
= Q which is valued in
X/. Since
new walk w' has length
\302\243d (u/)
sj
= Pn,
walks
such
dx+(P,Q).
conclude that
w, we
=
dx+(P,Q)
4
dx
(P,Q)
dx+
for every
(P,
P, Q
\342\202
\342\226\
x/.
5.5.
Q)
The
once-punctured
torus
The once-punctured torus is obtained

the torus. To explainthe terminology,
by
think
removing
of what
from
to
the
happens
one point
115
5.5. The once-puncturedtorus

tube
of a
as a square
with
inner
the
tire as
edges
opposite
removed
point
describe the torus

we
can assumethat
glued together,
one drives over
If we
a nail.
point correspondingto the
is the
four
of
vertices
the square.
This surface of
metric
a euclidean
that
a metric
such
a euclidean
admits
course
on the torus. However,

is not complete (see the
metric by restriction of
we will see in Chapter 6
in
definition
Section
6.2),
metrics are more desirable.Our goal is to construct

a hyperbolic metric on the once-puncturedtorus, which
we will later
on prove to be complete.
This
will turn out to be very
In particular,
example
important.
11.
it will accompany much of our discussionin Chapters8, 10and
Consider
the hyperbolic
polygon X describedin Figure 5.18.
X
the
the
is
in
hyperbolic plane H2 bounded
Namely,
region
by the
and that complete
four complete
0 to
E2 joins
geodesies
E\\,
E2,
E3
1, E3 joins 1to 00,and
and
E4
E4 where E\\ joins

0 to \342\200\2241.
joins
\342\200\2241
to 00,
00
\320\225\320\263
\320\225\320\267
\316\271
; \316\271
^4
\\/
Figure 5.18. A
As such,
{00},
a quadrilateral
In a
infinity
X is a
namely,
at
infinity
four
{oo}
vertices
(and
square
that
except
of H2.
hyperbolic polygon
of H2 in R
hyperbolic
\"quadrilateral\"
its
with
\320\233
-1
\316\234
U
^2
of
this
As a
its vertices
is
subset of \316\2272,\316\247
are in
therefore
removed.
type
consequently
where
are
the vertices
are
at
not really verticesof
5.
116
the polygon in H2), we

the
of
polygon
at these
are ideal. If the vertices
the vertices
that
say
ideal, and
vertices, we say that
it
if
the
is an
touches
polygon
\316\234
U
{00}
only
ideal polygon.
an ideal quadrilateral in H2. It

even an ideal square,in the sensethat
it has all the symmetries of
this
With
is
are all
examples
Gluing
X is now
terminology,
a square;seeExercise
5.13.
Glue
orientations
in Figure
edges of X, while respecting the

5.18. Because these geodesiesdo not
in H2, this is a situation

In particular,
gluings.
endpoints
any
opposite
together
indicated
possibleisometric
there
where
the
data
gluing
have
are many
is not completely
determined by the
we need
to be more specific.
picture. Consequently,
To glue the edge \316\225\317\207
to E2,
we need a hyperbolic isometry \317\206\316\271
\342\200\2241
to 0, and 00 to 1. The simplestoneis the
fractional
linear
sending
map
Similarly, we
As usual,
Let
by
can glue E3 to E4
the
by
isometry
hyperbolic
and
\317\210% \317\210\317\2121
\317\2104 \317\210^1.
define
be the
(\316\247,\316\254\317\207)
metric space
quotient
obtained from
metric \316\254\317\207
is just
X has no vertices in H2, there is nothing

Since
is a hyperbolic
Theorem 4.10 shows that
(\316\247,\316\254\317\207)
descriptionof X as
that X is (homeomorphic
We
want
For a
By
(\316\247,\316\254\317\207)
X is convex
so that the
edge gluings. Note that
the restriction of the hyperbolicmetric dhyp-
these
performing
to
a quadrilateral
to)
better
the metric
understand
2.18,
linear
line
fractional
and
From the
we see
removed,
torus.
a once-punctured
> 1, considerthe horizontal
Proposition
vertices
its
with
be checked
to
surface.
La
near
\316\254\317\207
the
of equation
puncture.
lm(z) =
o.
maps send circlesto circles
sends
La U {00} to a circle
Consequently,
\317\206\316\271
=
1.
Since
also
sends
the half-plane H2 to
passing
through
\317\206\316\271
<î(cx>)
must
this
circle
to
the
real
line
at
1. The
be
circle Ci
itself,
tangent
in
=
\320\241
\320\241
U
Ci
{oo}.
also contains the
image
\317\206\$\342\200\2242+ai)
1+î
of the
point
\342\202\254
\342\200\2242+ai
La.
5.5.
The
117
torus
once-punctured
It follows
that
C\\ is the euclidean circle of
and ^(La) = Ci-{l}.
=
\342\200\2241
and
</?\320\267(\302\260\302\260)
C_,-{-l}.
The map
C-i to
through
Namely,
Co is
</?\320\267(1)
0 and
this circle C'0
La,
Let
Uoa
and
let
other
ai)
passing
\342\202\254
\320\241
<\321\200\320\267\342\204\226\320\260)
C_i).
at î.
circle C'0 tangent
î. It
line at
real
the
to
=
\316\277
\317\2103\317\206\316\271(\342\200\2243+
oi)
follows that
circle Co = \317\210\\(0-\$.
are on or above the line
to the
equal
that
of the
points of
respectively.
C_i,
are on
that
Uj. See Figure
5.19.
shows is that when \316\241

belongs
P' must be
to some P* \342\202\254
then
X,
to some
in
some
5.19.
1
;
vv
i '\342\226\240
u00
= v00
Vo
II
II
V2(t/l)
*>\302\253(U-i)
\"n. /^~~~\\
/~
II
\302\245\342\200\24240^2(^0)
La
1
1
-2-1012
Figure
or
because
In addition,
discussion
is glued
the circle
it sends
0 and
\317\206\316\271(\342\200\2241)
centered
disjoint. See Figure
above
and
C\\
and
Namely,
î.
and tpz(La)
î,
at
U-\\ consist
and
(since
set of points of
be the
the
Ui
to a
\342\200\2241
+
\342\200\224
1
+
(/?\320\267(3
is
\317\206\316\266{0{)exactly
Oi are
What
\\i
oi)
real
the
to
tangent
Consequently,
real line
radius
passing through
=
\320\251,U\\
the
of these
oi)
C\\
inside the circlesCo,

\320\276
> 1,
the circle of
sends
\317\2103
Finally,
\342\200\2241
to 0.
to the
Cq tangent
\320\276
+
\317\210\\ </?\320\267(3
^ centeredat
also
sends
\317\206\317\207
circle
\317\2063(2+
containing
of radius
circle
is the
\320\241-\317\207
centered at 1+î,
circle C_i
in a
is contained
1\321\200\320\267(\320\254\320\260)
Similarly,
line at
radius
5.1\316\230
5.
118
denotethe union
Let U
its imagein
the
Namely, U is obtainedfrom
the restrictionsof
its eight sides though
and let
in X,
UUqUUiUU-i
Uoo
X.
quotient
examples
Gluing
the
U be
by gluing
=
maps
\317\210\\,
\317\2103
\317\2102 \317\210\317\2121,
and
\302\267
\317\2104 \316\2503
is the infimum
in U. In
the metric
on U
Consider
the
of
be
cannot
mU.
Each Ui is
Uoo,sinceevery
Q) = 00
is
\316\241
to
joining
Q)
Q
in different Ui,
Q are
curve that is completely contained
by any
This
that du (P,
property
all curves
\316\241
and
when
joined
the
by
length of
hyperbolic
particular, du(P,
since they
du defined
the vertical
half-strip
circle arc centeredon the xaxis.The property is slightly less obvious for the other Ui but follows
to a vertical half-strip
from the fact, provedbelow, that
Ui is isometric
=
of
A
this
is
that
Vi.
consequence
convexity
du(P,Q)
^thyp(P,Q)
when \316\241
and
Q are in the same Ui.
convex.
The metricdu
We begin by showing that
to a spacethat
we
revolution
obtained
the pseudosphere
have
the
quotient
encountered.
already
by revolving
Sa
Equivalently,
S such that
As
in
\317\207
2
arccosh
consists
of those
log (<f
+ yj^f-\316\233-
5.9.
dsa
now
have
\316\241
to
joining
The
Proof. The proof is very

we
the
rc-axis
of
portion
points
^ < t < 00.
\321\203,
(\320\266,
z)
of the
metric
similar
to glue four
Q in
space
pseudosphere
y/l-J^.
the
metric
5.4, endow Sa with
(P, Q) is equal to the infimum
Proposition
the property that

lengths of all curves
Proposition
(Sa,dSa).
about the
parametrized by
sech t),
one.
du on
space(U,du) is isometric
Let Sa be the surface
the metric
\342\200\224
\316\271\342\200\224>\342\226\240
\316\257
tanh
t,
(i
that
semi-metric
a quotient
induces
U.
space
of
is a
geodesic
hyperbolic
for
clear
fairly
of
dsa defined by
the eucfidean
Sa.
(U,d~u)
\317\216
isometric
to the
space
to that of Proposition 5.4, except

vertical half-strips instead of a single
the
In
V_i =
\317\2062(\317\205-1)
\302\260
\317\2104lf2(Uo)
that
Remember
We
SinceU\\
to 0, it
is delimited
geodesies
that
C\\
=
V\\
the vertical
= a}
since
4>2{La)
and Re(z)
arguments show that

half-lines
vertical
the
This situation
Let
V
{z
be
the
\342\202\254
V;
be the
quotient
=
Re(z)
half-strip delimitedby
by
lines of
vertical
the
La
= 2.
Vo
line La to the circleC\\.

00 and 0, respectively.
the
sends
\317\206\316\271
\342\200\2241
to 1,
geodesies joining 1 to 00and 1

by La and by the two
to 00. These
and \342\200\2242
hyperbolic geodesies
and
by the
= C-i,
and
Co =
because
Finally,
and
is delimited
\317\206\317\212x
(Ui)
\342\200\2241
to 00
half-strip delimitedby
= 1
Uoo,
=
and
V0
\317\2104{\317\205\316\273)
\317\206\317\212\316\227\317\213!)
and
00, \342\200\2242
by
that
joining
Re(z)
Re(z) =
are alsothe vertical

lines
of equations
so that
Vi is a vertical half-strip.
Similarly,
VOo
\302\2611.
the points
follows
Uoo is
La = {z; lm(z)
observed
already
sends
also
VOo
line
equation Re(z) =
It
subsets
\316\277
\316\25031 \317\206\317\2121^).
horizontal
the
Vi =
tpîU-i),
pseudosphere
considerthe
plane H2,
hyperbolic
Sa of the
The portion
5.20.
Figure
119
torus
The once-punctured
5.5.
V_i
\342\200\2242
and
\317\206\\(0-\316\271)
is delimited
Re(z) = 2 and
by
side
vertical
of
type
and
by
= 4.
V-i
and Vo.
its left-hand
gluing
=
\342\202\254
V;
{z
\342\200\2241,
equations
by La
Re(z)
is illustratedin Figure5.19.
vertical half-strip union of V\\, VOo,
space obtained from
-2} to its right-hand
lines of
the
same
\317\210\\\316\277
(\321\200\320\267(\320\254\320\260),
\302\260
\317\206^1 f^Wo)
of equations
is the
yJJ1(i7_i)
by the two vertical
Re(z)
Re(z)
Let
side
4} by
5. Gluing examples
120
translation
horizontal
the
inducedby
the quotient metric
the
We now split
Since V is convex, endow it

the hyperbolicmetric dhyp> a^d let dy be
\316\271-\302\273
\316\266
\316\266
+ 6.
\317\210:
dy of
restriction
the
with
5.10. The quotient
Lemma
(Sa,dsa) of
the
steps.
is isometric to the
(V, dy)
space
subset
pseudosphere.
This is
Proof.
two
into
argument
V.
on
dy
essentially Proposition5.4.
Indeed,let V
V'
sj Re(*)
\302\253\316\252
> \302\247}.Let
l,Im(z)
V by gluing its left-hand
=
\342\202\254
\342\202\254
H2;0
{z
quotient space obtained from

=
\342\202\254
{z V;Bs(z)
0} to its right-hand
be the
side {z
side
the
1} by
V;Re(z)
\316\271-\302\273
\316\266
horizontal translation \317\210':\316\266
V with
the
restriction
+ 1. Endow
and
endow
V' with the induced
dy/ of the hyperbolic metric dhyp>
metric
quotient
The
dy.
isometry
surface
constructed
\316\262
in
to
restricts
\317\201
Therefore,
The
an isometry
and
in
considered
Sa is exactly the image of

proof of Proposition
from (V',dv<)
to (Sa,dsa).
an isometry
provides
V'
5.4.
from
(V,dv) to (Sa,dSa).
\316\217
The quotient
5.11.
Lemma
it
Consequently,
the
\316\277
\317\201\317\210
consequently
composition
V,
dy).
Xf
half-strip
to
of V.
\317\206'
to (V',
The
X.
\320\241
| sends
map
gluing
(V, dy)
subset of the
is a
so that
5.4,
the
under
from
\317\210
isometry
Note that
\316\271-\302\273
\316\266
+
\317\206:
|\316\266
to the
of V
\317\206
map
an
induces
\342\200\242\317\210
Proposition
isometry
hyperbolic
sends the gluing
spaces (U,du) and
are
dy)
(V,
isometric.
Let
Proof.
coincides
\321\204
\342\200\224>
V be
\321\204:U
with
\317\2102
the
\302\260 =
\316\277\316\267
Uq, and
\316\250\316\261
\317\2102 \316\25031
\302\260\317\210\317\2121
case-by-case
inspection
together shows that
map defined by
on
U\\,
\317\210\317\2071
with
with
the identity
of the eight
\342\202\254
U are
\317\2104
sides of
the property that

on
U-\\,
\317\206^1
with
map on \317\205,\317\207.
U
are glued
that
in U
and
together
only
in V. For instance,if \316\241
is in
of Ui with the vertical
line of equation Re(z) = 1,
the intersection
in the intersection
it is glued to the point Q = \317\210\316\266{\316\241)
contained
=
Then
of Uq with the geodesic joining 0 to \342\200\2241.
and
\317\206(\316\241)\317\2102(\316\241)
if
and
\321\204(\320\240)
\317\206(0)
P,
are
glued
together
glued
if
The
5.5.
%I>(Q)
indeed
easier
by the
differ
\317\210^\316\277\317\2062{0)
that
shows
in V.
\316\266
+ 6,
so that
V'(-P) and
The other casesare similar,
axe
VKQ)
and
actually
needed.
V is
in
\342\226\240
A computation
\317\210\316\221\316\270\317\2102\316\277\317\210\316\206\316\277\317\21021
map
\302\260 \302\260 \302\260

</?4
\317\2102\316\2503V3^1^)
glued together
since no gluing
121
torus
once-punctured
It followsthat \317\210
induces
a map \317\210:U \342\200\224>
defined
V,
by the
is equal
to \321\204{\320\240)
to the point of V corresponding
\342\202\254
property that \317\210(\316\241)
\302\243Ucorresponding
to \316\241
G U. Let us show
V, for an arbitrary
point \316\241
that \317\210
is an isometry.
~ P2, ..., Qn-i ~ Pn, Qn = Q is a discrete
~
=
Q in tf, then \317\210(\316\241)
\317\210(\316\241\316\271),
V(Q0
\317\210{\317\2012),
~
=
is a discrete
walk from \321\204(\320\240)
V'(Qn-i)
'i/'i-Pn)) \321\204(\320\257\320\277)
\321\204(\320\257)
that
which
has the same length as w. It follows
\316\220^,
\321\204{0) in
If
=
\316\241
Qi
Pi,
\320\263\320\276
from
\316\241
to
walk
...,
to
Q) for every P,QeU.
< du(P,
dv${P)MQ))
V>(Q) be a
Q\\ ~
let
Conversely,
\321\204(\320\240) P{,
discrete
w'
walk
from
QU
P^..._,
to VKQ)
\317\210(\316\241)
~ Pn, Q'n
the
\320\243\302\267
Consider
vertical half-strips V(î)>VKôo))

not in the same half-strip %l>{Uj),
draw
the geodesic
to
the points
consider
Rlt ...,
g joining P/
Q\302\243,
=
where
meets
the
lines
\320\272
vertical
i?fc
< 3)
\342\200\2241,
1, 2
5
(with
Re(z)
~
these
separating
half-strips, and replacethe part Qi_! P/, QJ ~
w' by Q^ ~ P/, \320\2241= \320\224\321\214
Rk = i?fc, QJ ~
...,
P/+1 of the walk
finitely
many such modifications we can arrange,
P/+1. By performing
decomposition
ip(Uo).
tp(U-i),
without
of V into the four

If P/ and Q\302\243
are
the
changing
belong
P{,Qi
\342\202\254
Uj such
dhyP(Pi,Qi) =
=
Qn
Q is a
to the length
This
that
\317\205/,
that
walk
\317\205/.
This
proves
of
completes
Qi,
and
that
Q\\
d~u(P, Q)
du(Pi,Qi)
~ Pn,
equal
sj dv(ip(P),ip(Q))for
the proof that
\317\210:
(U,
d~u)
\342\200\224*
(V,dv)
is an
.
combination
Proposition
different
\316\241
to
isometry.
The
P/,
consequence,there exists
= Pi,
~
Q} P2,..., Qn_i
in
U, whose length is
Q
ThenP
from
two consecutive
any
\321\204{\320\240^ \316\241/,
V(Q\302\273)
<WP/,Qi)\302\267
discrete
of
of
\342\202\254U.
P,Q
every
length
half-strip ip(Uj). As a
the same
to
5.9.
of Lemmas
5.10 and 5.11 completesthe proof

D
Without any assumption on a, the metric d~u on U may be

the restriction
For instance, when
from
of the metric \316\254\317\207
of X.
5. Gluing examples
122
and
\316\214
to
to 1, the images \316\241
Q \342\202\254
corresponding
=
are
the
metric
close
with
to
\316\254\317\207,
Q
very
respect
î
= loga2, but they
are
since
far from
< dx(P,Q)
quite
dx(P,Q)
each other with respect
to the metric du since there clearly is a ball
contains
no point that is glued to another
so
which
one,
(\316\241,
\316\265)
Bdbyp
from
\316\241
to Q in U has length ^ \316\265
in U.
that any discrete walk
\320\276
is
very
=
\316\241
oi
close
and
5.12.
Lemma
metrics \316\254\317\207
and
du
If a
is chosenlargeenough
Proof. Becauseevery
that
\316\261
>
log \316\261
\\,
the
on U.
coincide
valued
walk
discrete
in U
is also valued
in
because dx(Pi,Qi) < du(PuQi) for every

\342\202\254
P{, Q\302\273
U, it is
that
P, Q \342\202\254U.
du(P, Q) < d~x(P,Q) for every
To prove
the reverse inequality, pick another number
a' > 1
\342\200\224 and
1
to
that
<
\316\265
0
small
close
>
logo'
logo ^,
enough
sufficiently
\342\200\224
< log
that
\316\265
Let U' and U' be associatedto a' in the same
^7
^.
the
as U and U were associatedto o. Because
o'
portion
way
Sa' of the pseudosphere S contains Sa.
X,
and
\\
immediate
\\
\302\2
J
< o,
Let
P,
Qn = Q
\342\202\254
0,
and
be a discretewalk
let
=
\316\241
Pi_,
Qi
_~ Pa,
Q in X,
\302\267
\302\267
\342\226\240,
Qn-i
1
j
P\342\200\236,
whose dx length \\
is such
Without
loss of generality, we i
that idx{w) < d~x(P,Q) + \316\265.
to Qi
can assumethat whenever
the hyperbolic
geodesic 7* joining P\302\273
|
meets one of the circles Co, Ci, C_i and La delimiting
U in X, it does
j
if this property does not hold, I
at its endpoints Pj, Qi\\ indeed,
so only
w the
we
can
add to the discrete walk
intersection
just
points of 7\302\273
J
of
w. Adding
1
not
the
with these circles, which will
change
dx-length
a few more points if necessary,we can arrange that the sameproperty
;
for the circles C0, C[, C'_x
and
associated to a'.
holds
La' similarly
|
w
from
\316\241
to
We
walk
arcs
will
because of our choice of a' and

in U'. Namely, all the Pi and Qi as well
them, are contained in U'.
show that
w stays
7j joining
the
\316\265,
as
the
discrete
geodesic
\\
3
the property does not hold.

Let i\\ be the \\
\302\26
smallest
7^ <(_ U and let i2 be the largest index for
\342\226
U. By the condition
that we imposed on the geodesies7\302\273,
which
7i2 \317\210.
and
in
the
union
of
the
circles
are
both
contained
the
;
points
P^
Qi2
be
index
for
and
let
the
smallest
which
La. Similarly,
Ci, C_i
Co,
i\\
so that
7\302\273/
;
7i' <jL U' and let i'2 be the largest index for which
<jL U',
that
suppose
for which
index
Indeed,
Pi'
and
circlesC'Q,
\342\200\224>
curve joining
because P^ and
that
Note
<
respectively
project
Consider the
isometry
5.9. Then \317\210(\316\267)
to
in
of
boundary
belong to the
and
dSa'
SO and
deUmiting
1-\302\273
for some
and
functions s
\342\202\254
\317\206(0\316\257'1)dSa<
and
t(s)
to
correspond
i(0) = arccosh
particular,
Sa and
i->
and
0 <
sin#(s)),
cos0(s),sechi(s)
(i(s)-tanhi(s),sechi(s)
\302\243/',
circlesdSa
SO' in the pseudosphereS. We

use an estimate which already appeared in the proof of Lemma
Parametrize
the curve \317\210(\316\267)
by
and
La>\302\267
\317\206{\316\241%\316\271)
\317\206(0\316\257>1) Sa>,
Q^ are in the
and
\317\206(\316\241%1) <p(Qi')
respectively,
and
C'_x
< i
\320\263\320\263
i\\
with
by Proposition
provided
(Sa',dsa,)
diiferentiable
a piecewise
C[,
i2.
continuous
\317\206:
(U',du')
is
<
i'2
quotient space U', the geodesies

7*
curve 7 joining \316\241\302\273!
to Qj/ iaU'.
In the
to a
i[ <
i\\ <
of the
to the union
belong
Qi>
that
Note
123
torus
The once-punctured
5.5.
then
5.7.
\316\262
< 1,
\342\202\254
dSa
\317\206(\316\241\316\2571)
9(s), so that
=
=
s
In
1 and s 0, respectively.
= arccosh
definition
of
i(l)
^ by
s i->
Then,
Sa<.
<w
\316\243d*(p*.
\316\243\320\265^\321\213)
^(\321\202)
1=11
\302\253=\302\2531
\302\253=\302\2531
V*'(s)2+2/'(s)2+z'(\302\253)2ds
JO
tanh2
/\"
^\316\257'(\316\262)2
i(s)
+ 0'(s)2
sech2 t(s) ds
ds
^ / i'(s)tanhi(s)
Jo
Similarly,
log cosh
dx(Pi,Qi)
i(l)
^ log
7\342\200\224f,
\320\263=\320\263'2
- log coshi(0) = log
\342\200\224.
As
a,
\342\200\224.
a consequence,
\316\267
dx(P>Q)>^x(w)-e
J2dx(pi'Qi)-\302\243
i=\\
\316\267
ii\342\200\2241
>
\316\243d*(Pi-
i=l
GO + 2loS
\"7
\316\243
i=ia+l
dx(Pi>
GO
\"
\316\265\302\267
5. Gluing
124
examples
On the other hand, the boundary circledSa has length |.

and
it is possible
to join the two points
Consequently,
\317\210(\316\241\316\2571)
<p(Qi3)
a curve of euclideanlength
in
so
that
^ |
Sa
= ds.Mfli).v(Qia))
du(Pix,Qia)
It
that there is a discretewalk

=
< | +e.
length
Q*2 \302\260f
Q'n'
follows
Ki'i
P^
< f \342\226\240
P[,Q\\
~ Pi,
this
discrete
Chaining
by
~
\342\226\240
\342\226\240
\302\267,
\316\241'\316\267\316\271-1
walk with
=
the beginning and the end of w, we obtain a discrete walk \316\241
P\\,
~
~
=
~
\302\267\302\267\302\267,
Pa,
Qi
Pi,
...Qh-i
\316\241*\302\273,
P<t
\316\241{,
Qi
K'-i
_~ P\302\253>
=
~ Pn,
to Q in X.
Qn = Q from \316\241
Qia, Qii ~ Pia+i, ..., Qn_i
Qn'
Therefore,
+ l+e+
dx(P,Q)<Y/dx(Pi,Qi)
\302\243
i=l
this
Combining
that
conclude
\320\276'
and
\320\276,
which
21og^-\302\243<|+\302\243,
geodesies 7*
walk from
a discrete
Q in
\316\241
to
\316\267
<
\302\253to\302\273
(\316\241,
Q)
initial
false.
was
hypothesis
In particular, the Pi and

U', so that
in U'.
all
are
our
that
shows
contradiction
Namely, the
Qi
\316\267
dy'
<?i)
(\317\201\"
\316\243
\316\243^\317\201(7\316\257)
tdx
\320\230<
\316\257\317\207
<5)
(\316\241,
\320\265.
t=l
i=l
this holds for
Since
we
for \316\254\317\207(\316\241,
Q),
is impossible by our choices of
estimate
earlier
our
with
\316\265.
This
form
dxifl.Q,)
i=ia+l
that
every \316\265
is small
enough,
and
coincide
we conclude that
dul(P,Q)^dx(P,Q).
the two metrics du
Finally,
be seen by
applying
to
5.11, and
of Lemma
also show
the
that
the
metrics
of euclidean
estimate
proof
(V1,
similarly
dy1)
dsa and
lengths of
that
Since
In
Lemma
and
5.12, the
With a better hyperbolic
coincide
\316\254\317\207
< d~x(P,Q)for
reverse inequality,
on
a simple
estimate
P,
every
this
0'.
\342\202\254
shows
\316\240
condition that a log a

distance
This can
V'.
dsa, coincideon Sa by
< du>(P,Q)
du(P,Q)
we had already proved the
the metrics du
on
5.8 to the space (V, dy)

to a'. One can
associated
curves.
Therefore,
U.
du>
of Lemma
>
is not
\302\247
to improve
quite
sharp.
the inequality
125
5.6. Triangular pillowcases
of Lemma 5.12
|)\" OQecan show that the conclusions
still hold for \316\261
second estimate is sharp, in the sensethat
^ 2.This
Lemma
5.12 fails for a < 2.
d~u
Qi2)
(Pii)
fb\302\273
\320\277\320\260\3
12
5.6. Triangular pillowcases

We
or 4.13
4.10
4.4,
where the angle condition
an example
with
conclude
Theorems
fails, so
we
that
of
with cone
surfaces
obtain
singularities, as in Exercise4.8.
Proposition5.13.
Let
7 be
and
\316\261,
\316\262
three numbers in the interval
Then:
(\316\237,\317\200).
exists
+ \316\262
there
a triangle \316\244
+ 7 = \317\200,
of area
euclidean plane (R2,deuc) whose angles are equal
if a
(1)
(2)
and
7;
if a
+ 7
\316\262
<
plane (H2, dhyp)

if
(3)
exists
there
\317\200,
whose
angles
the
sphere
(S2,
whose
daph)
to
\316\261,
\316\262
a triangle \316\244
in the hyperbolic
are equal to \316\261,
and
7;
\316\262
\317\200
< \316\261
< \317\200
there
+ \316\262+\316\267
+ 2\317\200\317\213\316\267{\316\261,/?,7},
\316\244
in
1 in the
a triangle
exists
are equal to
angles
and
\316\261,
\316\262
7\302\267
In
addition,
in each
(R2,deuc),(H2,dhyp)
Proof.
for
is
case, the triangle \316\244
The euclidean case is well

in the hyperbolic and
SeealsoExercises
2.15
and
5.13
Proposition
Given
up to
isometry of
respectively.
o/(S2,daph),
a proof
unique
See
known.
Exercises
5.15 and
3.6
for a
proof that the
3.5
sphericalcases.
conditions of
are necessary.
and
\316\261,
\316\262
7 e
let \316\244
be
(\316\237,\317\200),
spherical triangle
provided
by
of
Choose an isometry \317\210
Proposition
the
euclidean,
hyperbolic
or
5.13.
or (S2, daPh),
(R2,deUC),
(H2,dhyp)
that
is
from
T. The
such
case,
according
\317\210(\316\244)disjoint
is immediate
existence
of \317\206
in the euclidean and hyperboliccase. For
the
we observe that the proof of Proposition
case,
spherical
5.13(3)
\316\244
is always
in the interior of a
in Exercise 3.5 shows that
contained
the
reflection
across the great
hemisphere.Then, we can use for \317\210
to
circle delimiting
the
this
hemisphere.
5. Gluing
126
Let X be the union
of
\316\244
and
X as
consider
can
We
\317\206(\316\244).
examples
nonconnected polygon, whose edgesare the three sidesE\\,

the
\316\244
and
Eq
three sides
corresponding
\342\200\224>
\342\200\224>
\316\225\316\271
\320\225\320\267
E^
\317\210\316\271:
E2,
\317\2103'.
\317\206$:E$
maps
of
restrictions
metric
to (R2,deuc),(H2,dhyp)
points that
respectivecone
or
the
are
2a,
angles
this
\317\200
for Chapter
5.1.
Exercise
(X2,
we
generality,
of
<\302\243y3)
assume
can
parallelogram X2
a.
Section
isometric
the three
both
lower
\316\244
and
along
\317\206(\316\244)
construction
of a
pieces of cloth.
two triangular
of X
\316\261
+ \316\262
+7
7<\317\200
map.
all
in
cases.
>
\317\200
Triangular pillowcases
5.1.1 are
that the
are
two triangles
is the familiar
the geometry
to rigorously
want
We
and
\316\261
+ /?
5.21.
Figure
Exercises
space
everywhere,
(S2,daph)
describe
to
the
provides
is locally
except at
of the vertices under the quotient

with
singularities at these three points,
<
of
4.8.
in
the
sense
Exercise
2\317\200,
2/3, 27
Figure5.21attempts
+ 7
data
gluing
metric
Note that X is obtained

by gluing
their edges. In the euclidean case,this
pillowcaseobtainedby sewing together
\316\261
+/3
gluing
by
images
has cone
metric
4.12,
This
(\316\247,\316\254\317\207).
space
edges by the
\342\200\224>
defined
\320\225\320\262
edges indicated.
to the
\317\206
By Theorems 4.3, 4.9 or

quotient
The
and
\316\225^ \317\210{\316\225\316\266)
\317\210(\316\225\316\271),
glue these
then
can
of \317\206(\316\244).
We
<\321\200{\320\225\321\212)
E%
a
of
E$
E3,
prove
that
the
metric
spaces
homeomorphic. Without
left
corners
equal to the
origin
of the
(0,0)
loss
(\316\247\316\271,
dxl)
of
rectangle Xi and the

\342\202\254
R2.
linear
Show that there is a unique
R2 that sends the bottom
map R2 \342\200\224>
the left edge of Xi to the left
Xi to the bottom edge of X2, and
of X2\302\267
Show
that this linear map restrictsto a homeomorphism
edge
edgeof
X\\
\317\206:
b.
Show
point
\342\200\224*
X2\302\267
and Q \342\202\254
that two points \316\241
Xi are glued together to form a single
if and only if their images <p(P) and \317\206{0)are glued together
of Xi
in
that
Conclude
X2.
by the property
that
Show
c.
for every
\317\206(\316\241)
\317\210{\316\241)
that
\316\241
\342\202\254
\316\247\316\271.
a homeomorphism.
torus obtained
be the
\342\200\224*defined
\316\247\316\271
X2,
\317\206:
Let
X.
diagonals
metric space(X,dx) such
the quotient
Let (X, dx) be the

X = [a,b]
5.3.
Exercise
\342\200\224\342\226\272
\316\247
X of
\317\206:
isometry
for every
\317\206(\316\241)
\317\210{\316\241)
obtained
\317\200
where the
the point
that
torus
of angle
the rotation
of the parallelogram, namely,

around
meet.
Show that there existsa unique
sides of
opposite
gluing
by
\342\200\224>
X be
X
\317\210:
the center
around
two
a map
\342\200\224\302\273
\316\247\316\271
X2 induces
\317\206:
\342\200\224*
\316\247\316\271
X2 is
\317\206:
Exercise 5.2. Let

a euclideanparallelogram
127
for Chapter
Exercises
by gluing
\316\241
X.
\342\202\254
opposite edges
where X
a geodesic
for every
curve
\316\241
\342\202\254
7 in X such that
7 and every Q \342\202\254
7
is
a
close
to
there
to Q which is the
piece of 7 joining \316\241
sufficiently
P,
shortest curve going from \316\241
to Q; here the length
of a curve in (X, dx) is
a euclidean
of
rectangle
is endowed with
of (X, dx) is a
defined as in
a. Let
\321\201
Consider
dx)
(X,
d.
X and
is geodesic in
let
the quotient
X denote
\317\200:
X \342\200\224>
then
its
(\316\247,\316\254\317\207),
map.
(7) consists
to use the
preimagep\"1
in the rectangle X. You may need

line segments
main result of Exercise1.11,which says that the length of a curve in the
metric space (R2, deuc) coincides
with its usual euclidean length
4oc
=
Consider the case where X is the square Xi
Show
[0,1]\317\207
[0,1].
in Xi has length > 1. Possible
that every closed geodesiccurve
hint:
Consider
of the preimage p_1(7) \321\201
R2 to each of
the projection
Xi \320\241
the coordinate axes.
of parallel
b.
in
curve
if 7
that
dx =
translations,
that
deuc\302\267Recall
1.11.
Exercise
7 be a
Show
metric
euclidean
the
\317\207
\320\2322
d] \320\241
by
[\321\201,
the case where X is the square Xi

contains a closed geodesicof length
Conclude
that
euclidean
the
tori
[0,
5]
x [0,2].
Show
that
\\.
and
(\316\247\316\271,\316\254\317\207^
(X2,
dx2) are
not
isometric.
5.4.
Exercise
opposite
sides
dx) be the torus

square X = [0,1] x
Let (X,
of the
obtained
[0,1]. Let
by gluing
X
\317\200:
together
the
\342\200\224\302\273
X denote
quotient map.
a.
Given
defined
\320\276
\342\202\254
[0,1],
by the
let
= (x + o,
that
the
(discontinuous)
if 0
+ \320\260,
\321\203) (\317\207
\317\206\316\261(\317\207,
\321\203)
function
\342\200\224
\317\207
a and
^ 1
Show that <pa induces

a map
on = \317\200\316\277\317\206\316\2
by the property that
\321\204\320\260
\342\200\224
\316\241
Show that if w is a discrete walk
Pi,
Qi ~ P2, ..., Qn-i
Pn,
= Q is a discretewalk
from
\316\241
to Q in X, there exists a discrete
Qn
=
to \317\206\316\261(0)
walk
w' from \321\204\320\260(\320\240)
has the same dx-length \302\243dx
whieh
(\302\253/)
are
on
of
as
w.
Hint:
When
and
sides
the
line
Pi
Qi
opposite
tdx (w)
<fa(x,y)
if 1 \342\200\224\316\261
< \317\207
^ 1.
\342\200\2241)2/)
X \342\200\224\342\226\272
X, uniquely
\317\206\316\261:
b.
\342\200\224*
'\342\226\240
X
X be
\317\210\316\261
property
determined
5. Gluing
128
= 1 \342\200\224
\317\207
a, add
to w the
[PjQi] meetsthis
line segment
the
where
point
examples
line.
\321\201
Use
b to
part
X.
Then
Q \342\202\254
d.
Use
the
above
is homogeneous,
show
that
show that
to
construction
namely
isometry of (X, dx) which
dx(<pa(P),<pa(Q))
is an
\317\206
that,
sends
isometry
that
show
for every
\316\241
to
dx(P,Q)
of (X,
dx).
the
metric
P, Q
for every
\316\241
space (X, dx)

exists an
there
\342\202\254
X,
Q.
be
in K2 and let (\316\253,\316\254\316\263)
sides
of
metric
obtained
\320\243
opposite
by
space
by
quotient
gluing
is homogeneous.
translations
as in Section 5.1.1. Show
that
(\316\253,\316\254\316\263)
e. More
let
generally,
\320\243
be
a parallelogram
the
5.5. Let (X, dx) be the Klein

x
the sides of the square X = [0,1]
[0,1]
denote
the quotient map.
Exercise
a.
bottle
as in
obtained
by gluing together
Section 5.1.
Let \317\200:
X \342\200\224*
X
of (X, dx) is a curve

for every
7 in J? such that
close to P, there is a pieceof 7
7 sufficiently
every Q \342\202\254
\316\241
from
\316\241
to Q which is the shortest curve going
to Q, where
joining
of a curve in (X, dx) is defined as in Exercise
1.11. Show
the length
that the image 71 = \317\200([0,1] x {0}) is a closed geodesicof length
1,
2 which
and that there exists at least one closed geodesic of length
is
satisfies
the same two
disjoint from 71. Show that 72 = \317\200([0,1] \317\207
{i})
1 which is disjoint
it is a closedgeodesicof length
properties,
namely,
a closed geodesic of length
2.
from
Recall
that
a geodesic
\316\241
\342\202\254
7 and
b.
Show that 71 and 72 are the only two closed geodesies in X satisfying
the properties of part a. Hint: For a closedgeodesic
7 in X note, as
in Exercise
consist of parallel line
5.3, that the preimage \317\204\"1
(7) must
segments in the square X.
bottle X is not homogeneous.

5.6. In the euclidean plane, let Xi be the square with
Exercise
vertices
with vertices (0,0),
(0,0),
(1,0), (0,1), (1,1); let X2 be the parallelogram
(1,1), (0,1)and (1,2); and let X3 be the parallelogram with vertices (0,0),
(1,1), (1,2) and (2,3). Let X\\, X2 and X3 be the euclidean tori obtainedby
sides of these parallelograms.Show
that
the euclidean tori
opposite
gluing
Show
that each of these euclidean
X.2 and X3 are all isometric. Hint:
\316\247\316\271,
tori
is obtained
chosen triangles.
by gluing the sides of two suitably
(You
the fact that the order
may need to use the result of Exercise 4.4 to justify
not matter.)
of the gluings
does
Exercise 5.7. Given a euclidean
hexagon
X, index its vertices as Pi, P2,
as
this
order
one
around
the
in
Pq
...,
goes
hexagon. Suppose that opposite
and
that the sum of the anglesof X at its odd
edges have the same length,
euclidean geometry
vertices Pi, P3 and P5 is equal to 2\317\200.Use elementary
to show that opposite edges of X are parallel.
\321\201
Conclude
that
the Klein
129

A surface is nonorientable
Exercise
5.8.
omorphic to the Mobius strip. For instance,
if
home-
a subset
contains
Klein bottle is a
it
the
a nonorientable hyperbolic surface.

Exercise 5.\316\230.The surface of genus g is the immediate generalization of
the case g = 2 and consists of a sphere with g handles added. Construct a
hyperbolic surfaceof genus g for g = 3, 4 and then for any g ^ 2. Possible
hint:
Glue
chosen
sides of a hyperbolic polygon
with
opposite
suitably
to construct this polygon.
angles; Proposition 5.13may be convenient
Construct
surface.
nonorientable
euclidean
Exercise
5.10 (The
5.3, with the
projective plane). Let
be the
spherical
of
polygon
there, and let (X, dx) be the

the
Let
\320\256\320\2402
be
set of lines passing through
corresponding
quotient
space.
the origin
\320\236
in R3. For any
let 9{L,L')
be the
two
\342\202\254
L, V \342\202\254
\320\256\320\2402,
[0, \302\247]
angle between these two lines in R3.
Section
a.
Show
b.
Consider
that
OP.
Show
Show that
c.
d.
on RP2.
a metric
\316\270
defines
the
indicated
data
gluing
map
that
induces
\317\206
this
bijection
a bisection
is
\317\206
to
which
\342\200\224>
RP2
X
\317\210:
the line
\316\241
X associates
\342\202\254
X \342\200\224*
RP1.
\317\206:
between the metric
an isometry
spaces
(X,d~x)and(RP2,0).
that
Show
the metric
space (RP2, \316\230)

(and
(X, dx)
consequently
as well)
is homogeneous.
of Section 5.3 (or

plane
of S2, the image of
great circle \320\241
\317\200.
the quotient map \317\200:
X \342\200\224>
X is a closed geodesic of length
to the sphere
the spherical surface (X, dx) is not isometric
Exercise5.10above).
X
C\\C
under
that
Conclude
be the projective
Let (X, dx)
5.11.
Exercise
that
Show
for every
(S2,dsPh).
Exercise 5.12. Let

Section
by gluing
5.3,
Po be the center of this

X = BdspbiPo,|). Show
has the
the
infinite
will glue
Namely,
square
in H2
with
oo,
quotient
to
the
edge
that
the Mobius strip
\342\200\2241
\342\200\2241
and
to 0.
oo to
0(-l)
5.18, namely,
We
oo and \342\200\2241.
5.5.
from the construction of Section
at
vertices
metric space provided by
of Figure
polygon
hyperbolic
its edges in a different way

we glue the edge loo to the
(-l)oo
such
point
in the
edge
infinity
0, 1,
01 by the
map
\"
the edge
Let
S2.
\320\241
5.18
really
\"hyperbolic square\" of Figure
sense that there exists an isometry
the
symmetries of a square,
of \320\2302
which
sends 0 to 1, 1 to
Exercise
5.14. Let X be the
in
a hemisphere
the unique
namely,
X \342\200\224
to
Po is homeomorphic
that
that
Show
of
boundary
hemisphere,
of Section5.4.
Exercise5.13.
projective plane constructed
be the
dx)
(X,
onto itself the
and
\342\226\240-+ -,
\316\266
\342\200\224\316\266
+ 2
Let
be the
-.
\320\254\321\203\320\263\320\275\302\273
(\316\247,\316\254\317\207)
this
gluing
construction.
5. Gluing
130
a.
that
Show
to (H2,dhyp).
isometric
is locally
(\316\247,\316\254\317\207)
examples
U \302\243/3
Show
that
can be decomposed as X = Xo U U\\ U \302\243/2
where
of
each (Ui, \316\254\317\207)
is isometric
the
to a subset (S\342\200\236,
pseudosphere as
dsa)
in Proposiiton
subset
5.9, and where Xo is the image of a bounded
X under
of
the quotient map X \342\200\224\302\273\342\226\240
X.
Hint: Adapt the analysis
Xo \320\241
b.
5.5.
Section
c.
that
Show
in the
Exercise 5.15
numbers
with
triangle
in H2
complement of three points
to the
is homeomorphic
(\316\247,
\316\254\317\207)
S2.
sphere
Let
triangles).
(Hyperbolic
and
\316\261,
\316\262
to show
want
We
< \317\200.
\316\261+\316\262+f
there
that
7 be
exists
three positive
a hyperbolic
are equalto
and 7, and that this

\316\261,
\316\262
For this, we just adapt the proofof
whose angles
uniqueuptoisometryofH2.
triangle
is
5.2.
Lemma
of H2 with endpoints 0 and

geodesic
the complete hyperbolic geodesic passingthrough
the point
i and such that
the angle
from g to h at i, measured counterclockwise, is
< 1, let ky be the complete
equal to +\316\262.For \321\203
geodesic passing through
such that the counterclockwise angle from
to
\\y and
g to ky at \\y is equal
5.9.
Compare
Figure
\342\200\2247.
be the completehyperbolic
Let g
00. Let
a.
h be
those
set of
the
that
Show
<
\321\203
1 for which
h is
meets
ky
an
interval
(2/0,1).
b.
When
the above
is in
\321\203
angle
h to
from
ky at
interval
lim ay =
point.
\342\200\224
\342\200\224
and
\317\200
\316\262~f
\321\201
Show
d.
Let
exists a value
the above
T' be
\316\244
and
\342\202\254
\321\203
(yo, 1)
two hyperbolic
7. Show that there is an isometry

= \316\2441.Hint:
such that \317\210(\316\244)
in K2,
with ay =
usual
hyperbolic
The
Let
we assume
the vertices
that
or
quotient
polygons Xj,
the same
and
angles \316\261,
\316\262
plane (\320\2302,
dhyp)
g and h as above, apply suitable
T' to triangles with
one edge in g
of the
\317\210
hyperbolic
\321\201
polygon
formula). Let X bea bounded
finitely
many disjoint convex polygons Xi,
be obtained by gluing together
pairs of edges of X.
S2 consisting
XmX2, . \302\267
\302\267,
As
a is unique.
with
triangles
For
= a.
(The Gauss-Bonnet
5.16
H2 or
for which ay
\342\202\254
\321\203
(yo, 1)
and
hyperbolic isometries to send \316\244
and another edge in h, and use part
Exercise
0.
v-*vt
that there
that
ay =
lim
\321\203^*~
Conclude
be the counterclockwise
Show that
let ay
(1/0,1),
intersection
their
are
spherical
space
\316\267
images
of
that
for
every
to
surface.
glued
X is
of the
\316\241
add
vertex
up to
\316\241
of
so
2\317\200,
now decomposed into

In edges of X, and
X, the_
that X
images
points
\317\201
angles of X at
is a euclidean,
of the
images
convex
of the
of X.
vertices
131
for Chapter 5
Exercises
m
\317\207(\316\247)
A deep result,
cannot
we
which
of a
See, for instance,

a.
have
they
homeomorphic,
Compute
Show
that
sense that
the same
2,
for each
the
p.
here, asserts
the
if
space
two
such
the
that
\317\207(\316\247)x(X')-
or [Hatcher2,
\302\2474]
+
(\321\211 2)\317\200
gluing
X' are
characteristic
Euler
Euler
X is obtained by
surfaces X and
characteristic of the torus,

and the projective plane.
of the convex polygons Xi,
0,
\316\243
integer
\342\200\224
n +
way
[Massey, Chap.IX,
the Euler
surface of genus
b.
the
in
polygon
prove
of the
characteristic \317\207(\316\247)
is independent
edges
of X is
characteristic
The Euler
\302\2472.2]
the
Klein bottle, the
KArea,(Xi),
3=1
where: Xi has
are the angles of Xi at

polygon, Area(Xj) denotesits
= 0; if Xi \320\241
\320\232
\320\2302
is a hyperbolic
usual
polygon, Area(Xj)
denotesits hyperbolic
area Areahyp(Xj)
as defined in Exercise
2.14, and
= \342\200\2241;
\320\232
if Xj \320\241
S2 is a spherical polygon,
its surface
denotes
Area(Xj)
= +1.
area in S2 and \320\232
Hint: Use the convexity
of Xi to decompose
\342\200\224
and
the
it into
of
Exercises2.15and
results
apply
2) triangles,
(n.j
3.6 to these triangles.
c. Use part b to show that
these
vertices;
area and
n*
if
vertices,
Xi
is
\320\2322
\320\241
and
\316\270\\,
#2,
\302\267
\302\267
\302\267,
0Ui
a euclidean
2\317\200\317\207(\316\247)
\320\232\320\220\321\202\320\265\320\260(\320\245).
In
particular,
if a
surface X is obtained
by
gluing
together
the sides of
above,its Euler
be zero, negative or positive, respectively.The equation
characteristic \317\207(\316\247)
must
of part \321\201
is a special case of a more
known as the Ganesstatement
general
Bonnet formula.
a euclidean,hyperbolic,
or
spherical
polygon
X as
Chapter
Tessellations
We
familiar
all very
are
the
with
one type
tile
of
sensethat
there
polygons to
of a
tiling
into polygons
is divided
kitchen floor. The
(the tiles)
any two such polygons are
isometry of the euclideanplane
with
interiors.
disjoint
When
floor
only
is used,
isometricin the
is an
sending
the
first
the secondone.
tile a kitchen floor can usually be

plane. In this case,
there is a morehighfalutin
word
for tiling, namely \"tessellation\". In
this chapter, we will see how the edge gluings of euclidean or
that we considered in Chapters
4 and 5 can be usedto
hyperbolic polygons
obtain
of the euclidean plane, the hyperbolic
tessellations
interesting
standard
The
the
plane
or
6.1.
Tessellations
We
first
A
the
used to
patterns
to provide a tiling
extended
sphere.
give
a formal definition
of the
tessellation
is a
sphere
whole euclidean
of the
family
of
of tessellations.
euclidean
tiles
Xn,
plane, the
tile Xm is a connected polygon

the hyperbolic plane or the sphere;
(1) each
(2)
any
two
Xm,
Xn are
hyperbolicplane
or
that
\316\267
\342\202\254
such
\316\235,
in
the
euclidean
plane,
isometric;
133
6. Tessellations
134
(3)
the
whole euclidean plane,hyperbolic

or
plane
sense that their union
is equal
to this space;
cover the
Xm
in the
sphere,
(4) the intersection of any

vertices and edgesof
of
Finiteness)
an \316\265
such
that
Figure 6.1 provides

isometric
6.1.
Figure
Xm,
for every
the ball
an
edges
the
extend
at
\316\241
meets
euclidean
plane
that
every tile
only
euclidean
tiles
with
of a
definition
by hexagons
(R2,deuc)
with different
is isometric
Xn
to one
We will restrict
Tp.
later
of finitely
many
extend the
arguments
several
asking
model
our discussion to the
indicate how to
shapes,
tessellation to allow
Namely, condition (2) can be relaxed

by
types
will
there exists
plane,
tessellation of the
of a
example
of the
tessellation
of tiles.
...,
\316\244\316\271,
\316\2442,
in the
point \316\241
of radius \316\265
centered
Exactly like a kitchen can be tiled
but
of
hexagons.
one can slightly
definition,
vertices and
many tiles Xn.
finitely
plane by
are also
which
Xn\\
(Local
(5)
Xm, Xn consists only
distinct
two
only
polygons
original
to
this
more
general context.
6.2.
In
Section
tessellations
Complete
6.3,
of
the
metric spaces
use edge gluings

euclidean
plane, the
we will
of
polygons
to construct
hyperbolic plane or the sphere.
6.3.
From
This construction
metric
...,
a new
the completeness of
ingredient,
space.
In a
be
use
will
135
to tessellations
edges
polygon
gluing
metric space (X,d), define

as the
...
Pn,
Pi, P2,
Poo eX.
In
length is
whose
of complete
the two
6.1 shows that
formulation has the

with
analogy
the
of a
length
definitions
sequence
finite
converges
are
more
of being
advantage
(X, d) is completeif
every
course
you may have
metric spaces involving
mathematics
another
Exercise
sequence Pi, P2,

This
d(Pn,Pn+i).
\316\243\342\204\242=1
in X
\302\267\302\267\302\267
\302\267\342\226\240\302\267,
Pn,
definition
different
of a
length
(X, d) is completeif
metric space
The
the
length
may
infinite.
or
finite
sum
infinite
of points
to some
encountered a
sequences.
Cauchy
equivalent.
The above
geometric because
discrete walk. Intuitively,
a metric
of its
space
a finite
escape from it by walking
a
finite
as
a
same
walk is the
finite
length
Indeed,
length
to some point
and such a sequence (\316\241\316\267)\316\267\316\265\316\235
must
converge
distance.
sequence,
one
cannot
Poo G X if the space is complete.

In Section6.4,we will establish
several general properties which
we
can
be used to prove that a metric space is complete.However,
of
first see how this property is relevant
tessellations
for constructing
the euclidean and hyperbolicplanes.
6.3. From gluingpolygon
edges
to
tessellations
be a polygon in the euclideanplane (R2, deuc), in the hyperbolic

plane (H2,dhyP), or in the sphere (S2,d8ph) with edges E\\, E2, \302\267\302\267\302\267
As in Chapter 4, group these edgesinto
#2fc} and
pairs
{E2k-i,
E2p.
=
\342\200\224>
'\342\226\240
\342\200\224>
isometries
and
\320\2252\320\272
specify
E2k-\\
E2k
</?2fc
</?2fc-i:
\317\2102^-\316\271
to
an
in Sections
4.4 and 4.5, extendeach \317\210\316\257 isometry of
E2k-i\302\267 As
a way
the euclidean plane,the hyperbolic
or the sphere in such
plane
to X.
that \317\210\316\257(\316\247)
is on the side of the edge(fi(Ei)that
is opposite
Let X
Let
\316\223
consist
that can
be written
of all
as
isometries
of
\317\210
(R2, deuc),
(H2
dhyp)
a composition
\302\267
\302\267
\302\267
=
\320\276
\316\277
\317\210 \317\210\316\257\316\271\316\277
\317\210\316\257\316\271_1
\317\210\316\257\316\271
or
(S2, deph)
of
such
many
finitely
which
map,
identity
We
Tessellations
6.
136
to
refer
will
the
to
and
encounter
the
\316\223
as
associated to the polygon
group
tiling
a transformation
in
By convention this includesthe

as a compositionof 0 gluing maps.
gluing isometries
edge
with
investigated
gluing maps.
can be written
a notion
group,
be further
will
which
first
is our
Ei \342\200\224\302\273
Ei\302\261\\. This
\317\210\316\257\302\267.
7.
Chapter
As usual, endow X with

the
metric
for which
\316\254\317\207
\316\254\317\207
Q) is the
(\316\241,
infimum of the euclidean,hyperbolic
or spherical
length of all curves
\316\241
to Q in X.
Let (\316\247,\316\254\317\207)
be the
metric space of
joining
quotient
defined
the
above
data.
by
gluing
\316\254\317\207)
(\316\247,
6.1
Theorem
hyperbolic
or
connected
spherical
addition, suppose
that
are
that
vertices
polygon
for
to
glued
space
quotient
cone
with
with
vertex
each
\316\241
add
on the vertex; in
depending
surface
Theorem). Let X
(Tessellation
up
ofX,
is a
(\316\247,\316\254\317\207)
Finally,
singularities.
euclidean,
some
of X at all
> 0
integer \316\267
or 4.10, the
4.4
Theorems
or spherical
hyperbolic
assume
In
as above.
the angles
for
^\302\243
by
euclidean,
data
gluing
to
particular,
be
the
that
space
quotient
is complete.
(\316\247,\316\254\317\207)
Then,
or the
The proof will
By construction,
disjoint
will
setting
progressively
are two
plane,
sphere.
the tiles \317\210(\316\247)

are
they
all isometric.
the whole
cover
the
Therefore,
plane and
that
have
they
interiors.
Our strategy
that
the
\316\223,
a while.
take
issue is to show that
group
tiling
of the euclidean
a tessellation
forms
\317\210(\316\247)
plane
hyperbolic
of the
all elements
over
ranges
\317\206
of polygons
family
the
as
be
one tile
potential snags
the tiles
that
might
\317\206(\316\247)
that
not
secondoneis that, as we are

at X, two distinct
tiles might
of the
tile-layer, beginning at
other. In this
after the
need
to
be ruled
necessarily
progressively
approach,
out. The
first
and
there
one
is
cover the whole plane. The

laying the tiles beginning
end up overlapping as in the tile-layer's

to weekend
6.2 (well known
do-it-yourselfers,
the
these
out
including
Ruling
potential problemswill use the
author).
in
a
crucial
of
completeness
way; see in particular Lemma 6.4.
(X, a)
nightmare
of Figure
6.3. From
Figure 6.2. The
137
to tessellations
edges
polygon
gluing
tile-layer's
nightmare
Before we proceed, it is convenient

to establish
some terminology.
If the points \316\241
and
of
the
X
are
of
then,
Q
glued
together,
boundary
=
\302\260
\302\260\"\"\"
\302\260
where
definition
of
the
by
process,
gluing
Q
v?\302\273i
\302\245>*i-i
\302\245>\302\273\316\271
(\316\241)
\302\267
\302\267
\320\276
the
are restricted
belongs
by the condition that \317\210\316\271$_\316\271
\302\267oy>fl(\316\241)
\317\210\316\257$
I. In this situation,
we observed in the proof of
to Eij for every j \316\266
\302\267
\302\267
\302\267
\316\277
\316\277
Theorem 4.4 that the tiles \317\210~^\316\277
fit nicely
side-by\321\203\302\273\"1 \317\2107\316\271{\316\247)
side around the point P. We will say that these tiles are adjacentto
X at the point
More
P.
a tile
precisely,
sequence of gluing
to
belongs
for
\316\225^
is adjacent
\317\206(\316\247)
to X
at
ipit such that
\302\267
\302\267
\302\267
\316\277
\316\277
\317\210^
(\316\241)
\317\206^^
...,
\317\206\316\2572,
maps
y>fl,
every
j < I
(including the
fact
exists
\316\241
if there
that
and
\316\241
\302\243
E^)
\317\210=\317\21071
\316\277\317\206\316\244^\316\277-'-\316\277\317\206-1.
Note
that
equal
to some
is
\317\206
an
gluing
\342\200\242
\302\267
\302\267
\302\260
belongs
\317\210\316\220!
(\316\241)
with
\317\210(\316\247)
of the
element
\316\223
is
\342\202\254
\321\204
However,
</?\302\273^\302\2611\302\267
map
to
E^
adjacent
By convention, we allow
in which case \317\206
is the
itself
at
to
adjacent
always
the
is
\316\241
at the
adjacent
X at
in
\321\204~1(\320\240),
6.2.
Lemma
adjacent
to
we will say that
point
the
There
at the
since
\316\223,
each
\317\206^1
condition
that
\316\277
\317\210\316\2571_1
that
not
of gluing maps
map. In particular,
family
identity
generally,
the
restrictive, so
is quite
to X.
empty,
More
group
tiling
the tiles
and
\317\206(\316\247)
is
to
\317\210^
are
point P.
are
\317\210(\316\247)
sense.
only
finitely
that
many Hies \317\210(\316\247)
be
the tile X
\316\241
if \317\210-1\316\277
is adjacent
\316\240
\342\202\254
\317\210(\316\247)
\317\210(\316\247)
\317\210(\316\247)
above
tile
every
are
to
6. Tessellations
138
Proof.If
\316\241
is
X at P.
are
that
we
Consequently,
vertex.
As
gluing
maps
is equal
j <
different from
the
I,
can
we
Pj =
require
that
since
image
\316\267
> 0.
integer
\316\241
When
case.
a sequence
considering
such that
always
hypothesis
the
2\317\200,
extension of this
Section 4.3.1 when
\316\241
is
is a property
result
proof of Theorem 4.4. The
to
in the
<Pi1,<Pia,...,<Pii,...
for every
some
for
2\302\243,
form
the
way
points that are glued to
all the
at
a mild
is just
end of
the
in
is the only
on the case where

critical
in a
use
encountered
already
it
P\\
to focus
need
only
the angles of X at \316\241

and
sum
the
add
to
of
an angle
up
=
\316\267
1, so that the angle sum
generalargument
vertex,
Ei
only edge containing the

follows
that X and \317\206\317\212\317\207(\316\247
X at P.
that
that we have
to
glued
the proof will
In this case,
then
is the
\317\206{(\316\225{)Ei\302\261\\
adjacent to
only tiles
adjacent to
only tile
is the
then
\316\241
and
is
\317\210\316\257(\316\241)
point
the
X,
edge Ei but is not a
in an
edge containing
unique
interior of
in the
\316\241
is
If
\316\275^-\316\271\316\257-^-\316\271))
of
e
-\316\277\317\206^
(\316\241)
<Pij_1o\302\267\302\267
the edge Ei} is
otherwise
and
Ei}
are
\317\210\316\257\316\257_1
\317\210^
other and cancelout in the composition. As a

the
sequence of indices ii, %2, ..., ij, ... is uniquely
consequence,
=
once we have chosen an edgeE^ containing
\316\241
determined
Pi, by
index
induction and because ij is the unique
for which the edge Ei}
\302\267\302\267\302\267
\316\277
\320\276
and
is not
contains Pi:l = \317\210\316\257}_\317\207
<\321\200\321\214(\320\240)
\317\206^.^\316\225^^).
the
inverse
of each
the
Consider
of
sequence
maps
gluing
...
...,
\317\210^,\317\206\316\2572,
\317\206^,
as
above, associated to the choiceof the edge E^ containing P. As in

end of Section 4.3.1, the sequenceof points
the
returns
Pj eventually
= Pi after
to \316\241
visiting all the points of P, and there exists a number
\320\272
^
Pj+k = Pj and
1 such that
the set
of
are glued
that
points
ij+k = ij for
to
In particular,
j.
every
=
\316\241
is \316\241
{\316\241\317\207,
\316\2412,...,P^}.
of Theorem 4.4, choose\316\265

small
that each
enough
=
a
disk
sector
for
each
ball Bdx(Pj,e)
is
1,2, ..., \320\272.For
j
or spherical
every j' ^ 1, consider the euclidean,hyperbolic
isometry
As in
the proof
in
î
'\320\244\320\267
identity
'\"'
\302\260
\302\260
\316\250\316\2522
map).
\302\260
Still as
in
f7j1.1
the
il>j(Bdx{Pj,e)) side-by-side
as we return to Pfc+i = Pi,
(with
proof
around
fit
equal to
Bdx(Pi,\316\265)
disk sectoraround
any
Pi
more
by an
the
disk
the
convention
of Theorem
the vertex
sector
that
is the
\317\210\316\271
4.4, the disk sectors

=
\316\241
Pi.
However,
^k+i(Bdx(Pi,\316\265)) is not
instead obtained by rotating this

2e.
of
angle
and is
6.3. From gluing

If
we
going,
keep
obtained
is
%l>2k+\\{Bdx{P\\,\302\243))
Bdx(P1,e) by an angle of
rotating
by
by an angle of
ip3k+i(Bdx(Pi,s))
2^,
139
to tessellations
edges
polygon
=
we reach \321\204\320\277\320\272+\316\271
Bdx
(Pi,\316\265))
(Bdx
fixes
the point Pi and the two
geodesies
\321\204\320\277\320\272+\\
so that eventually
etc...,
The
isometry
delimiting
the
disk
sector
that
follows
\316\222^(\316\241\316\271,\316\265).
It
Lemma 2.6to prove
(Use, for instance,
3^,
(Pi,
\316\265).
is the
\321\204\320\277\320\272+\316\271
identity.
in the
hyperbolic case).
=
As a consequence,
for
and
there are only
^
1,
every j
\316\250\316\257
\321\2043-+\320\277\320\272
tiles
fact
finitely
many
exactly nk)
(in
ipj(X).
we
had
instead
of
selectedthe other edge E^
Similarly
if,
E^,
of gluing maps \317\206?
...,
adjacentto P, the resulting
, \317\206?2,
family
\316\275\316\275,\316\271
...
and maps
=
\317\210^,
this
\342\226\240
\302\267
\302\267
\316\277
\316\277
\316\277
\317\206\316\244,1
\317\206\316\244,1
\317\206~*
is
every
j' ^ 1. So this other choicealsogives
tiles <p'j/(X) adjacent to X at P.
for
Since
proves
E^
and
that there
are
\320\225#
are only
the
only edges
many
finitely
that
such
=
\320\244'\321\203
\321\204'\321\203+\320\277\320\272
many
finitely
only
containing the vertex

to X
tiles adjacent
P,
at
this
D
P.
is a vertex
\316\241
make Lemma 6.2 a little moreprecise.When
is the
the
notation
of the above proof, note that
Ei>
=
=
=
that is different from E^
edge containing \316\241 \320\240\320\263
Ek+iPk+i
=
\342\200\224>
of
is
the
the
Therefore,
image
gluing
map
Eik
</?\302\273*\342\204\226*)
ipils:
E^
As a consequence, \317\206\316\275
is
is the
inverse of ipik.
Ei>.
Similarly,
E^
= Pt that is different from
=
the edge containing \317\206\316\275
tpîPk+i)
(\316\241)
=
so
is
to the inverse of
that
the
gluing
map
(E^)
E{k
\317\210\316\257^
\317\206^ equal
=
for
this
conclude
that
we
Iterating
argument,
4>ik_1.
</?\302\273', \317\206\316\244\\.,
every
j' with 1 < j' < k.
= %'\302\267,
for
the
that ij+k = i3- and
Using
j,
every
property
We can
of X
and
with
ij,+fc
1, one concludesthat
nk. As a consequence,
f ^
=
*j>
Vv/
\317\206\316\275
\317\210\316\2441
t
_.,
for
every
\302\267
\302\267
\302\267
\302\260
\302\260
\302\260
\316\250\316\275*
\316\250^_\302\261
\302\267\302\267\302\267
\302\260
\317\206\316\244
\317\2107\316\277 \316\277
w7
\320\244\320\277\320\272-j'+2
j'
with
1 <
<
6.
140
for every
is
the
since ôô-
/ < nk,
1 <
with
\302\267
-o^J;
\317\206\316\271
\321\204\320\277\320\272+\\
map.
identity
The point
included among the
were already
they
\342\226\240\321\204'\321\203(\320\245),
this
particular,
6.3. Under the
point
there
6.1, for
every
that
\317\210(\316\247)
are
of Theorem
hypotheses
small
is a
tiles ipj(X).
the following.
proves
Complement
\316\241
\302\243
X,
not need to considerthe tiles
we do
is that
this
of
since
In
Tessellations
the tiles
that
\316\265
such
\316\2272or
S2
X at \316\241decompose
the disk \316\222^(\316\241,\316\265)
\320\241
R2,
disk
euclidean
or
sectors
with
many
hyperbolic
Bd(P,e)
disjoint interiors, where d = deuC, ^hyp or dsph according to whether
\320\236
X is a euclidean, hyperbolic
or spherical
polygon.
to
adjacent
into finitely
6.3 by saying that the tiles \317\206(\316\247)

near P. However,at
side-by-side
this point, we have no guarantee
that they do not overlap away
from
P. This is particularly conceivableif X has a funny shape instead of
as in most
will
We
pictures that we have seen so far.
being convex
need the full force
of all the hypotheses of Theorem 6.1 to rule out
it will turn out that the adjacent tiles are
this
possibility.
Similarly,
the only ones meeting X, which is far from obvious at this point.
can
We
are
that
Complement
rephrase
to X
adjacent
at
\316\241
fit
nicely
6.3.1. Hyperbolictilings.
After
the proof of
we now begin
write
Theorem
these
observations,
preliminary
6.1.
to systematically
Having
plane or the sphere\"

will
we
restrict
our
clumsy
Consequently,
attention to the
less familiar case, for practice, and assumethat
the
plane
will
considered
is the hyperbolic plane (lP,dhyp)\302\267 All the arguments
almost automatically extend to the euclideanand spherical
context.
See Sections 6.3.2 and 6.3.3.
euclidean
\"the
the hyperbolic
plane,
after
becomes
a while.
\316\2272
show that every \316\241
\342\202\254
is covered
by a tile
a
in
of X,
with
the interior
base point P0
this, pick
\317\206(\316\247)
consider another point \316\241
and
let g be the hyperbolic geodesic
\342\202\254
\320\250\320\2232,
set tiles over the geodesic g.
Pq to P. We will
joining
progressively
Our
first
is to
goal
\320\223.
For
\302\243
\317\210
Look
of the
be
this
at
finitely
tile.
the
first point
many
Then let
tiles
P\\
that
where
g leaves
are adjacent
P2 be the first
point
X.
At
Pi,
g enters
one
to X at P\\. Let \317\210\316\271(\316\247)
where
g leaves
and
\317\210\316\271
(\316\247)
6.3.
From
enters
tile
ip2(X)\302\267
a sequenceof
points
\342\202\254
g and
to enter
at Pn
\317\210\316\267-\316\271(\316\247)
at
Note that
two
separating
This
tile
the
when,
happens
after
right
process
to
and
is adjacent
\317\210\316\267{\316\247),
\317\210\316\267(\316\247)
is not
ipn(S)
always uniquely
\317\206\316\267-\317\207(\316\247)
adjacent to
the
when
terminate
will
edge
at Pn.
\317\210\316\267\316\271(\316\247)
g enters
geodesic
it, namely, when the point
leaves
This
determined.
geodesic g followsan
Pn, the
passing
tiles that are
of the
and
never
\317\210\316\267(\316\247)
one inductively defines

process,
that
of tiles \317\210\316\267{\316\247)
such
g leaves
6.3.
See Figure
Pn.
this
Repeating
Pn
141
edges to tessellations
polygon
gluing
in
\316\241
is
a tile
the
tile
as requested.
\317\210\316\267(\316\247)
6.3.
Figure
Lemma
6.4.
tiling
process
geodesic
must terminate
after
finitely
steps.
many
The hypothesis that the

crucial.
Proof.
is here
Suppose that
infinite
the
construction,
two
points
ipîPn)
continues
Pn and tiles
Pn is
in
and
map
tiles
and
\317\210\316\267-\316\271(\316\247).
\317\210\316\267(\316\247)
together and
quotient space X.
X are
\342\202\254
\316\250\316\267-\316\271(\316\241\316\267)
glued
consequently project to the same point
Becausethe quotient
forever and provides an
\317\206\316\267(\316\247).
the
both
is
complete
(\316\247,\316\254\317\207)
space
quotient
process
tiling
of points
sequence
By
The
above
The
over a
tiles
Laying
Pn
\342\200\224>
X is
in the
distance
nonincreasing
by
Lemma 4.2,
dx(Pn,Pn+i) < \316\254\317\207(\317\206-1(\316\241\316\267),\317\210-1(\316\241\316\267+1)).

In addition,
a
the two points Pn and Pn+i
in \317\206\316\267{\316\247)
are
joined
by
geodesic curve contained in the geodesicg. Therefore,
=
\316\254\317\207(\317\210-\\\316\241\316\267),\317\206-\\\316\241\316\267+\316\273))
\320\260\321\212\321\203\321\200(<\321\204-\\\320\240\320\277),\321\204-\\\320\240\320\
which is also equal to dbyp(Pn,
As a
is a
\317\210\316\267
since
Pn+i)
consequence,
has
length
(Pn)n\342\202\254N
and therefore convergesto someP\302\273\342\202\254

X in
(X,dx).
Let P^,, P\302\243,,...,
of the
points
the
in
are
that
for
such an
an ra0 such that
\316\265.Since
sum ]C^Li
the
dhyP(Pn,
Pn+i) <
Since
ball
to
the point
every
ra
every
< \316\265/2,the
^(^,\316\241\316\277\316\277)
another
>
exists
there
\320\240\320\266,
By
\320\263\320\260
> rao.
we can
Pn+i),
^\321\214\320\243\320\240(\320\240\320\277,
for
\316\265/2
Bd(P\302\243s > \316\265/2)by
also choose
so
rao
that
ra0.
be in
X must
\342\202\254
\317\210^\316\257\316\241\316\267)
point
application
some
4.5. Using the
of Lemma
that
property
<
\316\254\317\207{\317\210-\\\316\241\316\267),\317\210-\\\316\241\316\267+1))
dhyp(Pn,Pn+i)
that
observe
gluing map
X,
the
\316\241\316\214\316\277,
namely,
to form
together
(Pn)n\342\202\254Nconverges
for
\316\241^) <
\316\265/2
\316\254\317\207(\316\241\316\267,
convergence of
of
small.
\316\265
sufficiently
Fix
glued
metric space
the complete
points
oo
<
> 0 sufficiently
By Lemma 4.5, for \316\265
X is exactly the image of the union
of
In addition, the balls Bdx(Pl0,e) are
space X.
in
small, the ball Bjx (\316\241^,\316\265)
all the balls Bdx(P^,\316\265)
in X.
disjoint
the
X
P\302\243,\342\202\254be
polygon X
quotient
sj 4yp(ff)
sj ^2dhyp(Pn,Pn+1)
n=l
\316\243dx(Pn,Pn+1)
n=l
Poo
isometry.
hyperbolic
< dhyp(Pn,Pn+i).
\316\254\317\207(\316\241\316\267,\316\241\316\267+\316\271)
The sequence
we
Tessellations
6.
142
Vn+i
\302\260
^n,
distance <
from
\316\265
sends
which
send P^
therefore
must
such
tiles
is at distance
\342\226\240\317\206~\316\273(\316\241\316\267+\\)
<
\316\265
from
\316\241
\342\202\254
P^
of
By choice
Vv+i^n+i)\302\267
in
P%\302\243
X.
The
X to
\342\202\254
^(Pn+i)
to somepoint
\316\265/2,
Vn+i^n+i)
and which
is the
\316\241\302\243?+1
\316\265,
\342\202\254
is at
only
\316\241
so that
\342\202\254
\316\241\302\273,
the
In particular,
\317\210\316\267{\316\241&)
\317\210\316\267+\316\271(\316\241\302\243\316\266+1)-
and
also
are
\317\210\316\267(\316\247)
\317\210\316\267+\316\271(\316\247)
adjacent
at the
point
\317\210\316\267(\316\241\302\243\316\26
\316\250\316\267+\316\220(\316\241&+1).
If
every
Poo-
that
we
ra
set Poo
rao
and
=
that
this
ipno(Px\302\260),
the tiles
there are only
In particular,
proves
that
to
adjacent
such tiles.
many
all
are
\317\210\316\267(\316\247)
finitely
of
By construction, either there is an edge\316\225
of
\316\225
is
with
the
intersection
Pn
unique
point
g coincides with
an
edge
E'
of
\342\200\224
Poo
\317\206\316\267{\316\241^)
tile
the
for a while
\317\210\316\267(\316\247)
the
for
at
\317\210\316\267\316\277(\316\247)
such
\317\210\316\267{\316\247)
geodesic
and Pn
g, or
is one of
From
6.3.
the vertices
of
are
that
to
adjacent
there
at
(\316\247)
P^
\317\210\316\267\316\277
tiles
are only finitely
many
and since each has only
we concludethat
and vertices,
edges
many
Since
\317\210\316\267(\316\247).
143
tessellations
edges to
polygon
gluing
are
there
\317\210\316\267(\316\247)
finitely
finitely
only
many points Pn on g.
But this contradicts

immediate
An
is contained
after
PsH2
point
every
tiling
steps.
many
finitely
6.4 is that
of Lemma
corollary
least
at
in
terminate
the
Therefore,
assumption.
original
geodesic g must
of the
process
our
one tile.
is the last tile needed to cover

the
\317\210\316\267(\316\247)
\316\241
as
a
to
in
Lemma
we
that
tile
will
6.4,
Pq
g joining
say
\317\206(\316\247)
to the base point
is a canonical
tile for the point \316\241
respect
(with
at P.
In particular,
if \316\241
is contained
Po) if it is adjacent to \317\210\316\267(\316\247)
in the interior of \317\210\316\267(\316\247),
then
is the
only canonical tile for
\317\210\316\267(\316\247)
P. (This requires
a little
when g follows an edgeseparating
thought
are
for the tiles X,
two
in
case
which
there
several
possibilities
tiles,
More precisely, if
geodesic
For every \316\241

\342\202\254
\316\2272,there
Lemma
6.5.
every P'
\342\202\254
Bdhyp
Proof.
particular,
one
Let us
containing
Let 7
tiles
at
use the notation

the endpoint
be the finite
in
and,
\317\210\316\257(\316\247)
\316\241
of
collection
addition,
that for
such
P' are
the
exactly
proof of Lemma 6.4.

the covering process,namely,
the
of
last tile in
be the
\317\210\316\267(\316\247)
let
\316\265
> 0
tiles for
P'.
contain
\316\241
that
an
exists
\320\250\320\240
the canonical
\320\241
\316\265)
(\316\241,
tiles for
canonical
g.)
\342\226\240\342\226\240\302\267,
covering
\317\210\316\267{\316\247)
\316\250\316\271(\316\247),
ih(X),
the
geodesic
of tiles
the
g.
consisting
of any tile that
In
of X,
of
all
the
is adjacentto some\317\210\316\257(\316\247)
Pi.
A case-by-case
there is a small
of the
tiles
ball
analysis shows that

Bdhyp
\316\245
\302\2437. Indeed,
in H2
\316\265)
(\316\241,
there
for
are three
Q in the
is contained in
every
which
types of such points
geodesicg
the
union
Q
\342\202\254
g:
those
and the points
interior of sometile ipi(X), the points
Pi,
where g followsan edgeof \317\210\316\257(\316\247).
to
a nearby
As
one slightly
moves the point \316\241
point P', the
geodesicg moves to the geodesic g' joining Pq to P' which stays very
what
near the points Pi, we see
close to g. If we investigate
happens
of
will
that
the
involve
tiles of 7, and that
the
process
g'
tiling
only
in the
6. Tessellations
144
to
be adjacent
will
tile
final
follows.
result easily
The
P.
at
\317\210\316\267(\316\247)
SeeFigure6.3.
If
the interior of the

it
is
also
canonical for
for P,
\316\241
canonical
tile
and
only
Q.
for
Let
6.6.
Lemma
\316\241
and
be in
is canonical
\317\210(\316\247)
the
is
\317\210(\316\247)
This is
Proof.
Because of
in
our
by
parametrized
\317\210(\316\247),
= z(b).
X is
that
assumption
a <
\321\214->
\316\257
z(t),
Q. In
\317\206(\316\247)-
addition,
6.5.
of Lemma
consequence
simple
relatively
tile
same
connected, there is a curve

and
\316\257
< b,
=
\316\241
joining
z(a)
we can
of \317\210(\316\247),
even
pushing
assume that this curve is completely contained in this interior. We
to Q
can
it in
After
consider
then
By definition
such that the
of
are points
i0, there
tile \317\210(\316\247)
is canonical
is the only
tile
z(t)
for z(t).
to
z(to)
By Lemma 6.5,it follows
Because z(tQ) is in the interior

canonical tile for z(i0) by definition
canonicity. Another application of Lemma

is canonical
for z(t) for every t sufficiently
than b, this would contradict the definition
=
b, and
\316\257\316\277
Therefore,
close
arbitrarily
for z(to).
is canonical
\317\210(\316\247)
this
\317\210(\316\247),
tile for z(t)}.
a canonical
is
\317\206(\316\247)
\316\257\316\277
sup{i;
that
the interior
6.5
shows that
then
close
of
to to.
of
\317\210(\316\247)
was
less
\316\257\316\277
as a
\316\257\316\277
for z(t0)
is canonical
\317\210(\316\247)
If
of
supremum.
= z(b)
= Q, as
requested.
canonical for
Lemma
Proof.
interior of \317\210(\316\247),
no
in the
Q are
\316\241
and
Since
other
tile can
be
D
them.
6.7. Every tile
Let us
first
prove
for some
\317\210(\316\247)canonical
is
that
then for every gluing

interior,
for
canonical
some P' in its own
this proves Lemma 6.7.
its
if
\316\241
in
for some
\317\210(\316\247)canonical
is
the
tile
\317\210\316\271
map
interior.
Later,
and
Thetiles \317\206(\316\247)
meet
along
\317\206\316\277\317\206^\316\247)
a point of this edge,not a vertex.
its interior.
\316\241
in
\316\277
is also
\317\210\317\210\316\257(\316\247)
we will show how
the edge
Let
\317\206\316\277\317\206^\316\225\316\271).
Q be
Let
P\"
be
a point
of the
is the
Lemma 6.6, \317\210(\316\247)
sufficiently
close
to
interior of
is close to Q. By
tile for P\". ChoosingP\"
Lemma 6.5, we concludethat
that
\317\210(\316\247)
canonical
unique
Q and applying
From
6.3.
for Q.
canonical
is also
\317\210(\316\247)
Therefore, every
at Q,
is adjacentto \317\210(\316\247)
If P' is a point of the interior
to Q, Lemma 6.5 again
shows
for Q
either
P'
it is
namely,
is not in
of
definition
tile
\316\223,
every
on
successivemultiplication
starting
fact
the
with
for some
to check
is a
\317\206(\316\247)
are
\317\210'(\316\247)
(2) the
it follows
by
induction
that every
D
these
all
we can
together,
steps
that the
namely
6.1,
tiles \317\210(\316\247)
hyperbolic plane H2. We
have
plane
(4) every
only
first
If the
tiles
point
\316\241
is
This
are
the
of
every
tiles
\317\210(\316\247);
disjoint
interiors;
which
\316\265)
(\316\241,
Bdhyp
meets
\317\206(\316\247).
'
contained
\316\241
\316\2272
is
\342\202\254
point
and
\317\206(\316\247)
Lemmas
the unique
proves
and
\317\206(\316\247)
in a
tile
(2).
interiors of
each
\317\206'(\316\247)
\317\210'(\316\247).
that
of a ball
center
is trivial.
condition
combinations
the
tiles
the
of
union
and
have
\317\210(\316\247)
\317\210'(\316\247)
many tiles
finitely
proves
to the
\320\250\320\2232
is equal
Lemma 6.4 shows

This
\317\210(\316\247).
and any two tiles
polygon,
isometric;
any two distinct
(3)
P, the
By an
\317\210\316\257.
By
that:
(1) each tile
The
\316\241
in
interior.
its
\316\241
\316\2272.
\342\202\254
of the
a tessellation
for some
in
the identity
from
obtained
of Theorem
6.1. Putting
Proof
now conclude the proof of Theorem
\316\223
form
\342\202\254
\317\206
P'
for some
the right by gluing

maps
that X is canonical for Pq,
tile \317\210(\316\247)
is canonical
for P'.
is canonical
\317\206(\316\247)
if
is canonical
\317\206\316\277\317\206\316\271{\316\247)
\316\223
is
\342\202\254
\317\206
close
sufficiently
tile for P' will be

cannot be \317\210(\316\247)
since
each canonical
This concludesthe proof that

then
is canonical
or
\317\210(\316\247)\317\210\316\277\317\210^\316\247).
\316\277
is canonical
\317\210\317\210\316\257(\316\247)
Therefore,
\317\210(\316\247).
145
that
tile
either
that
is
\317\206\316\277
\317\210\316\257(\316\247)
of
that
\316\277
or
This
canonical
\317\210(\316\247) \317\206\317\206\316\271(\316\247).
its interior,
with
tessellations
edges to
polygon
gluing
6.6
contain
\317\206'(\316\247)
and 6.7
canonical tile
for
P.
the
show that
Therefore,
same point
and
\317\210(\316\247)
=
\317\206(\316\247)
(3).
\316\2272
has
\342\202\254
Finally, a point \316\241
only finitely
many canonical tiles,
and there exists a ball Bdhyp (\316\241,
in the union of these
contained
\316\265)
meet
can
canonical tiles. No other tile \317\210(\316\247)
this ball; indeed, its
meet the interior of one of the canonical
interior
would
otherwise
tiles
6. Tessellations
146
of
tiles,
finitely
many
6.3.2.
Euclidean
clidean
setup
namely, the tiles that
for P.
canonical
are
The proof
of Theorem 6.1 in
to that for the
hyperbolicplane.
tilings.
is identical
Bdhyp(P,e) meets only
the ball
Therefore,
(3).
\316\241,
contradicting
\320\236
j
eu-
the
j
j
When X is a polygon in the sphere

S2, j
\316\241
from
to
that
the
is
shortest
P0
may
only
geodesicg
'
not be unique. We need to prove
that
the set of canonical tiles for \316\241
is independent
of the choice of this geodesic
g. Several such shortest \\
exist only when \316\241
is the antipodal
P0 of Po. In this ;
point \342\200\224
geodesies
6.3.3.
tilings.
Spherical
difference
the
=
are great
Po to \316\241 \342\200\224Pq
case, any two geodesiesg and g' connecting
j
!
to
a
the
other
and
can
be
moved
from
one
semi-circles
by rotation
'.
set of canonical
the
about
the line OPq. We then have to checkthat
tiles for \316\241
not change as one rotates from
does
g to g\\ which is easily ,
done
used in the proofs of Lemmas 6.5 and 6.6. \\
by the arguments
'
of Theorem 6.1 is identical.
this is proved, the rest of the proof
Once
6.3.4. Slight generalizations.
We
the
which
maps
gluing
we never
ipf. Ei
used the
\342\200\224>with
Eji
fact that
these
we can allow
a consequence,
As
So far, the
of edges.
Self-gluing
by
of Theorem
hypotheses
case, because we still need that

Ei must be the identity or a flip
The casewhere
by converting
setup,
Ei
into
two
new
Beware that
edgesof
the
edges
=
statement
this context.
'
However,
\317\206\316\244\316\271.
\317\206^
,
\317\206~[
\317\206-\317\207
\317\206^
reflecting
paired
Ei and E^ were distinct.I

this'
\342\200\224
i.
In
ji
the
of I
\317\206\316\271
isometry
its midpoint.
Ex across
be reducedto the previous

a new
\342\22
and splitting;
vertex
edges.
when
the
is
Ei
(/?,:\302\243\342\226\240,\342\200\224>
identity,
extension\317\210\316\220
to all of R2, H2 or S2 occurringin the
be the reflection acrossthe completegeodesic
containing
it must send X to the oppositeside of Ei.
The
X were
the possibilitythat
=
ways in
relaxed.
polygon
\342\200\224
i\302\261land
ij
two
flip can actually

the midpoint of Ei into
is a
\317\206\316\271
two
indicate
briefly
6.1 can be somewhat
and proof
of Theorem 6.1 immediately
the isometric?
tiling
group
Ei
will
because
extends
to
and compactnessproperties
6.4. Completeness
nonconnected
Allowing
win
More precisely,we
one of
of
isometries
of these
introduce the tiling groupoid \316\223

consisting
We then
Ei.
edge
of the
account some additional

connected polygons Xi contains
to take into
need
just
which
namely,
information,
of all
many
finitely
Then, the
tile setting.
practical
each
union of
tiling
polygons X\\, X2, ..., Xpa tessellation where each tile is isometricto
provide
tiles \316\247\316\271,
X2;
...,
Xp. This again followsthe intuition
model
the
also relax the hypothesis
the
be
to
it
connected
disjoint
process
We can
polygons.
and allow
is connected
that
147
form
\317\206 \317\210\316\257\316\271
\316\277\317\210\316\257^
\316\277..\302\267\316\277\317\210\316\257\316\271,
is in the same
1, the edge Eik
that
is glued to Eik_1
connected polygon Xi as the edge'Pik_1(Eik_1)
arises
The
need
for the barbaric terminology \"groupoid\"
by <\316\241\316\260_\316\271\302\267
the fact that
from
in
=
\320\272
each
for
where,
\316\223
is not
7; indeed,
Chapter
in
2,
\316\231
a group
that
sense
the
in
the compositionof
two
we
will
elements
tessellation are then all the tilesof
of the
tiles
\316\223
is decomposed
\342\202\254
\317\206
where
...,
encounter
of
not
\316\223
is
\316\223.
always
The
1,
where Xi is
as
the
form
\317\210{\316\247\317\212),
\302\267
\302\267
\302\267
\320\276
\316\277 as above
\316\277
\317\210 \317\206^ \317\210\316\257\316\271_1
\317\210\316\257\317\207
the connectedpolygon
of
that
contains
and
the starting
edge Eh.
that
these tiles form a tessellationis proved
arguments as Theorem 6.1.
fact
The
the same
6.4. Completeness and

Theorem
of
6.1,
the
need
in particular
and
property
completeness
a few
is devoted
compactnessproperties
Lemma 6.4, points to the importance
for our
criteria to guarantee that

results
of this type.
6.8.
Theorem
property of
exactly
geometric endeavors. We will

is complete. This section
space
to
6.4.1. The euclideanand
Proof.
by
This
real
The
is an
numbers.
euclidean
hyperbolicplane are complete.

plane (R2,deuc)
of
immediate consequence
the
*s
complete.
following
deep
6. Tessellations
148
Fact 6.9.
\\x
\342\200\224is
of
Fact
6.9,
this
00.
in
this
point
proof
of
definition
the
to
(R2, deuc) is complete,considera sequenceof

with
to show that
the
finite length
sequence
points
<
\316\241\316\267+1)
deuC(Pn,
\316\243\316\223=\316\271
to
converges
(Pn)n\342\202\254N
some
e R2.
\316\241\317\207
If Pn
that
note
(\321\205\320\277,\320\243\320\277),
^ Fn+1
deuc\\Pn>Pn+l)
by equation
x\\, x2, ...,
By completeness
converges
(xn)n\342\202\254N
consider
by definition
such
\317\200\316\271
of (R, d)
to
|xn
shows that
x^l
deuc(Pn, Poo) =
This
00\302\267.
<
-% for
Xoo)2 +
\320\273/(\320\245\320\277
the
that
follows
the
sequence
sequence
every
converges
(yn)n\342\202\254N
R2\302\267
For
\316\267
^
exists
and
there
\317\204\302\273\316\271,
f\302\260r
every
(\320\243\320\277
3/oo)2
\316\265
> 0,
every
exists a number
there
sequences,
\342\200\224
another number n2 such that
3/<x>| < 77s
|yn
is the larger of n\\ and n2, we conclude that
every
<
in R.
\317\207,\317\207,
P*, = (x00,\321\20300)in
of
convergence
\342\200\224
(Fact 6.9), it
number
some
the point
of the
that
numbers
real
n=l
same argument
number j/oq.
Now,
d(Xni xn+l)
< ]JPdeuc(-Pn,-Pn+l)
^d(xn,Xn+1)
The
xn\\
00
n=l
to some
~~
(1.3). As a consequence,the sequenceof

has
xn, \302\267\302\267\302\267
length
00
for
of
way).
\342\226\240
\342\226\240
\342\226\240
in R2
\342\226\240
\342\226\240
\342\226\240,
Pn,
P2,
We want
analysis for a
on real
textbooks
many
Historically, real numbers were introducedprecisely

to hold true. (Of course,it took many
centuries
property
To prove that
Pi,
of the
requires a deep understanding
which
the property
state
d(x, y) =
metric
usual
the
with
\316\217
to any
refer
real numbers.
for
endowed
R,
complete.
y\\,
We
line
real
The
<
If
\316\267
^ n2\302\267
\316\244
to
the
\\J\316\244
no
\316\265
\316\267
^ ra0.
proves
that
Poo in (R2,deuc)> and
complete.
the sequence
{Pn)n&
completesthe proof
converges
that
this
metric
point
space is
\316\240
6.4.
hyperbolic
completeness
these two spaces have
that
that
common.
in
The hyperbolicplane (H2,dhyp)
6.10.
Theorem
149
properties
compactness
of the euclideanplaneto prove

is
also
This
is one more property
complete.
plane
use the
now
We
the
and
Completeness
is
metric
a complete
space.
Proof. Let Pi, P2, ...,

finite
length
be a
...
Pn,
sequence of points in H2
with
oo
L=
]JPdhyP(Pn,Pn+i)< oo.
n=l
need
We
for the
Let
of
uses
to show that the sequence

to some
P*,
(Pn)ne^ converges
hyperbolic metric dhyP\302\267
be the hyperbolic
geodesic arc joining Pn to Pn+i. Iterated
7\342\200\236
the Triangle
\302\243
Inequality give that for every \316\241
\316\267\316\267,
n-l
dhyP(P,
pi) <
\316\243dbyp(ft\302\273
P\302\245+^
d(P\">P)
fc=l
n-l
<
The
if
estimate
=
\316\241
provided
Pi =
and
\321\203)
(\317\207,
+ d(Pn,
Pk+l)
\316\243^\321\203\320\240(\320\233\321\201,
fc=l
by Lemma
2.5 showsthat
(\317\207\316\271,
3/1). Combining
Pn+i) <
^| In
-*-1
two inequalities,
we
Pi)
dhyp(P,
these
L.
concludethat
<
Vie~L
< yieL
\320\243
=
To ease
for every \316\241
the notation,
\342\202\254
~fn\302\267
\321\203)
(\317\207,
=
so
that
of
is between
eL
the
C2
!/i
y-coordinate \316\241
set
\342\200\224
c\\
and
yie~L
ci and c2 for
every
\316\241
\342\202\254
7\342\200\236.
Comparing
4uc
and
^hyP) we
*n+l)
\"hyp(-'n)
Poo
formulas
for the
euclidean and hyperboliclengths
conclude that
=
thyp^TnJ
*-\320\265\\1\320\241\\\320\243\320\277)
\302\253euc(-'nj *n+l)\302\267
c2
c2
Since
the sum ]Cnt=iêuc(Pn>Pn+i)is finite.
(R2,deuc)
we
that
conclude
Pn converges to some
(Theorem 6.8),
M2 for the metric deuc.
\342\202\254
In particular,
is complete
point
the
6. Tessellations
150
the
that
showed
We
y-coordinate
n. It followsthat
for every
^ ci > 0, so
that
the
is in
Pqo
and euclidean
hyperbolic
of
yn
lengths
>
yn
limit P*,
of the
y-coordinate
the upper
is such that
Pn
half-space \320\250\320\240.
Comparing
line
the
of
the
[Pn, P*,]
segment
Ci
is also
also
gives
1
*\302\267
\316\266
\342\226\240'ooj
hyp ll/n\302\273Px>J)
Uhypl-fni
\302\253euc(-'n)-\"ooj\302\267
*\320\265\320\270\321\201([-'\320\237!
Px)JJ
Ci
C\\
the sequence (Pn)n\342\202\254Nconverges

deuc, it also converges to P^ for
since
Therefore,
metric
euclidean
to
the
for the
P^
metric
hyperbolic
\316\240
dhyp\302\267
6.4.2.
is closely
related to
spaces, the
For metric
properties.
Compactness
completeness
another
notion
of
namely,
property,
compactness.
sequence
a
is based on subsequences.Given
property
...
in
of points Pi, P2,
a
Pn,
space X, any increasing
\302\267
\302\267
\302\267
\302\267
\342\226\240
\302\267
a new
of integers n\\ < \320\263\320\260\320\263
<
<
<
\320\237\320\272
provides
sequence
Pni, Pna,
This
compactness
...,
sequence
is
...,
...
in X. This new sequence(PnJfceN
In other
words,
original sequence(Pn)n\342\202\254N\302\267
Pnk,
of the
a subsequence
a sequenceto a subsequence
one goes from
the original sequence,while

still form a sequence.
they
metric
many
infinitely
keeping
is compact if
subsequence, namely,
(X, d)
space
a converging
X admits
forgetting
by
sequence
every
elements
of them
of
so that
in
(Pn)n\342\202\254N
a subsequence
(Pnfc)fc\342\202\254N
that
such
lim
\316\241\302\273
\320\240\320\237\320\272
\320\272\342\200\224>oo
for
some
The
provided
Poo
X.
\342\202\254
connection
the
by
following
Proposition
Proof.
Let
d(Pn,
\316\243^=\316\271
converges.
between compactness
result.
6.11.
Every
P2,
...,
Pi,
Pn+i)
< oo.
metric
compact
Pn, ...
We want
to
and completenessis
space
be a
sequence
show
that
(X, d)
with
is complete.
finite
the sequence
length
(Pn)n\302\243N
6.4.
and
Completeness
a converging
admits
it
compactness,
By
151
properties
compactness
subsequence (Pnk)keN
that
such
Pnk =
lim
Poo-
k\342\200\224*oo
an
For
\316\265
>
arbitrary
<
d(Pnk,Poa)
for
a number k0
of the
exists
there
0,
k0 by definition
\320\272
^
every
such
that
limit
of
sequence.
As a
consequence,the
series
the
of
Similarly, by convergence
a number no such that
exists
d{Pi,
Y^ln
<
for
for every
Then,
that d(Pn,
The
\316\265
>
every
for
Poo) < \316\265
<
any
picking
every
of compactness
For
+ d{Pnk,Poa)<\302\247+
\316\267
^
advantage
check.
no-
f
\316\243^\342\204\226,\316\241\316\257+\316\271)
\320\263=\320\277
\316\267^0}after
0, we found
to Poo.
easier to
<
max{n0,
converges
(-Pn)neN
every
\316\267
< n'.
< d(Pn,Pnk)
d(Pn,Poo)
Therefore,
\302\247
\316\267
^
\320\272
such
that
that
we conclude
\320\237\320\272
\316\257\317\212
\316\267,
for
\316\267
^
for
oo
\316\243d(pi>pi+i)
\320\263=\320\277
n0 with
\316\267'
^
\316\267,
every
there
d(Pi,Pi+i),
that
shows
n' \342\200\2241
d(Pn,Pn>)
<
Pi+i)
Inequality
Triangle
\316\243)^
an
n'0
\302\247=\302\243.
max{n0,ftfc0}
n'0. This proves that
such
the sequence
\342\226\241
instance,
the
over completenessis that it is often

following criterion is particularly
useful.
6.12.
Proposition
Let
metric space(X,d) to
then
compact,
the
Proof.
tends
space
X'
\320\241
\317\210(\316\247)
map from a
If, in addition,
{X',d').
is compact
X is
for the restriction
of
P'n
in \317\206(\316\247)
X'.
\320\241
By
X
of some P\342\200\236
under
G
sequence
image
\317\206{\316\241\316\267).
X is compact,
there is a subsequencePni, P\342\200\2362,
...,
\320\240\320\237\320\272,
sequence (P\342\200\236)N which converges to some point Poo G X=
to \317\206(\316\241\317\207)
as \320\272
G \317\210{\316\247)
converges
continuity of \317\206,
<\321\200{\320\240\320\237\320\272)
\320\240'\320\237\320\272
Since
By
\342\200\224\302\273
X'
be
\342\226\240
\342\226\240
\302\267 a
Let P{, \320\240\320\267,
...,
P\342\200\236, be
of the image, each P'n is the
\317\210,
namely,
...
image
a continuous
: X
\317\206
metric
d'.
metric
definition
its
of the
to oo.
6. Tessellations
152
for
Therefore,
subsequence
w^<^1
(Pnk)keN
in
converges
This
\317\210{\316\247).
nnd
can
we
\317\210(\316\247)>
(\320\240\320\277)\320\277\320\265\321\206
sequence
every
that
proves
is
compact.
\317\210(\316\247)
6.4.3.
and
plane
hyperbolic
(X, d) is bounded if,

number \320\232
such
that
equivalent
to
the
the
Using
property
sphere.
an
arbitrary
point Pq
for
subset
a metric
\320\243
of
there
\342\202\254
X,
space
a
exists
d(P, Pq)
<
that
large ball Bd(Po,K).

one easily verifies that
is
this
property
\320\232
for
the
\316\241
\316\245.This
\342\202\254
every
is
in a
contained
\316\245
is
choiceof
of the
independent
the
Inequality,
Triangle
in the euclideanplane,the
properties
Compactness
Pq.
point
A subset \316\245
of the metric
of
space (X, d) determines three types
in X. The interior points \316\241
are those
for which there exists
is completely
an \316\265
> 0 such that the ball Bd(P,\316\265)
contained
in Y. An
exterior
is
a
X
\316\241
\342\202\254
such
that
for
some
\316\265
>
point
point
0, the ball
points
X
\342\202\254
point is a point \316\241
Bd(P,e) is disjoint from Y. A boundary
is neither interior nor exterior, namely,
which
such
that
every ball
centered
\316\222\317\215(\316\241,\316\265)
at
\316\241
contains
are
that
points
in
\316\245
and
that
points
are not in Y.
\316\245
of
subset
its boundary
metric
the
\342\200\224
y\\,
in
line
real
closed
every
Let X
most
[a, b]
be a closedbounded
is
usual
the
with
all the
(xnk)k\342\202\254Nwhich
Turning
again
implies
xn.
Therefore,
all
contains
converges
the
numbers,
analysis.
metric
d(x, y)
Fact
of R2.
6.14,
number
To show that
Pn = (xn, yn)
X is
e
X.
R which
[a, b] \342\202\254
there is
a subsequence
\302\243
\317\207,*,
[\320\276,
b].
to the y-coordinates,the boundedness

of \316\245
all
in
contained
are
some
interval
\321\203\320\237\320\272
[c,d]. We
our attention
that
to some
real
plane
compact.
subset
by
of
on real
textbooks
R endowed
interval
deepproperty
compact,considera sequence(Pn)n\342\202\254Nof points

Because X is bounded, there is a closedinterval
contains
it
of the euclidean
subset
bounded
ingredient is a
can be found
Fact 6.14. In the

\\x
closed
the key
Again,
whose proof
d) is closedif
points.
Theorem 6.13. Every

(R2,deuc) is compact.
Proof.
space (X,
6.4.
can
which
converges
the sequence
that
Note
subsequence
G [c,d\\.
\321\203\320\266
(Pnki)i\342\202\254N
of
a subsequence
is
(Pn)neN\302\267
have
now
lim
lim \321\203\320\237\320\272.
\321\203\320\266\320\263
\320\263\342\200\224\302\273\320\276\320\276
and
xnk, \320\263\317\207\317\207
\320\263\342\200\224>\320\276\321\201
The
(ynk)ke^ a
the subsequence
to some
153
properties
compactness
from
extract
therefore
(Vnki)ieN
We
and
Completeness
the proof
concluding
argument
of Theorem 6.8can again
that the
to show
The
subsequence(Pnfci)ieN
converges
cannot
be
an
exterior
Poo
point
point
to
of
\320\243\320\260\320\260)\3
(\321\217<\321\205>,
there are
either an
since
is
that
are arbitrarily
close to it. Therefore,
P*,
points \320\240\320\237\320\272
interior point or a boundary point of X. Since X is closed, it
is in X.
that
\316\241\302\273
Therefore, every sequence (Pn)n\342\202\254Nin X
a subsequence
which
some
to
converges
X.
\342\202\254
\316\241\317\207,
point
used
be
=
\316\241\317\207,
follows
admits
Namely,
is compact.
(X, deuc)
Theorem 6.15.
is
(IH2,dhyp)
bounded
closed
Every
of the hyperbolic
subset
plane
compact.
be a boundedsubset
of the hyperbolic
plane (H2, dhyp)\302\267
X
is
in
a
ball
contained
particular,
large
K)\302\267
\320\224\320\263\320\254\321\203\321\200(\32
=
in
Let
be
a
and
write
Since
Pn
X,
sequence
(Pn)n\342\202\254N
(xn, yn).
as in the proof of Theorem
6.10
the same
argument
(Pm
Po) < \320\232,
rfhyp
shows that ci < yn < c-i with c\\ = yoe~K
and c2 = yoeK, and that
Let X
Proof.
the subset
In
Po)
deuc(Pn,
the sequence (Pn)
In particular,
ball Bdeuc(Po,c2K).
Applying
the
and the
radius
same
< C2 dhyp(Pn,
subsequence
(Pnfc)fceN
which
is
gN
Theorem
<
\316\241))
C2K.
large euclidean
the closed ball with
in a
contained
to
6.13
same center, there consequently

to some
converges
point
exists
=
\316\241*,
(\317\207,\317\207,,
yoo)
in(R2,deuc).
Since
equal to
>
ynk
c\\
c\\ for
every k, the
that
0, so
>
another
Borrowing
coordinate j/oo
to the
\316\241\317\207,
belongs
argument
from the
is
hyperbolic
greater
than
proof of Theorem 6.10,
J ^
\302\243*euc(.Xn>-iooj
^\320\254\321\203\321\200^-'\320\277,-ôo
Cl
for every
metric
n. It
dhyp)
as
follows
k tends
that
Pnk also converges
to oo.
or
plane H2.
to
for
P\302\273
the
hyperbolic
6. Tessellations
154
This
that
proves
other
In
subsequence.
since
is
(X,
followsthat
sequence
is
dbyp)
P^
has
in
is an
Q) <
\317\204
for
every
P, Q
Every closed bounded
6.16.
element of X.
a converging
D
compact.
of the sphereS2,the boundedness
dsPh(-P,
Theorem
every
words,
For subsets
irrelevant
it again
is closed,
Since
is
hypothesis
S2.
\302\243
subset of
the
sphere
(\302\2472,dsPh)
I
compact.
a closed subset of S2, and let (Pn)neN be a seof Theorem

the
immediate generalization
6.13 to
quence
By
three
S2
is
for
the
restriction
of the
the
dimensions,
sphere
compact
3-dimensional
euclidean
metric deuc- Therefore, there exists a subto some \316\241\317\207
S2 for the euclidean
\342\202\254
sequence
converging
(Pnk)keN
X be
Let
Proof.
in
metric
i
i
:
i
deuc.
an
By
circle arc
are
distances
spherical
geometry argument comparing the

of its chord,
the euclidean and
length
related by the property that
euclidean
elementary
of a
length
to the
that
follows
that the
to 0 as \320\272
tends
to
converges
few convenient
properties.
here several easy propertieswhich
to oo,
Poo in (S2,
For
future
will
be
j
j
\316\257
deuc{Pn2*'Poo).
dBph(Pnk,P<x>) converges
subsequence (Pnk)keN
6.4.4.
mention
arcsin
2
\320\240\320\276\321\201)
dsph(Pnk,
It
\\
X.
namely
daph)\302\267
\316\240
we
reference,
in the
convenient
future.
Lemma 6.17. In a metricspace(X,d),

let (Pn)neN
be a sequence
exists
a
with
there
which
finite
length.
subsequence(\320\240\320\237\320\272)
If
feeN
converges
to
some
This
Proof.
then
\316\241\317\207,
point
property
the
whole sequence
was the main
converges to
step in the proof
of
Proposition6.11.
Lemma
equal
\316\241\317\207.
6.18.
to the
length
The
of
length
any
of
a sequence
is
(Pn)n\342\202\254N
greater
of its subsequences (Pnk)keN-
\320\233\320\260\320\277
or
6.5. Tessellations
iterated use of
By an
Proof.
bounded
by
155
polygons
the
d(Pnk,Pnk+1)^
Inequality,
Triangle
\316\243
d(Pn,Pn+i).
n=nk
It follows that
oo
oo
53d(Pnfc,Pnfc+1)<53d(Pn,Pn+i).
n=l
fc=l
6.19.
metric
the
Suppose that
= \316\247\317\207
two
U \316\247\316\271
subsets X\\
of
Lemma
X
union
restrictions
of
the
metric
then
complete,
(X,
d, the two metric

d) is complete.
Proof. Let (Pn)n\342\202\254Nbe
a sequence
space
and
splits as
(X,d)
\320\245\320\263If, for
(Xi,d)
spaces
the
the
and (X2,d)
are
with finite length
oo
Y^d(Pn,Pn+x) <oo.
n=l
We
to show
want
least
At
\316\267
N.
\342\202\254
one of
and
X\\
we have a
X.
convergesto someP*, \342\202\254
must
\320\245\320\263
Pn for
contain
generality, let us
loss of
Without
Consequently,
contained in
that this sequence
subsequence(Pnfc)feeN
which
many
infinitely
assumethat
is X\\.
this
is completely
X\\.
length by Lemma 6.18. Since(X\\, d)

to some limit P^ \342\202\254
is complete,
this implies that (Pnk)k\342\202\254Nconverges
Lemma
\316\247\317\207.
6.17, it follows that the whole
sequence
By
(Pn)n\342\202\254N
This
converges
to
now
apply
\316\237
G \316\247.
\316\241\317\207,
Tessellations
6.5.
We
has finite
subsequence
bounded
by
the results
of the
examples of tessellationsof
the
previous
eucfidean
polygons
sections
plane,
to construct
various
the hyperbolic
plane
or the sphere.
The simplest
becauseof our
it is
always closedin (R2,
from bounded polygons. Indeed,

a polygon X contains all of its edges,
(H2, dhyp) or (S2, dsph)\302\267If, in addition,
come
examples
convention
that
deuc),
6. Tessellations
156
the polygon X is bounded,
is therefore
it
compact
by Theorems
6.13,
6.15or 6.16.Recall that a spherical polygon is always bounded.

If (\316\247,\316\254\317\207)
is the
metric space obtained by gluing
quotient
of
from
the
recall
Lemma 4.2 that the quotient
X,
together
edges
map
X
continuous.
It follows that
is compact
by
(X, \316\254\317\207)
Proposition 6.12,
and therefore
complete by Proposition 6.11. This proves:
6.20.
Let X be a bounded polygon in the euclideanspace
Proposition
the
hyperbolic
plane (H2,dhyp) or the sphere (\302\2472,d9ph)\302\267
(R2,cieuc),
metric
Then,
quotient
if we glue together the edges ofX, the resulting
is compact,
D
and therefore complete.
space (\316\247,\316\254\317\207)
\342\200\224>
X is
In particular, we can now
examplesthat
we
considered
apply
Theorem
in Chapter
6.1 to
several of the
5.
6.5.1. Tessellations of the euclideanplane.Let us look at the

in Section 5.1. All these
euclidean polygon gluings that we examined
were bounded so that we can apply
6.20 and
Proposition
polygons
Theorem 6.1to createtessellations
of the euclidean
plane.
Figure 6.4. A
First,
we considered
glue oppositesides by
consists
the
entirely
euclidean
If
we
of the
tessellation
the casewhere
translations.
the
same
by squares
square, and
this case, the tiling
X
In
plane
is a
where we
group
and the correspondingtessellation

is illustratedin Figure 6.4.
a twist
square, but glue its sideswith
of translations,
plane by squares
consider
euclidean
\316\223
of
to
obtain a Klein bottle, the tessellation

of the euclidean
plane associated
to this polygon
is
the
same
as
for
torus.
The
difference
the
here
gluing
by bounded
Tessellations
6.5.
is that the tiling group

contains glidereflections,
the axis of
the
euclidean
plane
of the
tessellation
A
\316\262.5.
Figure
of a
compositions
namely,
parallel to
translation
nontrivial
X
case where
sidesare
translations.
where opposite
glued by
considered the
We also
parallelogramis
this
bounded,
by parallelograms.
of
entirely
provides
The tiling
\316\223
in
a tessellation
and
translations,
reflection.
by
this
parallelograms
the
euclidean
of this type is illustrated
A different, and perhapsmoreinteresting,tessellationof the

is associated to the gluing
of edges
of the
by parallelograms
give the Klein bottle. See Exercise6.4.
parallelogram that
saw
we
Finally,
sides of
opposite
6.5.2.
plane
consists
case again
in
6.5.
Figure
euclidean
and
a parallelogram,
the
Since
is
a tessellation of
group
to translations, it
reflection with a
In addition
different.
\316\223
is
157
polygons
that
by hexagons
plane
the torus
a hexagon.This
Tessellations
can also be obtained

to
the tessellation
that we already
encountered in
of the
leads
hyperbolic plane by
by
plane
gluing
of the
Figure
6.1.
bounded
switch to hyperbolic polygons. The hyperbolic

of
Section
is bounded in the hyperbolicplane. The
5.2
octagon
surface
of
hyperbolic
opposite
genus 2 that we obtain by gluing
edges of
this octagon consequently gives rise to a tessellation of the hyperbolic
This
is represented in Figure 6.6.
H2.
tessellation
plane
polygons.
Let
now
us
Thetiles
other, but
hyperbolic
plane.
they
this
of
are
Some
actually
may look very different

all isometric by isometries of
of these
isometries are a little more
tessellation
from each
the
apparent in
6. Tessellations
158
Figure 6.7.
Figure
6.7,
the disk
which
of the
tessellation
Compare
Figure
if
one
sends to the
octagons
transports
See Figure
image
symmetries
it by an
euclideancenterof
meet.
disk model by
by octagons
hyperbolic
octagons
of the
5.11.
More hyperbolic rotational

revealed
plane
hyperbolic
same tessellationin
the hyperbolic plane. Note the nice rotational
the
represents
B2 for
model
symmetry.
of the
A tessellation
6.6.
Figure
6.8.
the
of the
isometry
disk
of
the
any of the
tessellation
disk
model
are
that
points where eight
6.5. Tessellations
Figure 6.8.
triangles
A
\316\262.9.
of angles
(1)
For
6.21.
if
\316\276
plane
| +
R2
159
polygons
of the
tessellation of the
disk
model
R2
by
octagons
6.5.3. Tessellations
Theorem
view
Another
by hyperbolic
Figure
bounded
by
tessellation
by
any
euclidean
plane
triangles.
three
there
\316\276 \317\200,
by
of the
f, f,
euclidean
integers
a, b,
\321\201
> 2,
exists
a tessellation
triangles
of angles
of
|,
\316\276,
the
euclidean
\316\276;
(2)
(3)
Figure
\316\262.
10.
A tessellation
hyperbolic
plane
by triangles
<
there
\316\276 \317\200,
if
\316\276
+1
plane \320\2502by
hyperbolic
if \316\276 f +
>
indicated.
As
across
triangle.
Since
exists
gluing
the
the
complete
the triangle
f,
a tessellation
tiling
\316\276,
f,
a triangle
for
group
geodesies
X is bounded,
the
of
\321\203
of angles
of angles
take
B2
model
f,
a tessellation
exists
let us
data,
disk
triangles
there
\317\200,
triangles
6.3.4so that
reflections
of the
of angles
5-13 provides
Proposition
of Section
\316\276
spherical
by
Proof.
Tessellations
6.
160
of the hyperbolic
*, f,
\316\276;
of the sphere S2
\316\276.
each
\316\223
is
with
the
edge
the
generated
containing each
Theorem
6.1
angles
self-gluing
by the
side of
the
(generalized
Section
in
as
161
by unbounded polygons
6.6. Tessellations
6.20
\320\260\320\273\320\260
Proposition
6.3.4)
then
provide the
requested
tessellations.
Figure 6.11.A
angles f,
Examplesof
of the
tessellation
sphere S2 by
of
triangles
f, }
in Figures
are illustrated
tessellations
these
6.9, 6.10
6.11.
and
that
Note
the spherical
{2,3,3},{2,3,4}
or
case can only

with
{2,3,5},
The euclideancasearisesonly
when
\321\201
^
b, c} = {2,2,c},
in the first case.
for {a,
occur
2 arbitrary
=
{2,3,6},
{a,b,c}
{2,4,4} or
{3,3,3}.
6.6. Tessellations by
The
punctured
discussed
torus
challenge becauseit is less

Let X be the hyperbolic
U U\\
Uaa
respective
The
[f
follows
is
also
complete
in Section
obviously
5.5 offers an interesting
complete.
5.18. Consider U =
of Figure
be the union
of the
as in Section 5.5, and let \316\245
\342\200\224
\316\214
and
\316\245
all
Let
be
of
its boundary points.
U and
images in the quotient space (\316\247,\316\254\317\207).
square
U Uq U U-i
complement X
(heir
unboundedpolygons
subset
that
compact
\316\245
is
\316\245
is
and bounded
closed
compact
by Theorem
in the
hyperbolic plane H2.
6.15, and
therefore
that
\316\253
is
by Proposition 6.12. As a consequence,(\316\253,\316\254\317\207)
by Proposition
6.11.
6. Tessellations
162
In
5.9
Proposition
to the
isometric
us show
that
5.12 we
Lemma
and
portion (Sa,dsa)
(Sa,
the
of
showed that
pseudosphere
is
(f/,d~x)
S in
R3. Let
is complete.
dsa)
of finite
in (Sa, dsa)Let \316\241\317\207,
be a sequence
\316\2412,..., Pn, \302\267\302\267\302\267
length
of the euRecall that the distancedsa (P, Q) is defined as the infimum
clidean lengths of all curves
and contained in Sa\\ it
PtoQ
joining
In particular,
follows that
Sa.
deuc(P,
Q) < ds\342\200\236
(P, Q) for every P, Q \342\202\254
the sequence (Pn)n\342\202\254Nhas finite length in (R3, deuc),and consequently
it converges
in the
to some
point \316\241\317\207
space (R3,deUc) (by
complete
the immediate
of Theorem
6.8 to three dimensions).
generalization
Since
surface
the
is defined by
Sa
inequalities involving
and one easily checksthat
continuous
many
finitely
functions,
the
sequence
limit
is in
\316\241\317\207
converges to
(-Pn)neN
weak
and
equations
the
Sa,
in
\316\241\317\207
(Sa,dsa)\302\267
This
proves
isometric
metric
that
The space (X,d) is the

of which is complete for the
that
implies
is complete;therefore,
(Sa, dsa)
(X, d)
the
of
union
metric
d.
is complete.We
will
two subsets
Lemma 6.19
see another
is completein Theorem6.25.
As
of
the
This
an
before,
hyperbolic
tessellation
is the
so
(U,d).
space
\316\253
and
f/,
shows that
each;
this;
proof that (X,
of Theorem 6.1 provides a tessellation

X.'
by tiles isometric to the hyperbolicsquare
application
plane
is illustrated in
Figure 6.12.
00
-3
-|
-2
Figure
from the
-|
6.12.
d)
-1 -\\
A tessellation of
once-punctured
torus
\\
the
hyperbolic
\302\247
plane
\302\247
coming
6.7.
163
surfaces
hyperbolic
Incomplete
6.7. Incomplete hyperbolic surfaces

examples where the
at a few
look
now
We
is
(\316\247,
\316\254\317\207)
space
quotient
incomplete.
6.7.1.
Incomplete
of
example
5.16.
Figure
cylinders.
hyperbolic
X
is
the vertical
Namely,
by an
try of
isometry
sends
that
\316\211.2
algebraic computation
for a
we
delimited
strip
half-lines
a > 0.
real number
Since
the
in the
of
and
the
E2
E\\
= 1, and we
glue the two
\342\200\224> As
to an isome\316\225\316\271
E2usual, extend \317\210\317\207
\317\210\317\207:
X to the side of E2 opposite
X. An elementary
=
shows
that
is of the form \317\210\317\207
+ 1
\317\210\\
(\316\266) \316\261\316\266
upper half-space H2 by the two vertical

respective equationsBe(z)= 0 and Re(z)
sides
Let us revisit
two edges,
have
only
the
of all
\316\223
consists
group
tiling
and
As a consequence,
possible compositions of \317\210\\
\317\2102 \317\210^1\302\267
every
\302\267
\302\267
\302\267
=
\316\277 or
\316\277 \316\277
is
of
clement of the tiling
form
the
\317\206\342\204\242
group
\317\210\317\207
\317\210\316\271
\317\2061
\302\267
\302\267
\302\267
=
=
\316\277 \316\277
\316\277
where
\316\267
^ 0 is the number of maps
\317\206\342\204\242
\316\250\316\252\316\267
\317\210\317\207\316\247
\317\206^\317\207,
\317\210\317\212\317\207
=
occurringin the composition.

In Section5.4.2,we considered
case,
immediate
an
11 G
{z
Z.
G H2;
each tile
+
< \316\267
1\321\202(,\320\263)
= 1. In this
that all elements of the tiling
case
where a
of the form
translations
In particular,
\316\267
<
shows
computation
horizontal
\316\223
are
group
the
is a
\317\210(\316\247)
it is
1}, and
= \316\266
with
+ \316\267
\317\206\342\204\242
(\316\266)
strip of the form

immediate that these tiles
vertical
a tessellation
of the hyperbolic plane. As
punctured torus that we just examinedin Section
form
in
the
6.6,
of the
case
the
quotient
is complete.
\342\200\242space
(\316\247,\316\254\317\207)
The
(he tiles
lines
are
still
\317\210\317\207(\316\266)
=
an
1\321\202(,\320\263)
induction
is completely different
situation
and
on n, we
lm(z) =
see that
for
when
\\.
\320\260
\321\204
strips, delimited by the
vertical
an =
where
an+\\,
every
\316\267
^
this
In
\316\261
\316\266
+ a
\316\261
half-
by
However,
\317\210\317\207(0).
0
1_
\316\250\316\271
[\316\266)
case,
vertical
nn
= \316\261\316\266+
+\302\267\302\267\302\267+\316\261
+ \316\220
while
,.\342\200\224n/_\\
\342\200\236\342\200\224(n\342\200\224
v
1)' \342\200\224
\342\200\236\342\200\2241
\342\200\224
\342\200\224
\342\200\224
\302\267\302\267\302\267
= \342\200\236\342\200\224n_
a\342\200\236\342\200\224n
\342\200\224a
\320\276
a\342\200\236\342\200\2242
(\316\266) o
\316\250\316\220
-\316\271 \342\200\224
\316\267
a~nz
n~\316\267
= a~nz
\316\261\316\2231- \320\223
- a~l
-\\
1 \342\200\224
a
6. Tessellations
164
As a
consequence, an
l-an
for every
\317\210\317\207(0)
\316\267
e
OO
-2
A partial
\316\261\317\207\316\261^
\316\2702
\320\260\320\267
tessellation
from
coming
an
cylinder
incompletehyperbolic
the case
Consider
o\342\200\224i
6.13.
Figure
where a < 1. Then
to
converges
an
\316\261<\317\207,
jr^
corresponding
for
\316\267
G
and, more importantly, an < \316\261<\317\207,
every
of the
implies that for every element \317\206\342\204\242
tiling group, the
to
of
the
vertical
half-line
of
tile
the
left
stays
\317\210\317\207(\316\247)
equation
Be(z) =
as
\316\267
tends
Z.
This
whole
in
H2. The
the tiles
cover
cannot
\317\210\317\207(\316\247)
the
|
!
jj
case where a = 0.75is represented
6.13.
A symmetric
tiles
In particular,
\316\261<\317\207,.
plane
hyperbolic
Figure
+oo
to
phenomenon occurswhen
all
are
\317\210\317\207(\316\247)
to the
right
lm(z) =
of
vertical
the
case the j
half-line of equation j
> 1, in which
=
= limn^-ooOn. Again,
this
where
\316\277,\317\207,
a,\302\273,
prevents
j^
]
from covering the whole
H2.
plane
If we combine these observations with
Theorem
6.1, we conclude I
that
the quotient
if \316\261
1.
metric space (\316\247,\316\254\317\207)
is not complete
\316\246
The]
= ax
of the tiles along the line 1\321\202(,\320\263)
accumulation
explains why the j
\316\257
proof of Lemma 6.4 fails in this case.
the tiles
This
abstract
argument
fine mathematically, but

sequence
length
in
(Fn)n\342\202\254N
strict our attention

integer
\316\267
>
that
the
and
1.
will
it
to
Note
points
the
that
showing
be more
I
is
incomplete
(\316\247,\316\254\317\207)
gratifying
that
does
(\316\247,\316\254\317\207)
case where
a <
not
1. Set Pn
that Pn is glued to the point

Pn and Qn+i can be joined by
segment whose hyperbolic length is equal
to
an.
is
to exhibit a finiteJ
converge. We re-3
=
\\a~n
for
everyj
Qn = 1 + io_n+1,:
a horizontal
Therefore,
line!
the length]
6.7. Incomplete hyperbolic surfaces

of
the
is
(Pn)n\342\202\254N
sequence
oo
53
165
\320\276\321\201
pn+1) = 53
dx(pn,
n=l
n=l
\320\276\321\201
dx(pn>Qn+1)< 53a\" <
\302\260\302\260>
n=l
a < 1.
since
geometric seriesconverges
We claim that this finite length sequence (Pn)neN cannot converge
to any point
4.10 shows
in (X, dx).
\320\224\320\276
Indeed, the proof of Theorem
that there is a small ball Bjx(Poc,e)such
that
the set of points
\316\241
the quotient
under
G Ei U E2 projecting to some \316\241
G Bgx (.Poo \316\265)
of
to a point Poo in the interior
map is either empty if P\302\273corresponds
X or two geodesicarcs of hyperbolic
when
2\316\265
P*, corresponds
length
to a point \316\241\302\273
to another point Qoo G #2\302\267In the first
G E\\ glued
not contain
does
case, \320\222\320\264\321\205
(Poo,
\316\265)
any Pn. In the secondcase,eachof
the two geodesic
arcs can contain at most finitely
Pn and
points
many
to
both
and
to
tends
oo.
In
since
oo
as
\316\267
cases,
Pn
Qn,
Qn converge
so
this shows that \316\262^\317\207{\316\241\316\277\316\277,\316\265)
contains
no Pn with \316\267
large
enough,
that (Pn)neN cannot converge
to any \316\241\317\207,
G X.
where the
6.14. The incomplete
Figure
It is interesting to
we focus
(\316\247,
Again,
\316\254\317\207).
case where a
In
this
the open
cylinder
of Figure
6.13
understand a little better the

our attention on the casewhere
of
geometry
a <
1. The
> 1issimilar.
case
where
quadrant
a <
with
\316\267
G Z,
1, the tiles \317\206\342\204\242(\316\247),
\316\227
consisting
of those
\316\266
G HP
with
tessellate
Re(^) <
\342\200\224
\316\262\316\277\316\277
6.
Tessellations
of the
subsets of
166
the
On
consider
\321\2034^\302\267\316\227,
form
the
to glue the two
edges
for every
\316\241
\342\202\254
sees that
to
\316\227
is
by
(tf,
\316\227
consisting
is the
\317\206\317\207
the
results from
Anticipating
bijective.
7.12 that
tessellate
is actually
\317\210
X
\317\206:
\342\200\224+
\316\227,
\316\241
\316\227
to
\302\243
H,
\317\206\317\207(\316\247)
\320\257
of
map used
gluing
map
together, there is a natural
the property that it associates
Because
\316\241
X.
\302\243
in Theorem
prove
of X
determined
uniquely
partition
\316\241
\316\227.
with
Since
\302\243
\316\267\316\276\316\226}
{\317\206\342\204\242(\316\241):
one easily
Chapter 7, we
an isometry
from
will
(\316\247,\316\254\317\207)
dH).
out that there
It turns
is another
natural
the
to tessellate
way
be the quarter
annulus delimited in \316\227
quadrant H. Let \316\245
by the two
and
euclidean quarter circles \316\237\317\207
centered
at \316\261^= \316\263ând passing
\320\241\320\263
= az + 1
the points 0 and 1, respectively.
that
Note
through
\317\206\317\207(\316\266)
\342\200\224
=
as
also
so
that
sends
can
be written
\317\206\316\271
\316\261^)+ \316\261<\317\207,,
\317\206\317\207(\316\266)
a(z
the larger quarter circle to the smaller one. It easily
follows
that
the ,
H.
as above,
also
tessellate
the
same
By
argument
(H,\320\260\320\275)
\317\206\317\207(\316\245)
is therefore
isometric
to the quotient space (\316\245,
obtained
from \302\267
\316\254\316\263)
(Y,
by gluing
\316\254\316\263)
As
its sides
together
and
C2
\320\241\320\263
the two metric
a consequence,
by
\317\206\317\207.
and
are
spaces (\316\247,\316\254\317\207)
\316\254\316\263)
(\320\243,
isometric.
out that we have already encounteredthe quotient

space
to one half of
5.4.2. More precisely, it corresponds
is one half of the
the hyperboliccylinder
5.15 because \316\245
X3 of Figure
the
left-hand
of
side
Figure 5.15 to
hyperbolic strip X3. Comparing
side
of Figure 6.14, we conclude that
the left-hand
is isometric
(\316\245,
\316\254\316\263)
of the hyperbolic
annulus X3 delimited
to any one of the two halves
It turns
in Section
\316\254\316\263)
(\316\245,
by the waist 70. The correspondenceis rigorously

isometry
hyperbolic
hand sidesof
has
one
E2
that
one gets very

under the
and
5.15
end
It is interesting
of X
and
is
+ \316\237\317\207,
\316\261^\316\266
\317\206(\316\266)
Figures
(\316\253,\316\254\316\263)
the other
to
to the
consider
the
with
growth,
exponential
closed curve
image
\320\201
of
by
the
by the right-
the open annulus
6.14. In particular,
flares out
close
described
illustrated
while
70.
the
isometriccorrespondencebetween
edges
and
\316\225\317\207
and
(\316\247,\316\254\317\207)
of Figure 6.14, one easily seesthat

inspection
By
(\316\245,
\316\254\316\263).
\320\201
of an infinite curve which, in one direction,
this
consists
image
in the
with
end of \316\245
whereas,
exponential
growth
goesto infinity
in the other direction,it spirals
around
the closed curve 70. This is
careful
6.7. Incompletehyperbolic
167
surfaces
description
6.7.2.
of
geodesies
0 to
are the
1 to
in
[Weeks4,
similarly
Section5.5.
We
\302\2472].
deform
the
the
same
keep
square delimitedby
from
\316\225\317\207
goes
0 to
\321\201\321\216
and
from
\302\2434
detailed
\342\200\2241
to 00.
\342\200\2241.
\342\200\224
1
we need a hyperbolic isometry \317\210\\
sending
and
X
to
of
X.
the
side
These
isometries
E2 opposite
1,
to E2,
\316\225\317\207
glue
00 to
to 0,
1, E3
We can
where
\302\2434,
E2,
E3,
\316\225\317\207,
from
be found
the hyperbolic
case
this
in
namely,
complete
E2 from
To
torus of
A more
6.14.
Figure
tori.
punctured
once-punctured
polygon X,
of
can also
construction
this
Incomplete
hyperbolic
the
right-hand side
on the
illustrated
fractional
linear
form
of the
maps
\316\273
z +
\316\266
+ a
> 1.
with a
with
but
the
Similarly,
to E4 by a map
is glued
E3
1. In Section5.5,we considered
we now consider the general case.
b >
Section
in
As
four
the
near
way
maps
Ui are
the
Ui
in this
However,
\317\210
\321\203
that
\342\200\2241,
0,
intersections
the
that
chop off little
5.5,
corners
1 and
the
are
\316\240
Ej
delimited by euclidean
square
together
glued
general case, we
U\\
Uq,
cannot
form
a =
case where
pieces U-\\,
\321\201\321\216
of the
the
of
and
2,
t/,\302\273
X, in such
by the gluing
arrange
always
circlestangent
to
as in
with
To construct the Ui, first select Pj and Q\\ e \316\225\317\207
with
and
set
and
> Im(Q3),
Q3 G E3
Im(Qi), P3
Im(P3)
Section 5.5.
>
Im(Pi)
= <p3(Q3).
Then
in X connecting
to P4, Q4 to
pick disjoint curves
Q\\
7_1(
70, 71, 7<\317\207,
Q2, P2 to Q3, and P3 to Pj, respectively. Finally, define Ui as the
portion of X that is delimitedby 7; and is adjacent to the corner i.
=
P2
\302\245>i(Pi),
As
Section
in
and Vo =
V
U Vo
half-strips
by
curves
compare
Q2
\302\245>i(Qi),
5.5, define
^4
Voo
and
Q4
^\320\267(\320\240\320\267)
Ugo,
V\\ =
let U = t/_j
As before, V and
\316\277
aad
\316\250\316\261
\317\2102(\317\2050),
Vj
U Voo-
delimited
on the
sides by
4>2{U\\), V-\\
U0 U Ux U t^,
the subsets Vi
vertical
lines,
and
ipi(U-\\)
and
are
vertical
from below
images of the curves 74. See Figure 6.15,and

in Section 5.5.
that
are the
Figure
5.19
6. Tessellations
168
-1
Figure
The
left
side of V
0
6.15.
1
punctured
An incomplete
is glued to
its right
side
z + (ab
torus
by the
map
- l)(a +
2)
\317\210\316\257\302\260\317\2102\316\270\317\210\316\206\302\260\317\210\\{\316\266)
-mi
(a -1)2
translation
which, in general, is not a horizontal
any more (unless
a = b). So we are essentially
in the same situation as for the
of Section 6.7.1, and, when
\316\261
tiles
incomplete
b, the
\317\206
cylinder
\302\260 \302\260 \302\260
accumulate
the vertical half-line of
along
(\317\2104 \317\2102 \316\250\316\254
\317\210\316\271)\316\267(\316\247)
=
is the only real number such
a^ = ^f^
equation 1\321\202(,\320\263)
\316\261^,where
that
= \316\261\317\207.
\316\277 \316\277 \316\277
\317\2104 \317\2102\317\2103\317\210\316\271(\316\261\316\261\316\277)
'\342\226\240
a little more closely into the tiling

we can easily
process,
Looking
do not
The simplest:
convince ourselves that the tiles \317\206(\316\247)
overlap.
to see this is to observe that
the
construction
tiling
way
provides a
natural correspondencebetween
the
tiles
constructed
here and the
tiles coming
from
the complete
punctured torus of Section6.6. In
if
an
of
two tiles of the same \342\226\240
one
separates
particular,
edge
tiling
in
other
the
then
the
tiling,
corresponding
edge separates the ;
tiling
tiles.
the tiles of the j
Since there is no overlap
between
corresponding
'
of Section
be any overlap
example
6.6, we concludethat there cannot
between the tiles in the exampleof this section either.
This implies that

= \320\260^.More
line 1\321\202(,\320\263)
all the tiles stay

precisely,
on
the tiles
the
same
the side
are
all
\317\206(\316\247)
disjoint
of the
from
the
=
\316\227
=
\316\227
half-plane1
hyperbolic
169
polygon theorem
6.8. Poincare's
G \320\250\320\240;
{\316\266
Im(z)
<
e
{\316\266
a<x>}
lf;Im(z)
if a
\316\261,\317\207,}
< b,
and
> b.
if a
\320\257
I\342\200\224
**J?>i**J(/~^fcbJl.-1\320\273\320\273\320\253
-10
torus of Figure
punctured
(in a
tessellation
The
Figure
The tessellation
6.16.
Figure
the
incomplete
6.15
case
where
b) is
<
illustrated
in
6.16.
the tiles
that
Note
Indeed,
group \316\223.
if
however, it immediately
\316\277
is
\317\210
\317\206~\316\271
H.
half-planes
hyperbolic
tiling
group
where
they
the
of
of these
meet
ff;
of the tiling group
the fact that all
\316\277
would
\316\271/\302\273-1
\317\210(\316\247)
definition
are disjoint from all the

all the elements of the
are visible in Figure 6.16
the tiles
Therefore,
as white
from every hyperbolic

of the tiling
element
\316\223,
contradicting
as
ranges
\317\210(\316\227) \317\210
\316\223.
Some
appear
then
followsfrom
an
is
\317\206
\317\210(\316\227),
an element
also
disjoint
where
\317\210(\316\227),
met
\317\210(\316\247)
tiles are disjoint from
also
are
\317\210(\316\247)
form
the
of
half-plane
that
\316\277,\317\207,
associatedto
half-planes
over
euclidean half-disks.
6.8. Poincare's polygon
theorem
the
space obtained by gluing
together
a
in the hyperbolic
edges of a polygon (\316\247,
plane. We will provide
\316\254\317\207)
metric
not
the
criterion
to
check
whether
or
simple
quotient
relatively
Let
be the
\316\254\317\207)
(\316\247,
quotient
is complete.
space (\316\247,\316\254\317\207)
The
analysis
fundamental
of
the
complete
ideas involved have already appeared in our

example of Section 6.6 and in the incomplete
of Section 6.7. The completenesscriterionessentially

that
section
there is no new phenomenon.For this reason,this
be skipped on a first
reading.
examples
1Not to be confused
hyperbolic plane.
with
H2, which
ia
a euclidean
half-plane
but
ia
says
may
the
whole
6. Tessellations
170
6.20 that when X is bounded

and
is
therefore
compact
Thus,
quotient
complete.
(X, dx)
the only relevant case here is the one where
X is unbounded
and, in
particular, when some of its edges are infinite.
X can be of three
of the
A bounded
Edges \316\225
polygon
types.
A singly
one.
edge goes from one vertex of the polygon to another
which
we will
infinite edge goes from a vertex to a point of RU {\321\201\321\216},
call a vertex at infinity or an ideal vertex. A doubly
infinite
which
are two ideal
edge joins two points of R U {\321\201\321\216},
consequently
vertices of the polygon.
To simplify the exposition, we will restrict
to the case
attention
is the
of at most two edges
where a vertex at infinity
of
endpoint
X. Note that we had already imposeda similar,
and
natural,
equally
condition for the vertices of X that are in H2.
\342\200\224*
When we glue the edgesE{ and -Z?i\302\261i,the gluing map \317\210\316\271:
\316\225\316\271
We
in Proposition
observed
already
the
space
to \302\243?,to an ideal
each ideal vertex \316\276
G R U {\321\201\321\216}
Ei\302\261\\sends
adjacent
vertex adjacent to Ei\302\261\\. In this way, we can extend the gluing
of
as
to
the
of
the
of
between
ideal
vertices
in
case
X,
edges
gluings
An element of the correspondingquotient
nonideal
vertices.
space
will be an ideal vertex of the
space X of X under the
quotient
not
elements of X,
Let
=
\302\267
\302\267
be
\302\243\320\263,
\302\267,
\316\276 {\316\276\317\207,
\302\243fc}
ideal vertices of
as in the caseof
twist
edge
the
the
of
with
so
that
2,
=1,
j
\316\225\317\212\317\214\302\261\\,
is
\302\243j
an
can
\302\243j
...,
map
is
to a
the
polygon
space X
quotient
lemma
of X.
are
given
for
sends
is
\302\243J+i
to
a minor
with
future
reference.
ideal vertices in
an
\302\243j \302\243j+i/
The
\316\276.
nice manner,
adjacent to
gluing maps
k\342\200\224
that
1, such
\317\210^
vertex
to be
exists
of E^,
is the
\316\276
Namely,
ideal
be organized
in a
in Section 4.3.1, but
allowed
of the
there
endpoint
the gluing
ideal vertex
an
vertices
nonideal
6.22. The indexing
be chosen
(1)
as ideal vertices of
are glued
that
because an ideal vertex

of X. We state this as a
Lemma
can
identifying
maps
gluing
exactly
ideal vertices
of X.
elements
set of
that
Note
operation.
gluing
X are not
only
one
\316\276 {\302\2431,62, \342\226\240\302\267\302\267

,\302\243fc}
\342\200\224*
Ey.
\317\206^:Ei}
endpoint
of
\316\225\317\207.
, and
Poincare's
6.8.
(2) for
1 <
with
every
Ei'. adjacent
171
theorem
polygon
to
are
\316\276j
j <
\342\200\224
\320\272 1,
the
distinct,
edges E{.
two
so that
is
\317\210^
and
from
different
holds:
(3) exactly one of the following
\342\200\224*
there
such
either
existsa
Ey
map
gluing
\317\210^:Eik
(i)
an
to
and
that Eik is
edge adjacent \302\243fc different from
that \316\225\316\263
is an edge
the range E^ of \317\210\316\271\316\271^_1,
such
adjacent to \316\276\316\271
and
domain
the
different
from
E^ of \317\210^,
each
of
namely, E^
(ii)
be
one
\316\225\316\257\317\207
to \316\276\\;
or
\316\276^
to a
with
that
\302\243j
alternative
we
j ^
some
for
\302\243fc+i
one easily checksthat
If
Set
\316\276\317\207.
\316\2762
is adjacent to \316\2762>
stop
goes on forever,
If this process
G \316\276.
Let
\316\276
\316\276\316\271
\317\210\316\2571(\316\276\316\271)\302\
here.
Otherwise,
to
leading
define
\316\2762,
construction.
this
iterate
and
\302\243\320\267
\320\243\320\2633
(\302\2432))
element
any
edges containing
only edge that
of X,
edge
unique
respectively.
same processto the other edge Ei2
apply the
such
and E^ ,
4.3.1, start
< 2
of the
is the
\317\206%\316\271
(Eh)
\317\210^sends
and
is adjacent
\316\276\316\271
\302\243&
in Section
As
Proof.
that
such
and
k. If
reach
eventually
smallest
\320\272
is the
we are in
and
that
\316\276\316\271,,+\316\271
\316\276\316\271
an index \320\272
such index,
the situation
of
3(i).
Otherwise,
one edge,
an index \320\272
such
we reach
that
to only
is adjacent
\316\276\316\271,
restart the
Ey . In this case, we
\317\210\316\271\316\231\316\271_1(\316\225\316\257\316\220\316\271_\316\271)
=
namely,
processbeginning
at \316\276\316\271,
but
be the edge that
Let \316\225\316\263
going backward.
is adjacent to \316\276\316\271
is different
from E^ (if any). Let Eio be the
and
\342\200\224*, and
set
edge that is glued to Ey by the gluing
map
E^
\317\210\316\2710:
\316\225\316\2710
=
If
is
the
to
here.
\302\2430 \316\250\317\212^\316\257\316\266\316\271)\302\267
stop
only edge that is adjacent \316\2760,
Ei0
the edge
let E^ be the other edgeadjacentto \302\243o>
consider
Otherwise,
\342\200\224*
\316\225
set
\316\263,
Ei_z that is glued to Ei0 by the gluing map \317\210\316\257_\316\271:
\316\225\316\271_\316\273
=
and
\316\276-\316\271
\317\206\317\212}
(\316\2760),
must
eventually
we reach
Ei_t
of
X.
now
in
the
the construction.
iterate
by the
conclude
an index
Shifting
situation
discussion of the
0 such that
\342\200\224
I
In this case, the
In both cases,conditions
(1)
and
(2) are
process
case,
and
one edge
them positive, we are
is adjacent
\316\276-\316\271
all indices by I \342\200\224

1 to make
of alternative 3(ii).
previous
to only
satisfied by construction.
6. Tessellations
172
In
3(i), we will say that we have an edge 3

=
\302\267
\302\267
vertex \316\276
\302\267,
\302\243\320\263,
\342\202\254fc
{\316\276\316\271,
} of X. In this case, \316\257
to consider the indicesj modulo
in such a ,
convenient
k, namely,
is
that
identified with j + k. This convention has the advantage
j
j
'
each
that
. Note
gluing map \317\206^then
goes from Eij to \316\225\317\207.
cycle
it
is
way
that
of alternative
case
the
the ideal
around
\342\226\240
\342\226\240
\342\226\240
\316\277
\320\276 \316\277
the composition \317\206^\316\277
Our ]
sends
to itself.
\316\276\316\271
\317\206\316\2572
\317\210\316\257\316\263
\317\210\316\257\316\231\316\271_\316\271
in
criterion
be
of
will
terms
this
completeness
expressed
composition\\
of gluing
ideal
vertices.
maps, considered for all edge cyclesaround
A horocircle
a curve
at
C\342\200\224 in
{\302\243}
\320\241
is
{\316\276}
an
a euclidean
\320\241
is
interpretation
radius centered
at
G RU
\316\276
circle tangent
is
{\321\201\321\216}
to RU {\321\201\321\216}
that
means
this
\316\276 \321\201\321\216,
When
{\321\201\321\216}).
line. Note that any isometry of H2 must send 1

I
to a horocycle
at \316\276
since
centered at \317\206(\316\276),
\317\206
centered
a euclidean
sends
for
H2 where
a horizontal
horocycle
any
centeredat the point
\"above\" R
lying
\316\276
(and
or horocycle
circle to a euclideancircle.SeeExercises
of a horocircle as a hyperbolic
circle
6.10-6.12
\316\212
of infinite
\316\276.
if it
of the hyperbolic
\317\206
plane H2 is horocyclic at \316\276
=
t
some
horocircle
centered
at
When
this
means
respects
\316\276 \321\201\321\216,
\316\276.
just
>-^
that \317\206
is a horizontal
the identity j
translation
\316\266 \316\266
+ b (possibly
\316\271\342\200\224>
\316\266
\342\200\224f
across
a vertical
line.
I
+ \320\252
map) or a reflection
An
isometry
In particular, a
every
spects
hyperbolicisometry
horocircle centered at
at
is horocyclic
which
re\316\276
\342\200\224this
\316\276 \321\201\321\216,
immediately!
When
\316\276.
from the above observation. In the generalcase,it suffices!

\316\277
\320\276
where
is any
apply this special case to \302\267\317\206
\317\206
hyperbolic
\321\204~\320\263,
\317\210
\342\200\224
\316\271->
to \321\201\321\216,
for instance
\316\266
isometry sending \316\276
1/(\316\266 \316\276).
As usual,
extend each gluing
map
iff. Ei -+ Ei\302\261\\to a hyperbolic
follows
to
isometry
\342\200\224>
\316\2272
\316\2272
that
\317\210\316\257:
near
to the side of
sends X
Ei,
\302\243?i\302\261i'j
X.
opposite
|
.1
6.23.
Proposition
The following
Condition) At each
choose a horocircle \316\237\316\276
centered
(1) (Horocircle
(2)
map
its
\316\276',
extension
at
\342\200\224>
\316\2272
\316\2272
sends
\317\210\317\212.
for
(Edge
Cycle Condition)
vertex
\342\200\224
\302\267
\302\267
> \302\243fc
\316\276 {\316\276\316\271,
&, \302\267
} of
every
vertex
ideal
\342\200\224>
\316\225\316\271
Ei\302\261x sends
\317\206^:
gluing
are
conditions
two
\316\276
of
that
such
\316\276
to
\316\276
equivalent:
X,
j
I
one cam
whenever
another
ideal
thd
\321\203\320\265\320\235\320\
to
\316\237\316\276
\320\241?;
edge
cycle
X with gluing
.j
around
maps
an
\317\206^.:
E^
ideafy
\342\200\2241|
Poincare's
6.8.
=
Eij\302\2611
\320\251+1
173
theorem
polygon
to
sending
j
for
\316\276,\302\267+1
\302\243j
= 1,
2,
...,
in
\320\272
as
\320\272
modulo
indices
3(i) of Lemma 6.22 (counting
so that j +k is consideredthe
as j), the corresponding
same
\302\267
\302\267
\302\267
\320\276
\316\277 \316\277 is horocyclic
at \316\276\317\207.
composition\317\206^\316\277
y>ifc
\320\263
\317\206\316\2572
\317\210^
alternative
Proof.
the
that
Suppose
condition
first
cycle around an ideal vertex
(1)
holds.
of gluing
consisting
Then, for an
maps \317\206^: E^
edge
\342\200\224>
..., k, the composition\317\206\316\257\316\220\316\271\316\277\317\206\

sends
to itself,
and consequently
vertex \316\276\316\271
\342\226\240
\302\267
\302\267
\320\276
\320\276
\316\277 \316\277
the horocircle\316\237\316\276\316\271
to itself.
It follows that \317\206\316\257\316\220\316\271
\317\206\316\2572
\317\210^
y>ifc_1
is horocyclic.
This proves that the second condition (2) holds.
\342\200\224
Eij\302\261x,
Ei'.+l
with
1, 2,
that
suppose
Conversely,
condition (2) holds.For each
the second
=
\302\267
\302\267
of
\316\276 {\316\276\316\271,\316\2762,.
,\302\243fc}
vertex
ideal
\342\200\224
ideal
\316\277
the
sends
\317\210\316\2572
\317\210\316\257\316\257
the
organize
X,
as in
data
gluing
Pick an arbitrary horocircleC^ centeredat
Lemma 6.22.
and
\316\276\316\271,
define
Ci;(
for
<
j
is
to
nothing
map
<pik
that
tpik
a horocircle
prove.
the
sends
\320\276
<pik_1
at
\302\243j.
case of alternative
are in the
we
If
\302\267
\342\226\240
\302\267
\320\276
\316\277
\316\277
\317\210\316\257\316\271
(\316\237\316\266\316\271)
\317\210^_2
\317\210\316\257}_\317\207
\302\267
\302\267
\302\267
\320\276 sends
\316\277
\316\277
to \316\276^\302\267,
so that
\316\276\316\271
\317\210\316\257-_2
\317\206\316\257\316\263
\317\210\316\271\316\257_\316\271
that
\320\272.
Note
really
\316\237\316\276\316\257
Otherwise,
horocircle
C(k to
6.22, there
of Lemma
3(ii)
we have
to make sure that

This
\316\237\317\2021.
\302\267
\302\267
\302\267
\320\276
\316\277
is horocylic
\317\210\316\2572
\316\277\317\206^
the
is
gluing
the hypothesis
is where
since
is needed,
it
shows
that
<#*(%)
provides the
conclusions of
Complement
6.24. If
can choose the
horocircles
arbitrarily
which
small.
is
(When
arbitrarily
the
' ' ' \302\260

\302\260
\316\250\316\257\316\271
\302\2604>ix(Cix)
for every
construction
this
Performing
of X
\316\250\316\257*
\302\260Vik-i
\302\267
\342\226\240
\302\267
ideal vertex \316\276 {\316\276\316\271,
> \316\276&
\316\2762,
}
condition
conditions
condition
\316\237\316\276
in
\342\200\224 this
\316\276 oo,
\302\260\316\276\316\271-
means
(1).
6.23 hold, we
so
are
that
they
(1)
is a horizontal
line
that \316\237\316\276
of Proposition
high.)
Proof. In the above proof that condition(2) implies

condition
(1),
we have a degree of freedom
in the choice of the initial
horocircle
\316\237\316\2761
=
\302\267
\302\267
lor each
ideal vertex \316\276
\302\267
of X.
In particular,
this
>\316\276*;}
{\316\276\316\271,\316\2762,
all other horocircles C^.
liorocirclecan be chosensmall enough
that
are also arbitrarily
small.
\316\240
the Edge Cycle
In practice,
easier
the
Horocircle
than the
Condition
(l)
Exercise 6.14 shows

map
Condition
and
(2)
if it is
only
However, we
our
specific case of the composition

maps that occurs in the Edge
gluing
will
6.23, this isometry is horocyclic

in Exercise
the
in
sense defined
parabolic
of Proposition
2.7.
this property.
need
not
6.25 (Poincare'sPolygon
Theorem
6.23 is
in the
that
\320\276
\317\210\316\257\316\231\316\271_\316\271
\316\277-\317\214^\316\277^ of
<pik
Cycle
will
of Proposition
(2)
Horocircle Condition (1). However,

be better
suited for the proof of
6.25 below.
Theorem
main
Condition
check
to
often
if
Tessellations
6.
174
space obtained by gluing

in H2,
using edge gluing
(\316\247,\316\254\317\207)
is complete
space (\316\247,\316\254\317\207)
if and
Let
Theorem).
quotient
the
together
maps
only
Ei
<pi\\
if the
be the
(\316\247,
\316\254\317\207)
edges of
\342\200\224*
Ei\302\261\\.
(equivalent)
The
polygon
quotient
conditions
of
Proposition 6.23are satisfied.

will
We
split
the proof
of the \"only
Proof
that the conditionsof
if\"
does
By our
data
with
of
part
into
hold
6.23
of this
contrapositive
two
6.25.
Theorem
Proposition
We will actually prove the

we will assume
that
precisely,
Proposition
6.23
of equivalence
if
parts.
We need to show
is
complete.
(\316\247,\316\254\317\207)
statement.
More
the Edge CycleCondition

(2) of
is
not complete.
and
then
show
that
hold,
\316\254\317\207)
(\316\247,
not
assumption, there is an edge cycle

alternative 3(i) of Lemma
6.22,
as in
=
\302\267
\342\226\240
\302\267
\316\276 {\302\243\316\271,&2,
,\302\243fc},
such that
the
composition
is
not
horocyclic.
Modifying X and all gluing

we can arrange that
to oo,
\316\276\316\271
sends
\317\206
\342\200\224az
+ b
\321\201\321\216
to \321\201\321\216,
is
and
with
a >
equivalent to the
hyperbolic isometry sending

loss of generality. Then
\342\200\224
of the form
az + 6 or
\317\206(\316\266)
by a
without
\302\243j \321\201\321\216
consequently
R.
\342\202\254
property that
The
fact
that
is
\317\206
not
horocyclic
is
\320\260
1.
\321\204
is essentially the one that

we already
encountered,
a > 1.
6.7.1 and 6.7.2.First considerthe casewhere
Near each ideal vertex
of
half-strip:
chop off an infinite
\302\243j X,
delimited
a
the
two
and
curve
E^. that are
by
edges E^
joining
The
argument
in Sections
Uj
0, 6
data
Poincare's
6.8.
adjacent to
Then
\316\276;.
\342\226\240
are
(^fc)
\"\302\260\316\250\316\252l
and their
the
vertical
side
of V.
i/b
\316\277
\317\210^ tpi2\\U3),
\317\210^{112),
side of
\316\277
\320\276
\317\206^1 \317\206.*
...,
adjacent to each other,

half-strips
a vertical
sends
half-strip V. In addition, \317\210~\317\207
that
is contained
in E^ to the other vertical
which are
vertical
forms
union
175
theorem
polygon
so that
the horizontal line L\\ passing
the
V from
curves
below.
Let Q2
through
delimiting
be the point where this line L\\ hits the other vertical side of V. We
in \317\210~\316\216
that this other vertical sideis contained
observed
already
{\316\225^),
so that
the
we can consider the point P2 \342\200\224
\302\243
Repeating
Eh\302\267
f(Q2)
we
can
such
that
thus
define
a
of
\342\202\254
process,
sequence points Pn E^
side
under
of the point
of
Pn is the image
Qn of the other vertical
\317\206
V that is at the sameeuclideanheight
as \316\241\316\267_\316\271\302\267
Pick a
point
\342\202\254
\316\241\317\207
E^
P\\ lies above
now
We
Let
yi
the
be
Qn+\\
Considering
going
the
have
from
and
Pn
same
the
in
(Pn)n\342\202\254N
of
y-coordinate
of
the ^-coordinates
and
the sequence
consider
P\\
Qn+\\
as
the hyperbolic length of the

we conclude that
Pn to Qn+i,
equal to
and
P\\
space X.
By construction,
Q2).
(and
are both
x-coordinate
quotient
any\\,
and
respectively.
line segment
Pn
Q2,
horizontal
sn
dx(Pn,Pn+1) = dx(Pn,Qn+1)< dx{Pn,Qn+x)
As
the total length
a consequence,
00
00
<
\316\243dx(Pn,Pn+1)
< \302\260\302\260
\302\273\316\223^\302\253\316\271\316\265(\316\262\316\220)\316\243\316\262_\316\267
n=1
n=1
since
\320\276
1.
>
sequence (-Pn)neN is finite,
this
argument that we usedin Section6.7.1,
sequence
1.0any point of the quotient
X. In particular,
space
of the
is not
(\316\247,\316\254\317\207)
the
/'/,!.
/'/ij
Namely,
that
:\302\253td
iterate
is
similar
very
points Pn on the
we start with
is at
the
cannot
by the
converge
the metric
space
complete.
The argument
\316\271
lioose
However,
the same
process.
when
side
vertical
P\\
in that
euclideanheight
This again
1. This time, we will

of V that is not contained in
side, consider the point Q2 \342\202\254
a <
as
Pi,
set P2
\342\200\224
\317\210~\317\207((^2),
gives a sequence(Pn)n\342\202\254Nin
6. Tessellations
176
that has finite

cannot
length
converge
(this time because a < 1) but
as
in X. Therefore, (\316\247,\316\254\317\207)
is not
in
this
case
well.
complete
Proof of the
of Theorem
6.25. Let us assumethat
of
will prove
6.23holds.
We
Proposition
(1)
\"if\"
the
part
Condition
Horocircle
that
the quotient
For
to
want
course,
is complete.
space (\316\247,\316\254\317\207)
this, consider in X a sequence(Pn)n\342\202\254Nwith finite length. We
show that this sequence converges. The problemis that
of
there is no reason for the corresponding
to
sequence
(Pn)n\342\202\254N
length in X.
finite
have
will
We
the proof into four
split
involve significant
distinct cases, only
geometric ideas. The first
two
of which
easy to
is relatively
case
deal with.
many
finitely
a hyperbolic ball
exists
There
1:
CASE
Bdhyp(Po,r) that
in-
contains
\342\226\240
Pn.
The Pn that are contained in Bdbyp(Po,r)form

a subsequence
ball.
valued
in
that
Since the closed hyperbolic ball \320\222
of;
(Pnk)keN
\342\226\240
center
6.15, this subsequence
Po and radius r is compactby Theorem
a subsequence (Pn/,
itself
admits
which
to some point.;
converges
),gN
\316\222
for the hyperbolic
metric dhypi the point Poo must be in X \342\226\240
\316\265
\342\226\240Poo
all polygons
since
are closed. It easilyfollows
that
Pnit also converges,
to \321\201\321\216.
For;
dx, as / tends
(Hint:
in H2 such that j
s X, there exists a small ball Bdhyp
every \316\241
(\316\241,
\316\265)
=
for every Q e \320\245\320\237
dx(P,Q)
dbyp(P,Q)
Bdhyp(P,e)).
\\
X is continuous
Since
the quotient
map X i\342\200\224>
by Lemma 4.2, the1
X
to Poo \342\202\254
for
the
path metric
(sub)subsequence(Pnfci);eN
Now
the
to
The
\342\202\254
X.
\316\241\317\207,
by Lemma
convergesto P^ in (\316\247,\316\254\317\207)
We now consider
of
the
polygon
aistance
>
(\316\247,
\316\254\317\207).
the casewhere
the
whole
and admits
sequence consequently;
6.17.
Pn
stay away
from the
edges
X.
There existsan
CASE 2:
P*, in
has
finite
length
(\316\241\316\267)\316\267\342\202\254%
sequence
converging
subsequence
to
converges
\316\265
from
every
\316\265
>
edge
0 such
of X.
that every
Pn is at
hyperbolic
6.8. Poincare's polygon theorem

In
ball
the
of
Bdx
(Pn,\316\265)
aie
together.
glued
Since the
is
distinct points
no two
particular,
177
finite,
total
there exists
an
ldx (w)
is closeenough
Let
- Qx,
Pn
that
such
no
Rx
Qi stay
ball
and
\316\267
^ no\302\267
every
in
X,
whose
be
Rk = Pn+\\
the
Triangle
using
\316\265.
steps
Inequality,
equal to the points

ball. Therefore, by
are
and
(\316\241\316\267,
\316\222\316\261\317\207
\316\265)
in
length
the
Qk,
gluing
(\320\240\320\277)\320\277\320\265
particular
Pn+i) that idx (w) <
dx(Pn.
Rk-\\
nontrivial
is no
since
there
\320\224\320\263+\316\271,
the Triangle
infimum
By induction
in the
sequence
in
and
\321\201\321\216,
Pn to Pn+i
from
...,
Q2,
of this discrete walk.
the points
the
to
to
< \316\265
for
\316\254\317\207(\316\241\316\267,
\316\241\316\267+\316\271)
walk
a discrete
Consider
tends
0 as \316\267
tends to
dx(Pn,Pn+i)
of the
Pn+i)
dx(Pn,
]T^\302\260=1
length
this
Inequality,
fc
dx(PniPn+i)^^2dx(Qk,Rk)='tdxM\302\267
this
Since
As
is
holds for every
discrete walk
w whose
length
is
sufficiently
dx(Pn,Pn+i),
dx(Pn,Pn+1) ^ dx(Pn,Pn+i)the
reverse
holds
inequality
always
by Lemma 4.2, this inequality
for every
an equality, and dx(Pn,Pn+i) \342\200\224
actually
dx(Pn,Pn+i)
it follows that
to
close
\316\267
> ra0.
the sequence (Pn)n\342\202\254Nbas
In particular,
(H2,dhyP)is complete,the finite

to some
point P^
H2.
\342\202\254
X sincethe Pn stay at
X is
quotient map X \342\200\224>
sequence(Pn)ngN
Next,
the casethat
This is the crucialcase,which

the Horocircle Condition(1) of
3:
('ase
the
All
Pn
whenever
vertex
a horocircle
exists
the
its
\316\276',
gluing
extension
will
(1)
centered
\316\237\316\276
map
Since
converges
(Pn)n\342\202\254N
in the
be
boundary.
is completely
6.23
interior of
Since the
to Case
hypothesis that
holds.
6.23 asserts
such
Proposition
at each
\342\200\224\342\226\272
\316\225\316\271
Ei\302\261\\ sends
\317\206^:
\342\200\224>
\316\2272
\316\2272
sends
\317\210\316\271:
2.
of X.
in edges
of
opposite
use our
strongly
Proposition
are contained
The HorocircleCondition
there
its
\316\265
from
in X.
(Lemma 4.2), it followsthat the

to the point P*, in the quotient
space
the proof in this case.
converges
we consider
must
\320\240\320\266
point
>
length
continuous
concludes
which
(\316\247,
\316\254\317\207),
This
distance
finite
sequence
length
to
to another
\316\276
\316\237\317\202
\316\237\317\202>.
that
that
ideal
6.
178
Let
\"inside\" of
the
be
\316\222\316\276
euclidean
closed
is the
H2.
Namely,
minus
\316\237\316\276
euclidean
\342\200\224
is the
\316\276 \321\201\321\216,
\316\222\316\276
Such
\316\237\316\276
disk bounded by
in
when
the
bounded by
half-plane
centered at
a horodisk
is called
\316\222\317\202
Tessellations
\316\276
\317\206
\321\201\321\216,
\316\222\317\202
When
\316\276.
point
from
below.
\316\237\316\276
\316\276.
loss
of generality
6.24, we can assume without
horocirclesare small enough
that
they are disjoint from each
are
those
other, and that the only edges of X that are met by \316\222\316\276
which are adjacent to the ideal vertex
\316\276.
\342\200\224
of
all the \316\262\317\202,
as \316\276
Let
\320\222
denote
the
union
over all
(L \316\222\316\276
ranges
\342\200\224>
R
ideal vertices of X. Thereis a convenient
function
\320\222
defined
ft:
let
that
is closest
to
as follows. For \316\241
e \316\222\316\276,
Q be the point of \316\237\316\276
P; then ft(-P) = dhyp(-P, Q)\302\267The point Q can be easily constructed
that it is the intersection of \316\237\316\276
with
the complete
from
the
property
P.
This
and
is
property
easily checked
geodesic g passing through \316\276
\342\200\224
when
for instance
\316\276 \321\201\321\216,
using Lemma 2.5; for the general case,just
to \321\201\321\216.
transport
everything
by an isometry of H2 sending\316\276
The
function
ft is called
the Busemann
See
function.
Exercises 6.10,
6.11 and 6.12 for another geometric interpretation of ft.:
By
Complement
that the
has the
function
This
(1) if
\316\241
and
(2) for
any
two
following
Q e
two
\320\222
are
P,
glued
the
in
important
properties:
together,
then h(P)
horodisk
same
= ft(Q);
^
dhyp(P,Q)
\316\222\316\276,
\\h(P)-h(Q)\\-
The first property
the
gluing
second
is a
property
geometric
After
immediate
consequence
and send
consequence
of
of the
each \316\237\316\276
to some
Lemma
2.5
in the
fact that
Thei
\316\237\316\276>.
case where
from this specialcaseby modifying!

a
to \321\201\321\216.
\\
setup through
hyperbolic isometry sending\316\276
\342\200\224 The
\316\276 \321\201\321\216.
general
the
is an
isometries
are
maps
bringing
quence of points Pn
case follows
up all this
in
the
machinery, we
of X.
edges
now
return
to
our
se-s
Fixan arbitrary
\316\265
be important.!
> 0, whose precise value will
not
as in Case 2, there is a number
rii such
By the same argument
that;
\316\267
\316\265
for
<
\321\211.
>
every
dx(Pn, Pn+i)
\\
In addition,
we can assume that we are not in the situation
o|
Case 1, since otherwiseweare done. This
that there exists
guarantees
an
ra0
away
^ rii such that for every \316\267

^ ra0, the point
on the edge \316\225
it
that it belongs
containing
the
point
For
length
that
idx (w)
idx(w)
<
Rk
(6.1)
h(Pn)
to
delimiting
\316\237\316\276\316\267
Pn to Pn+i in X,
infimum
\316\254\317\207(\316\241\316\267,\316\241\3
\342\200\224
~
R\\
Qi, ..., Rk-i
Q\\,
the
that all the
Qi
and
Ri-i
\342\200\224
\320\222
and
that
(J? \316\222\316\276,
i-l
\320\263-1
Of
far
to the horodisk\316\222\316\276\316\267
is even at distance> \316\265
from
walk
Pn is sufficiently
horocircle
the
whose
steps are Pn
wiH
We
prove by induction
Pn+i-
to
it
that
\316\265
and
\342\200\224
belong
a discrete
is close enough
ra0, consider
\316\267
^
whose
Qk,
ideal vertex \302\243n,

and
where the edge \316\225
meets
to some
associated
from
179
polygon theorem
6.8. Poincare's
-J^dxiQ^Rj)
Qi and Ri-\\
the
course,
h(Pn)+ J2dx(Qj>Rj)-
< h{Qi) <

may jump
horodisk
one
from
to
\316\222\316\276
another.
the induction
start
We
(he property
trivially
By
since
Q\\
where
\342\200\224
in
1,
which
case
\342\200\224
Pn.
the induction
horodisk \316\222\316\276,
the
distance
is h(Qi).
case
the
with
hypothesis holds for i. If Qi is in the

bounding
Qi to the horocycle\320\241
\316\222\317\202
\316\276
the induction hypothesis,
that
Suppose
holds
from
h(Qi) - dx(Qi,Ri)>
i
h(Pn)
> h(Pn)
\302\243dxiQj,
- tdx \320\230>
Rj)
h(Pn)
\316\265
> 0
the horocycle
since Pn is at distance > \316\265
from
and
(w) ^ \316\265
that
contains
it. In particular, the
hounding the horodisk \316\222\316\276\316\267
to the
distance
from
to Ri is less than the distance from
Qi
Qi e \316\222\316\276
in \316\222\316\276.
is
also
It
horocircle
follows
that
\320\224\302\273
boundary
bounding
\316\237\316\276
\316\222\316\276.
.since idx
Since
of
\320\222
to
Also,
points
to \320\224\302\273,
the gluing maps sendpoints
since
and
we conclude that Qi+i is alsoin B.
is glued
Qi+\\
of B,
combining
(6.1)
with
the two fundamental
properties
i
KQi+i)
= h(Ri)
< h(Qi) + dx(QuRi) ^
h(Pn)
Yjdx{Qj,Rj)
of
ft,
6. Tessellations
180
and
\320\263
h(Ql+l)
>
h(Ri)
holds for
proves that (6.1)
This
This
1 <
h(Qi) - dxiQuRi) > h(Pn)

\320\263
+ 1.
our proof by induction
completes
belong
to
One more
step
/c
\320\263'^
\320\222
and
satisfy
same
the
in
-^dxiQ^Rj).
and
all Qi
that
with
\320\257*_
\316\271
(6.1).
gives that
proof
\320\272
h(Pn+1)
< h(Qk) + dx(Qk,Rk) < h{Pn)+Yjdx{Qk,Rk)
h(Rk)
j=i
and
\320\272
= h(Rk)
h(Pn^)
so
> h(Pn) -Y^dxiQ^Rk),
> h(Qk)-dx(Qk,Rk)
that
\320\272
]h(Pn+i)
Sincethis
for
holds
length is
that
h(Pn)\\
every
close
sufficiently
= idx{w).
< Y^dxiQ^Rk)
discrete walk
infiinum
to the
to Pn+\\
P\342\200\236
from
whose
we conclude
\316\254\317\207(\316\241\316\267,
Pn+i)i
HPn+u-hiP^^dxiPn.P^!).
A
(h(Pn))n
X,
and
in
is that the
of this
consequence
inequality
is bounded by the
length
length
of the
of the
sequence
sequence {Pn)neNin
is finite. Since (R, <ie\342\200\236c)

is complete
(Fact 6.9),
in
R.
As
a
the sequence(ft(Pn))
converges
bounded
by some number M.
in particular
if follows that
consequence,
is
it
this
However,
distance
meet
very
all.
<
\316\234
from
shows
the
that
finitely
for
\316\267
>
large
We
are
the
P\342\200\236
stay
hyperbolic
where the edgesof X

Pn are all contained in a
situation of Case 1 after
these
C^. In particular,
So
we
are
ball.
in
the
hyperbolic
that
the
converges
proves
sequence (\316\241\316\267)\316\267\316\266:>
now ready
at
many points
the horocircles
which
no,
to conclude.
in
A\".
6.8. Poincare's polygon

case.
4: General
Case
subsequence
converging
are
we
If
from the
for
(hat
X,
the case.
exists a
k, there
every
2_fc.
<
dx{P\342\200\236k.Qnk)
a subsequence
by induction
construct
then
We
of
(Pn)n&
if the Pn stay away

situation of Case 2, namely,
we are done. Consequently, we can assumethat
in the
edges
is not
t.his
previous cases to extract from

and then apply Lemma 6.17.
the three
use
will
We
181
theorem
edge of
Qnk
in an
(We could replace
2~k by
the
first
\320\272
terms
point
convergent series.) Indeed,supposing
the
(Pnk)ke^ such
X such that
of any
term
kth
of the
the fact that the hypothesis of Case 2

an index n^-i > \316\267
such
thai
there
exists
does not hold implies that
\320\272
X.
is at distance
the
This
means
that
<
2~(fc+1'
from
of
edges
\320\240\320\237\320\272+1
exists
a point Qn^+x m the boundary of X which is at distance
(here
<
been
have
subsequence
constructed,
from
2~(fc+1)
and
subsequence
claim
that
fc=l
the length
of
<lx(Pnk;Qrn.) < 2~k tends to

l.he sequence (Pnk)ke\342\204\242 converges
Thus, our original

This
(P,u
is
(Pnk)k(Z^
E2~(fc+1)
fc=l
finite.
apply Case3 to the sequence(Qnfc)fceN\302\267 Our

Since
shows that this sequence
converges.
we can
Therefore,
of this case
;malysis
therefore
\320\276\321\201
\320\276\321\201
<\316\2432~\" + Ed*(p\302\253*'p\302\253*+1)
fc=l
fc=l
Y,d*(Qnk,Qnk+i)
subsequence
Indeed,
length.
so that
\320\276\321\201
\320\276\321\201
since
finite
+ dx(Pnk,Pnk+J)+ dx(Pn,.^,Q\342\200\236,_J
+ 2-(k^
dx(Pnk,Pnk+l)
Inequality,
Triangle
finite
(Qnk.)kGNhas
the sequence
^2-k
iti
(Qnk)keK requested.
the sequence
< d{Qnk,Pnk)
dx{Qn,,Qn*_J
the
process clearly provides the
(\320\240\320\237\320\272)\320\272
eN
We
by
inductive
This
Pnk+1-
finite
)kGS-
0 as
It therefore
the proof
completes
the
of
the
to
tends
oo. it follows that
same limit.
sequence
length
concludes
A:
to the
(Pn)neN has
a converging
convergesby Lemma
\"if\"
part
proof of this statement.
of Theorem
\320\240*\302\
6.17.
>\\
6.25, and
D^
6. Tessellations
182
Exercises
for
Chapter
in a metric space (X,d) is a sequence

Exercise 6.1. A Cauchy
sequence
\342\226\240
\342\226\240
in X such that for every
\316\265
> 0, there exists a
of points Pi, P2, ..., Pn, \342\226\240
number
for every \316\267,
\316\267
^ nono such that d(Pn, Pn') < \316\265
a. Show
a sequence
that
that has
(Pn)ne^
finite
is Cauchy.
length
b. Conversely,let (Pn)ncN
be a Cauchy sequence. Show, by induction
on
a subsequence
\316\266
k, that it contains
(Pnk)ksf; such that d(Pnk, \320\240\320\237\320\272_\320\263)
has finite length.
1~k for every k. Show
that
this subsequence
(Pnk )A..N
\321\201
that if a Cauchy sequence admits
Show
a converging
subsequence, then
is convergent.
the whole
sequence
d. Combine the previous steps to show
complete in the sense of Section 6.2 if
in (X, d) is convergent.
Exercise 6.2.
Let
d) and
(X,
exists a homeomorphism
of the
each
counterexample,
following
a.
If (X,
d) is compact,
b.
If
d) is complete,
(X,
Exercise 6.3.
many tiles.
Hint:
(X', d')
X
\317\206:
The
Exercise 6.4. In
then
then
sphere
euclidean
the
a metric space (X, d) is

if every Cauchy sequence
only
be two
-+ X'.
metric
Prove, or
spaces
for which
disproveby
there
statements:
d')
(X1,
(X',d')
is also
compact.
is also
complete.
a tessellation
that
Show
two
that
and
of the sphere
S2 has
only
finitely
is compact.
plane,
be the parallelogram
let X
(2,2), (0,1). Glue the
with
to the right
edge
(2,1),
(0,0),
\342\200\224
'\342\200\224>
the bottom
and
-t+
\321\203
edge
by the reflection-translation
2,
2),
y)
(\320\266
(x,
>\342\200\224> +
edge to the top edge by the translation
1); we saw in
(x,y)
[x,y
X is homeomorphic to
5.1 that the corresponding quotient
Section
space
the Klein bottle. Draw the tessellationassociatedby Theorem
6.1 to this
vertices
data.
gluing
6.5.
Exercise
by
pretty
of X
left
Construct a tessellationof
which
are not
(solution
not
tiles
the
euclidean
convex. Extra credit: Find
one
or hyperbolic plane
is particularly
which
unique).
Exercise 6.6. For three integers a, b, \321\201

+ | + \\ > 1, consider
> 2 with \302\243
a tessellation of the sphere S2 by spherical
of angles f, f, f
triangles
as in Theorem
6.21.
Show that this tessellation
consists
of
ob4b^?^._ obc
Hint: Use the area formula
of Exercise
3.6.
triangles.
Exercise
a.
Show
tessellation
of
6.7.
that
the
for every
euclidean
euclidean triangle
whose
plane \320\250.2
TcR2,
tiles are
there exists
all
isometric
a
to T.
b.
an
Give
of a
example
no tessellationof
the
183
for Chapter
Exercises
spherical
for which
TcS2
triangle
triangles isometric to
S2 by
sphere
there exists
T.
Use
Hint:
below.
Exercise 3.6or the hint for part \321\201
\321\201
an example of a hyperbolic triangle
\316\244
Give
\320\2352
for which there exists
\320\241
no tessellation of the hyperbolic plane H2 by triangles
isometric to T.
Hint:
Consider
one
the angles of the tiles of the tessellation around
the
area formula of
vertex.
6.8. Show that for every integer p, q ^ 2 with | + | < \\, there
a tessellation of the hyperbolic plane H2 by p-gons
such that exactly
Use
q of these
appropriate
p-gons meet at each vertex. Possiblehint:
triangles.
Exercise
exists
6.9. Let
(X,dx) be a quotient
Exercise
that
Show
together.
X be a polygon
is
(X,dx)
Poincare'sPolygon
at
the
always
Case 3 of
6.25,
Po
H2
\302\243
in the
Show that
of E2.
infinity
euclidean
the
by isometrically
Hint:
complete.
noting that
case.
Theorem
much simpler in the euclidean

Exercise 6.10. Fix a point
e RU{oo}
\316\276
in
obtained
space
lim
P)
dhyp(Q,
Exercise6.12.In
Exercise
from above by
point
negative
a curve
Show that
the
In Figure
6.15, Vq
is indeed
\320\241
to be tangent
Exercise 6.14. Consideran edge

Proposition
and use the same notation
6.23,
Show
the
that
and
tiles
oo.
If
f.
set ofPel2
with
through
passing
\316\276
the
sending
h(P)
Possible
Po\302\267
to oo.
\316\276
from below by a straight

Uo = \317\206
J1 \302\260
\317\206\\'
(Vo) is delimited
to be a euclideancircle
arc.
is delimited
appears
a circle
where
for
arc containedin
a circle
passing through
0.
This circle appears

the case? Explain.
map
= log
isometry
whereas
slope,
\320\241
which
and
\316\276
formula
explicit
case
the
show that the
6.10,
at
exactly the horocirclecentered
Use Exercise 6.11 and a hyperbolic
Exercise
6.13.
line segment with
a.
a point
\316\276
inR2U{oo},
P0)
the
Exercise
6.11. In Exercise 6.10, consider
=
show
that h(P)
Po = (zo, 3/o) and \316\241
(\317\207,
\321\203),
b.
to
tends
dhyp(Q,
for every Pel2,

Possiblehint: Use
2.2.
metric
hyperbolic
provided by Exercise
a.
becomes
proof
hyperbolic plane and
as Q e H2
exists
hint:
this
limit
h(P) =
0 is
plane R2, and let

gluing its edges
Adapt the proof of
i^jfc
to
the
z-axis
cycle as in
as in that
at 0.
Is this
actually
condition (2) of
statement.
an antilinear fractional
hint: Look at the way
near \316\276\316\271.
side-by-side
be
f*\\ cannot
f'2 \302\260
V</t -i \302\260'''\302\260
Possible
identity.
\302\260
is different from the
\342\226\240
\342\226\240
\342\226\240
\316\277 \316\277
\316\277
\316\277
sit
\317\206^1
\317\206~^ \317\206~^
\317\206~^(\316\247)
6.
184
b.
Show
that
parabolic
</?ifc
Exercise6.15.
All
invariant
Internet
nontrivial
under
search
\342\226\240
\302\267
\302\267
\320\276
\316\277 \316\277 is horocyclic
\317\206\316\2572
\317\206\316\257\316\273
\320\276
(^>ifcl
in the
sense of Exercise2.7.
the
tessellations
a transformation
for examples
transformation
group
constructed
as
\316\223,
defined
Tessellations
if and only
it
is
in this chapter are

in Chapter 7. Do an
are invariant
under no
of tessellations which
Suggested key word: Penrose.
group.
if
Chapter
and
actions
Group
domains
fundamental
The
The current
actions.
group
basic
and
6 are examplesof
is
devoted to definitions
chapter
of group actions.
properties
7.1. Transformation
A
(2)
the
(3)
if
and 7' are in
is a
set X
is in
its
\316\223,
the
inverse
\316\223
of
family
bijections
bijection
that
=
\316\277
\317\206\317\206-1
as the
to (7,
also in
\316\223.
defined
\342\200\224>
X
X is
\316\231\316\254\317\207:
X.
Also,
that
\342\200\224\342\231\246
such
\317\206-1:\316\245 X
This
\321\203.
\317\206(\317\207)
is equivalent
by the
the inverse
of a
is
\317\206-1
(\321\203) the
to the
properties
\316\277=
or
\316\231\316\254\316\263
\317\206\"1 \317\206 \316\231\316\254\317\207.
transformation
which
map
every
7_1 is
\317\207
G
\316\223;
map Idx;
identity
map
is also in
707'
composition
map
\317\207
for
\316\245
X \342\200\224>
is the
\317\206:
\317\207
such
the
identity
property that Idx(x)

number
their
\316\223,
\316\223
contains
group
that
Recall
on a
that
\342\200\224\342\231\246
X such
(1) if 7
that
groups
group
transformation
7: X
in Chapter
we encountered
groups
tiling
isometric
group
\316\223
naturally
gives
x) associates y(x). This map
group action
of
\316\223
over
rise to
is
\342\200\224>
\317\207
a map \316\223
\316\247
traditionally
defined
X.
185
d)
(X,
where
and
In this case we say

that
\316\223
acts
examples.
It is
and clearly
acts by
obviously
on (X,
acting
Example 7.3. In the

fractional
integer
The
integer coefficients
isometries.
X.
7.4. Let
\316\223
be
Let
\316\223
is
the
the
set of all
map
fractional maps
finitely
of
\317\206
ij G {1,2,...
group.
indices
a transformation
group
containing
group
\316\223
is
As
with
integer
then
generated
Chapter
6 are
transformation
hyperbolic
plane
or the
\316\226
and
\302\243
a computation
the
bijections
=
form
fractional.
\317\210
antilinear
Also, the
of bijections of a set
can be written
which
and
their
\317\210\316\271
many
inverses.
Namely,
\342\226\240
\342\226\240
\342\226\240
\316\277
\316\277
\316\277
where
\317\206^1 \317\206^\317\207
\317\206^1
distinct.
Then
,n} are not necessarily
It is actually the smallesttransformation
by
...,
\317\206\316\271,
\317\2062,
example,
all the
sphere, acting
by
\316\223
is
the transformation
\317\210\316\267\302\267
groups
tiling
of the
groups
is
coefficients
of two
family
of X
\317\206
. \342\226\240.,
definition,
\317\2102,
By
\317\210\316\267\302\267
\317\206\316\271,
a fundamental
linear
linear fractionals
also has
\320\275->
can be written as \316\266
<jf+f'
\342\226\240
be a
\342\226\240,
\317\210\\,
\317\210\316\267
\317\2102,\342\226\240
as a compositionof
c,
b,
of
~
is \320\263
-\302\243\302\243.
set of all
the
the set
a,
Indeed,
not a transformation group.Indeed,the composition

and
fractionals is linear fractional,
not antilinear
is
not antilinear
fractional.
identity
Example
X,
such
two
identity
~
\316\266
of antilinear
set
The
of
(H2, dbyp),
plane
compositionof
coefficients.
the inverse
and
for
group
\342\200\224*
\316\247
X of (X, d) is a
\317\206:
isometries.
acting by
By definition,
it is the largest group
(X, d). Clearly,
a group of
1 forms
shows that the
single
= \316\231\316\254\317\207
\316\277
and
\316\227\317\207
d).
with
^^
\342\200\224
be =
since Idx
isometries
hyperbolic
\320\275->
\316\266
maps
ad
with
all
\316\223
of
isometry group of
isometries
of the
consisting
{Idx},
isometries.
group,
this is the
=
\316\223
conditions
the smallestpossibletransformation
The set
7.2.
transformation
group
three
all
satisfies
= Idx.
Example
a few
The trivial
7.1.
bijection Idx,
Id^1
d).
(X,
It is time for
Example
that
isometries
by
of \316\223
on
action
situation where X is a metric

are isometrics
of \316\223
of (X, d).
\316\223
is a group
isometries
of
of
(X, d) or
we
an
on (X, d) or that
have
isometric
interested in the
all the elements
are particularly
We
space
of
actions and fundamentaldomains
7. Group
186
euclidean
isometries.
constructed
plane, the
in
7.2.
and quotient
actions
Group
7.2. Group actionsand

Let
of
P, let
For every
some
Lemma
7.5.
partition
of X.
\316\241
ranges
uses
the sets
to
this, suppose
R =
=
\316\241
point
orbits
the
element of
Idx(P)
is an
and
\316\241
Q must
be disjoint.
point R.
a common
By definition, there exists

As a consequence, Q =
exists
there
an element
For
to
want
We
that
\316\277
\316\262~\317\207
\316\261(\316\241).
/3(Q).
\302\243
Q,
\316\241
form
X.
all of
Q share
of X,
\316\223
(\316\241).
in the definition of
of Section 7.1.
distinct
that
=
denoted as \316\241
\316\223
such
\302\243
\316\261,
\316\262
Q.
every
the
\316\223,
\316\241
and
=
\316\241
a{P) and
For
conditions
beginning
\316\241
cover
show
that
that
all three
in
be
must
It remains
show
all points
form
of the
orbit
is the
\316\241
X
\321\201
use
will
of the
are
which
is also
orbit
\316\223.
The
over
at the
SinceIdx
Therefore,
of
As
groups
subset
\316\223.
This
\302\243
action
Q GX
of those
\316\241
consist
the
Proof. The proof
P.
metric space(X, d). We

X.
of quotient
space
\316\223
to
Q = j(P) for
under
point \316\241
transformation
spaces
quotient
of isometries of the
a new type
create
a group
\316\223
be
the action
187
spaces
that
\316\223
such
\302\243
S =
in the definition
The
conditions
7(<5). Therefore, S = \316\267\316\277\316\262~\316\271
\316\277\316\261(\316\241).
\316\277
\316\277
an
of a transformation
\316\261
is
of \316\223.
that
element
group
imply
7 \316\262-1
for
5
is
an
of
P.
this
element
the
orbit
Since
holds
Therefore,
every
S \302\243
that Q is contained in P.
Q, we conclude
whenever
the
be the partition
the
space
quotient
\316\223
on
In this situation,
general setting of
Proposition
space (X,d),
7.6.
and
is
orbits P.
by the
a quotient
semi-metricd
of the action of
the metric
a metric,
the semi-metricd
is
X.
much
orbit
the
or
\316\223,
X
space (X, d)
is
space
X/Y.
than in the
simpler
4.
Let the group

consider
Lemma 4.1 shows
d on
semi-metric
of X under the action of

X. It is also denoted by
Chapter
D
defined
d induces
metric
When the
=
\316\241
that
so
symmetry
by
Q intersect.
\316\241
and
Let X
that
in Q
contained
\316\241
is
Conversely,
the
\316\223
act
quotient
by isometries
space (X,
d).
on the metric
Then,
for
every
actions and fundamental domains
7. Group
188
P,QeX,
d(P,Q)
=
Q}
eP,Q'e
iui{d(P',Q');I*
= inf{d(P,7(Q));7Gr}.
In other words,the (semi-)distance

\316\241
to Q is equal to the
from
in the
of the distances
to points
from points in the orbit of \316\241
distances
is also equal
of
the
from
orbit of Q, which
the
infimum
to
the point \316\241
itself
to points in the orbit of Q.
infimum
Define
Proof.
P'
= inf{d(P',Q');
to show that d = d'.
d'(P,Q)
want
We
Let us first
that
+ d'(Q,R) for
d'(P,R)
By definition of the
P'
there
infimum
eP and Q' e Q such
The fact
exists Q\"
G Q
7',
7\" G
R\"
7_1(\320\224\,")
is also
which
d\\P,
points
such that
G R
+ e.
Q means that
are in the orbit
and
Q' = -y'(Q)
that
\316\223
such
consequence, Q\" = y(Q') for

R' =
> 0,
\316\265
+ e.
and
Q' and Q\"
both
that
for every
exists,
namely
X.
that
d{Q\",R\^d'(Q,R)")
exists
Re
P,Q,
every
d(P',Q')^d'(P,Q)
Similarly, there
Q}.
the Triangle Inequality,
d! satisfies
that
show
< d'(P,Q)
\342\202\254P,Q'e
= 7\"
7
in the
\320\276
\321\203'-1 g
orbit R
of
Q\"
<d(P',Q')
+ db(Q')n(R'))
^d(P',Q')
+ d(Q\",R\
l\"{Q).
\320\223.
Consider
R.
the
there
As a
point
Then,
d(P', R') < d(P',Q') + d{Q\\
R) <
Rf)
^d'(P,Q)+d'(Q,R) + 2e
using
the
fact
that
7 is
an isometry
of
(X,
d).
Since this folds for every \316\265

> 0, it follows that d'(P,
d!
satisfies
the Triangle Inequality.
Namely,
d'(Q,R).
Also,
d'{P,
note
the definition
that
Q) iS d{P, Q)
for
every
P,QeX.
of d!
immediately
R) < d'(P, Q)+

implies
that
7.2.
189
actions and quotient spaces
Group
these
two preliminary
to
observations, we are now ready
the
is
infimum
of
to
the
proof.
complete
By definition,
equal
d(P,
Q)
\316\241
the lengths
of
all
discrete
w
to
walks
walks
from
Q, namely,
idiw)
=
~
of the form \316\241
PY, QY ~ P2, ..., Qn-Y
Pn, Qn = Q. Then,
After
\316\267
*dH
\316\267
>
Qi)
\316\243d(p\"
Q)
use of the Triangle Inequality for d'. Sincethis

holds
discrete walk w, we conclude that
>
d(P,
Q)
d'(P, Q).
Conversely, if
d(P',Q')
by
distances
those
\316\241
and
4.2.
Since
P'
Lemma
d(P, Q) = S{P,Q)
for
of
subsets
fact that
for
every
there are
if,
that
\316\241
such
7.7.
Theorem
space
(X, d)
We
of
between
equalities
following
\320\223
on
the
metric
to
\316\223}
\320\264\320\2607((?));7\320\265\320\263}
an
isometry
the
there
finitely
only
is a metric
have
\316\261
is
G \320\223
\316\241
\302\243
X,
space X
quotient
Proof.
the
{d(P,a-1o/3(Q));a,/?er}
space
is a
\316\247/\316\223
of (X,
d).
space (X, d) is
at
a ball \316\222\316\261(\316\241,\316\265)
centered
\316\223
e
with
\302\243
7
j(P)
\316\265).
Bd(P,
many
(X,d).
metric.
ocis
\316\223
61/ isometries
d(P, Q)
and
the semi-metric d induced

In particular, the quotient
space.
show that
\320\236
metric
exists
group
//\316\257/ie transformation
discontinuously on
the
every
action
isometric
The
Q}\302\267
to
= {d(a(P),/3(Q));a,/3
eP.Q'eQ}
discontinuous
= inf{d(P,7(<2));7
e \316\223}.
e 0}
the
Q).
\316\234
{d(P',Q'):P'
using
is equal
d'(P, Q)
once we realize
is immediate,
< d'(P,
Q)
d(P,
d(P',Q') <
the infimum
shows that
\317\201'
e \317\201,
Q'
\317\201');
inf{d(p't
= mf{d(P,Q');Q'
d\"(P,Q)
This
to show that
remains
It
d'(P,Q)
two inequalities
the
of
d(P,Q) =
is defined as
G Q,
Q'
we concludethat
d(P', Q'),
The combination
on
0\342\200\236)d'(P,
i=l
repeated
by
every
of
> J'(-Pb
\316\243d'(p\302\273 U)
i=l
0 whenever
\317\206
\316\241
Q.
\317\206
Because
to
d(P,
7 G
that
\316\223
such
inf
exists
there
discontinuous,
isometries, Proposition 7.6 asserts that

{d(P,
Q'); Q' e Q}. Since the action is
an \316\265
> 0 for which there are only
finitely
many
is by
action
the
Q) is equal
e Bd(P,e).
-\316\263(\316\241)
can
the ball Bd(P,\302\247)
Q of Q. Indeed, if
This implies that
points Q'
orbit
the
of
and fundamental domains
actions
7. Group
190
both in the ball Bd(P,f),

d(P,7O7-1(P))
contain
only finitely many

G Q are
y'(Q)
and
j(Q)
then
=\316\254(\316\212'-1(\316\241),\316\212-\\\316\241))
^d(1'-1(P),Q)+d(Q,1-1(P))
+ d(y(Q),
< d(P,y'(Q))
the action,
only
such
many
finitely
7.
isometries.
By
\316\265,
of
discontinuity
so there
finitely many values in \316\223,
This proves that the intersection
is a
the ball Bd(P,|)
Q with
orbit
the
7' are both
take
can
7\316\2147\"1
can be only
of
7 and
fact that
the
using
P) < f
set
finite
{Qi,
Q2,.
\302\267.,
Qn},
empty.
possibly
If the
\316\241
since
intersection is nonempty,
note
no Qi
that
can be equal to
Therefore,
\316\241
^Q,
= mm{d(P,Qx),d(P;Q2),...,d(P, Qn)} > 0

since the numbers d(P,Qi) areall different
from 0 and since there are
d(P, Q)
only
many
finitely
If Bd(P, |)
0 in
d(P, Q) \317\206
of them.
both
The stabilizer
=
\316\223\317\201
{7 G
that
itself.
Q'
action of
the
of
acting
\316\223
on
every element of
In other words,
quotient space
>
\302\247
0. Therefore,
cases.
\316\241
G
point
group
Q) ^
then d(P,
G Q,
the
stabilizer
The
\320\223;7(\320\240) \316\241}.
transformation
If the
no
contains
action of \316\223
on
for the
is
\316\223
\317\201
easily
seen
is
to be
on X.
metric
space (X,
d) is by
sends
the stabilizer\316\223\317\201
acts
\316\223\317\201
on
each
isometries,
ball
note
to
\316\222\316\261(\316\241,\316\265)
can consider the

metric induced by d.
\316\222^{\316\241,\316\265)we
with
the
\316\222^(\316\241,
\316\265)/\316\223\317\201
and
quotient
acts
and
by isometries
// the transformation group \316\223
\316\241
in
on
the
the
metric
space(X,d), then, for every
discontinuously
which
is
metric space (X,d), there
exists
a ball \316\222^(\316\241,\316\265)
quotient
isometric
to the quotient space \316\222\316\261{\316\241,\316\265)/\316\245\317\201.
Theorem
7.8.
7.2.
Proof.
7(P)
\316\265
> 0
such that
the
point
in a unique
for every
ball
Note
Q G \316\222^\316\241,\316\265).
B$(P,
<%(Q),
If d(Q,
Q'
d{Q,
Q') =
j(Q1)) is sufficiently
of
\316\265).
Bd(P,
\316\265).
nonincreasing
\342\202\254
<
\316\223}
that
this
\316\265,
implies
close to the infimum

the two infimums
j(P)
d(Q,
7(Q')) ^
that
7(P))
d(y(CT),
= P.
Q').
d{Q,
shows
P)
+ d{Q',
+ d{Q,P) + d(P,Q') + \316\265
is very
j(Q'))
a consequence,
B^{P,
\316\241
G
that
shows
+ d(Q\\
Q) + d(Q,0') + \316\265
< d{P, Q)
d to
infimum that d(Q,
to the
P.
property that \317\210{0) = Q

Q G X is indeedin the
the Triangle Inequality
< d(P, Q) + d(Q,7(Q'))

< d(P,
choice
7.6
an
the action of \316\223

is
\317\201
there is a well-defined
inT{d(Q, 7(Q')),7
close
use of
a repeated
\316\265,
d{P, 7(P))
under
that
by the
the point
Proposition
\316\222\316\261(\316\247,\316\265).
\317\206{$))
J(Q,Q') +
to
X is distance
quotient
map X \342\200\224>
We will show that \317\210
is an isometry.
4.2.
Let Q,
that
restrictionof
follows
from
endowed
\316\222\316\261(\316\241,\316\265)/\316\223\317\201,
the
since
\316\265)
Lemma
d(Q,
defined
there exists
\316\241
different
corresponding
\316\265)
orbit
\320\223,
any
It
orbit of \320\223.
\342\200\224>
\317\206:
Bj(P,e)
\316\222\316\261(\316\241,\316\265)
map
As
in
is contained
\316\223\317\201
Since
space
quotient
7(F)
every
of B,j(P,
which
contains
\316\222^\316\241,\316\265\316\271)
a consequence,
metric d induced by the
\316\241
denote
contained
By
As
\316\223.
for
5\316\265
denote
the
\316\222\316\261(\316\241,\316\265)
let
Also,
by
d(P, 7(F))
the quotient
with
many
finitely
only
a ball
exists
7 G
191
spaces
quotient
there
hypothesis,
By
for
Let
and
actions
Group
this
What
Q'),
then
<
\316\241)
proves
7 is in
5\316\265.
is that
if
\320\223.
\321\201
\320\223\321\200
d(g,Q') = mf{d(Q,7(Q'));7er}
and
d(Q,Q')
are
equal.
This
Q, Q'
every
In
inf{d(QMQ'))-n
proves that d(ip(Q),
\320\223\321\200}
ip(Q')) = d(Q,Q') = d(Q,
Q')
for
\342\202\254
\316\222\316\254(\316\241,\316\265).
particular,
is
\317\206
injective.
is a point of Bg{P,\316\265),
then
inf {d(P', Q'); P' G P, Q' G Q} =
If_Q
so that
there exists a Q' G Q such that d{P, Q') < \316\265.
d(P, Q) < \316\265,
As a consequence,
This
that
proves
Q = <p(Q')is in the imageof \317\206.
\342\200\224*
the
concludes
that
is
and
\342\200\242\317\201:
proof
surjective,
\317\206
\316\222\316\254{\316\241,\316\265)
\316\222^(\316\241,\316\265)
i.s an isometry.
D
7. Group actions and fundamentaldomains
192
point
every
X is
\316\241
\317\206
free if, for every 7 \342\202\254
\316\223\342\200\224{Idx
}, j(P)
words, the action is free if the stabilizer
\316\241
\316\247
is the trivial
\316\225
group {Idx}.
\316\223
on
\316\241
X.
\302\243
every
\316\223
of
\317\201
of
action
The
for
other
In
Corollary 7.9. If the transformation

on the metric
contimiously, and freely
metric space (X,d) is locally
isometric
Proof.
Theorem 7.8 shows
When
discuss the
stabilizer
the
integer
a discontinuous
for
is nontrivial.
It is
the
\316\237
Exercises
7.12
(H2;\321\2012\321\214\321\203\321\200),
space Bd{P, \316\265)/\316\223\317\201
quotient
isometric,either to a
to a hyperbolic disk sector of angle

Theorem
7.8, this consequently
By
or
hold
the
without
plane (M2,deuc) or of
euclidean
of the
4.3). Therefore,
of a ball Bg,{P,
\316\265)
center
^\317\212,
1.
Thesameresults(and proofs)
quotients
and
the
\316\222^(\316\241,\316\265),
Exercise
the
of the quotient of
geometry
isometric group action.
local
the
describes
quotient
\316\247,
possibletypes
\316\267
^
to
equal
hyperbolic plane
cone angle
with
cone
for some
ball Ba(P,\316\265)
in
is the
the
then
to (X,d).
\316\241
\316\247
\316\225
is
every
to a
(X,d)
and 7.14
when
^,
that
is isometric
which
hyperbolic
space (X,d),
=
If \316\223
then Bd(P, \316\265)
is
\317\201 {Idx},
metric d coincides with
d (compare
quotient
dis-
by isornetnes,
acts
\316\223
group
the
hyperbolic
plane
modifications
for
sphere
(\302\2472,
efcph)
by
under
isometric group action.
a discontinuous
7.3. Fundamental domains

Let
the
group
the
hyperbolic
write (X, d)
\316\223
act
or
the
= (R2,deuc),(K2,dhyp)
case considered.
A
polygon
polygons
are
tessellations
The
acting
such
\316\224
X
\320\241
7(\316\224)
all
provide
two
isometrically
for the
sphere
or
(S2,
that we
(M2.
deuc),
For
simplicity,
\320\265?\320\262\321\200\321\214).
(S2, dsph),
on
action of \320\223
according
X is
as 7 ranges over
elements
distinct
and form a tessellationof
that
to the
a connected
of
all
the
\316\223,
X.
constructed in Chapter6 provide
many
domains. For instance, Figures 6.4 and

different fundamental domains for the same group \316\223
on the euclidean plane (\320\2342,\321\201?\320\265\320\270\321\201))
and
consisting
of fundamental
examples
6.5
domain
fundamental
euclidean plane
on the
isometries
by
plane (H2, e?hyp)
of
all
translations
integral
(x,
We
+ n)
+ m,y
see
\316\267
G \316\226;
\317\200\316\271,
with
fundamental
domains can be very
is discontinuous and for determining
that
see
will
an action
proving that
for
useful
the
geometry
quotient spaceX/Y.
Proposition 7.10. If the
discontinuity.
action
isometric
\316\245
on
of
d)
(X,
= (M.2,deac),
domain A,
a fundamental
admits
or (S2,dBph)
(\320\2352,\320\265?\321\214\321\203\321\200)
\320\223
is
and
domains
Fundamental
7.3.1.
of
\320\275->
\321\203) (x
7.7.
Exercise
of the
193
domains
Fundamental
7.3.
action
the
discontinuous.
Consider
Proof.
of
definition
\316\241
&
X.
tessellations,
\342\226\240
\342\226\240 \320\241
\320\223
such
{7it72t \342\226\240
,7n}
ball
the
7(\316\224) meets
By the Local Finiteness Condition in the

a finite subset
there exists an \316\265
> 0 and
the 7,-
that
are the
which
\320\223
for
\302\243
only
of generality,
loss
Without
\316\222\316\261(\316\241,\316\265).
\316\241
is
in the
polygon 7! (\316\224).
7 G
If
that
such
\316\223
is
and consequently
7(P),
and 7 =
only
\320\276
7,-
7^~*
In
7 G
gluings
of the
7.3.2.
Fundamental
when
describes
polygon
that
\342\226\241
7.6, there
by Proposition
section
next
= 7$
are
there
707!
\320\223.
(X, d) = (X/Y,d)
space
\316\224.The
then
7 \320\276
71 (\316\224)contains
\316\222\316\254(\316\241,\316\265),
meets the ball Bd(P,\316\265).

Therefore,
some i = 1, 2, ..., n. It follows
such
particular,
metric
for
many
finitely
7(F)
is a well-defined
quotient
domain
a fundamental
\320\223
admits
this quotient
space in terms of
edge
\316\224.
and
domains
quotient
spaces. Let
\316\224
be
=
isometric action of
(X, d)
(M2,deuc), (H2,dhyp) or (S2,c4ph).Let Eu E2, ..., En be its edges.
each
In
the
under
of X by the images of \316\224
of \316\223,
the elements
tiling
odge
l
he
Ej
~}ji
separates
image
(hat Ei.
=
jj
for the
domain
;i fundamental
(\302\243^)
\316\224
from
of
an
separates\316\224from
771\302\267 As
\\{.2.,...,n}.
some
edge
on
\316\223
other
7^(\316\224)
Ei}, possibly
7~1(\316\224),
a consequence,
tile
and
the rule
with
is equal
and
EiJ
Note
Ej.
to ^~l(Ej),
1\342\200\224>
\320\263
defines
with
coincides
so that
a bijection
of
7. Group actionsand
194
In this
situation,
is an
\317\206\316\257
^n
particular,
\316\212\316\267
7\302\273\"\"1\302\267
to write
and
of \316\223,
convenient
more
is
it
domains
fundamental
element
j =
j,-
and
\317\206\316\271
the edge
sends
Ei to the edge Ejt.
Theorem7.11.
be a
Let
of the group
action
\316\223
over
(X,
As above, consider for each

Ei to some other edge Eji
is generated
by the \317\206^.
7 G
Let
Proof.
a point
from
the
interior
an oriented
of \316\224
to
isometric
the
or
(S2, dBph).
G \316\223
\317\210\316\271
sending
Then the group
to Ei).
equal
(possibly
g be
\316\223.
Let
\316\241
in
domain for
fundamental
d) = (M2,deuc), (H2,dhyp)
edge Ei of A the element
\316\223
geodesic arc in (X, d) going

Q in the interior of
a point
7(\316\224).
claim
We
of
edges
many
of
subset
Theorems
6.13,
g can
points of
In particular, g
meets only
\316\224,
72 (\316\224),...,
7\316\271(\316\224),
the tessellationtraversed
many
vertices
of the
and
g (and its endpoints\316\241
moving
slightly
finitely
arrange that it actually meetsno vertex

Let
the
these edges and extracting a

of that subsequence would contradict
in the definition
of tessellations.
the LocalFinitenessCondition
By
finitely
\316\224
under
with
limit
the
subsequence,
tessellation.
of
images
from
follows
\316\223.
This
the intersection
converging
the
and
vertices
may
the fact that as a boundedclosed

X = M2, H2 or \302\2472,
the
geodesic
g is compact (see
6.15 or 6.16). If g met infinitely
many
edges,
looking at
of
elements
meet only finitely

the tessellation of X by
that
by
7m-i(A),
g, in this
of
the
Q),
we can
tessellation.
=
7\321\202(\320\224) 7(A)
order. It is quite
be the
tiles of
possiblethat
\316\224
is not convex.
Let
equal when the fundamental domain
the
tile
and
the
such
that
the
enters
be
g
jk (\316\224)
edges
geodesic
Eik
Ejk
and exits it by the edge jk(Ejk). In particular,
by the edge jk{Eik)
with
the convention
that 70 = Idx.
lk{Eik) = 7fc_i(\302\243j/,_1),
two
7fc are
with
Ik
=7fc-i
edge
unique
such
\317\210^
(fik(A) adjacent to
another
the
in
\316\224
is
construction,
By
a tile
of
\316\224.It
follows
element of
0iPik-
By induction,
7 = 7m
that
\316\223
sends
\316\224
to
a way that ipik{Eik) coincides

\302\260
that \317\210^= Jk-i
7*\302\273
namely>
\342\226\240
\342\226\240
\342\226\240
\302\260
\302\260 \302\260
\317\210\316\2572 <Pim=\317\210\316\267
7.3.
Since this holds for

the
195
domains
Fundamental
7 G
every
this
\316\223,
that
proves
\316\223
is
by
generated
\320\236
\317\206\316\271.
\316\224
to another
ipi, sending an edge Ei of the polygon
4.3
define a gluing
data
of the type considered in Sections
=
so
that
note
that
it
is
that
i,
However,
quite possible
ji
6.3.4.
the
edge Ei may actually be glued to itself as in Section
\316\224
Let
be the quotient
the
polygon
space obtained from
(\316\224,
\320\265?\320\264)
the edge gluings specified by the isometries<p,-. Here,
by performing
\"\"
\"
instead
we are using hats
of bars
to distinguish
\320\265?\320\264)
objects in (\316\224,
from
elements
of the other quotient metric space (X, d) = (X/Y, d),
a
the quotient of (X, d) by the action of the group \320\223.
In particular,
\316\241
defines
X m. each of these two
G A and \316\241
\302\243
point \316\241\316\265\316\224
points
isometries
The
edge Ejt,
and 4.5.
quotient spaces.
Theorem 7.12.
the
group
action
By definition
of the
(S2, dsph), and let

Then,
\316\277/\316\223.
for the above
or
by gluing
(X, d)
d) of
(\316\247/\316\223,
edges of A
action
the
by
process,
gluing
and discontinu-
by isometries
\316\223
act
obtained
(\316\224,
\320\265?\320\264)
space
the quotient space
Proof.
the
domain for the
fundamental
definitions,
Let
= (R2,deuc),(\320\2502,dhyp)
ously on (X,d)
if two
of
is
be
to
isometric
\316\223.
Q G
\316\241
and
points
\316\224
Q is the
the quotient space \316\224,then

is an
if \316\241
of gluing
maps
\317\206\316\271
(none
but
one
if
and
to
\316\241
edges
\316\224,
exactly
Q belong
\317\206\316\271
are not vertices,
and possibly
\316\241
are
and
several \317\210\\
when
vertices).
Q
there
As a consequence, when
\316\241
and
Q define the same point in \316\224,
=
and
exists
an element 7 \302\243
\316\223
such
that
Q also
Q
7(P), so that \316\241
give
same
the
point
under
image of \316\241
interior
point of
same element
We can therefore
X/Y
\316\241
G \316\224.Indeed,
does not
by
domain
point
P'
=
\316\241
define
Q in
that
\316\241
G
the
\316\224
under
e A and
Because
the
elements
\316\241
G
by associating
p: A \342\200\224+
X/Y
G X/Y
observation shows that \316\241
G \316\224.
we used to represent \316\241
above
\316\241
that
is surjective,
\317\201
X.
X/Y.
a map
depend of the point
show
To
represented
Q in
a composition
define the
to
=
\316\241
a group element
consider
the images
cover
7 of \316\223
7
an element
7(\316\224) of
\316\223
such
all
that
\316\241
G
of X,
X/Y,
fundamental
the
there exists a
=
\316\241
j(P')-
Then,
\316\241
is
the quotient
to P' in
equal
under \317\201
of the
is injective,
\317\201
p(P) = p(Q), namely,

means that there exists
that
tiles
two
\316\224
and
is possible
this
only
in
There
P.
which
7^+1(\316\224)
to the
\316\241
and
\316\241
is
map
gluing
\317\206^.
such
\316\224
are
property
If
In particular,
j(Q).
in interior
point of \316\224,
is in
to
If \316\241
Q.
equal
is
\316\241
\316\241
is
Idx,
then by definition 7 is one of the
define
the same point
Q = \317\210\316\257(\316\241)
In
\316\241
contains
G \316\224
=
\316\224
gluing
=
\316\241
72(\316\224),
7\316\277(\316\224),
7\316\271(\316\224),
...,
by the
together
the
=
In all
cases we therefore showed that

same
the
the same point

and
injective,
point
=
\316\241
Q G
since d(P',Q')
d(P,Q)^dA(P,Q).
and
Q
points \316\241
also correspond
\316\224.
This
that
proves
they
Q in the
subset
< db{P',Q')
for
Q'
P',
every
Q.
if two
then
\316\247/\316\223,
of X, every discretewalk
a discrete walk from \316\241
to Q G X/T in
is a
Since \316\224
...,
(\316\241),\316\212\316\263\316\273{\316\241),
7\316\277\"1
=
\316\241
that
quotient space
therefore bijective.
=
\316\241
\317\210^.
=
\316\241
so
\316\224,
a consequence,
As
map
gluing
vertices
Q of
vertices j~1(P) and
the two
particular,
\316\244-1
(\320\237 \320\252\320\247\320\240)
(\316\241)
also
This
\316\247/\316\223.
\316\224
to 7(\316\224) around
be a sequence of tiles going from
are two possible such sequences,accordingto the direction
one turns around P. By construction, each tile jj(A) meets
is equal
near
an edge 7J+i(\302\243'ij)
P, so that 7J\"1 \320\276
along
jj+1
glued
\316\224
is
P, Q
Q in
y(A)
the element
define
that
so that
let
image
is surjective.
\317\201
=
\316\241
that
P.
at
meet
a vertex,
are
(\316\241)
7~\320\224
lk\\
=
\316\241
\316\223
such
a vertex,
so that
maps \317\210\316\257,
in \316\224.Finally,
if
7*;(\316\224)
if
suppose
is the
itself
that
proves
that
such
7(\316\224)
and is not
an edge
which
space\316\247/\316\223,
P' G \316\224.This
element
To prove that
the
actions and fundamentaldomains
7. Group
196
w from
\316\241
to
and
\302\243d(w) <
X,
\316\224.It
follows
\316\224
\302\243
to
is
\317\201
\316\224
in
\342\202\254
id& (w)
that
X.
For \316\265
> 0, Proposition
7.6
\321\201
Conversely, consider P, Q G \316\224
As
in
such
that
the proof
provides a 7 G \316\223
d(P, j(Q)) < d(P, Q) + \316\265.
of Theorem 7.11, let g be a geodesic
arc going from \316\241to j(Q) in
=
X, and meeting the tiles \316\224
7\342\204\242-\316\271(\316\224),
7\316\277(\316\224),
72(\316\224), ...,
7\316\271(\316\224),
=
in
this
This
is
to cross
the
order.
7m (\316\224)
time, g allowed
y(A)
vertices of the tiling.
For every
7,(\316\224)
goes
i, let
from
since these two
Pi and
^(P;)
points
to
are
be
Qi G \316\224
such
that
Note
that
7\302\273(<?\302\273)\342\226\240
joined
by a
the piece
dA(Pi,Qi)
of g crossing
= d(Pi.Qi)
geodesic contained in \316\224.Also
197
domains
Dirichlet
7.4.
it follows
that Pi+i
7i+i(Pi+i) = 7i(Qi),so that Pi+1 = Qi in \316\247/\316\223;
since
and Qi are glued together in \316\224
is injecwe just proved that \317\201
is
in
\316\224.
the
tive. Similarly, the last point
to
Qm
glued
Q
Therefore,
~
=
~
~
\316\241 P0,
sequence
QQ
Pb Qi ~^P2, u-, Qm-i Pm, Qm
Q
forms a discretewalk w from \316\241
to Q in \316\224,
whose
is
e^-length
= Y,dA(P,Qi)
^H
mm
=
i=0
Y^diPuQi)
^<7i(Pi),7i(Qi))
i=0
i=0
= i{g)= d{Pn{Q))<d{P,Q)
+ e,
is
where
\302\243(g)
to
according
the
whether
for
d(P, Q) + \316\265
every
and
\316\265,
isometry
\342\200\224+
\316\224
\317\201:
X/T,
from
Dirichlet
7.4.
that
therefore
Since we had already proved

that dA(P,Q) = d(P,Q) for every
proof that
or spherical arc length

It follows that dA(P,Q)
euclidean,
hyperbolic
X = \320\2502,\320\2502
or S2.
which
d(P,
reverse
the
P,
associates
to (\320\245/\320\223,
(\316\224,
\321\201/\320\264)
d).
\320\260\320\220(\320\240,
Q) <
Q G
inequality,
and
\316\224,
\316\241
G
X/Y
this shows
completes
to
<
Q).
is
\316\241
G \316\224,
the
an
D
domains
to Proposition 7.10by showing

that
for any
of
the
isometries
euclidean
plane (R2, denc),
group
the hyperbolic
plane (H2, d^yp) or the sphere (S2, dsph)) there always
exists
a fundamental
domain for the action of \320\223.
We will not use this
a
until
Section
where
variation
of
Dirichlet domains,
property
12.4,
will play an important role.
calledFord domains,
This conversewill hold provided we slightly extend our definition
of polygons
in (X,d) = (M2, c4uc);
or (S2,deph). Namely,
(H2,dhyP)
we will allow a polygon \316\224
to have
infinitely
many edges and vertices,
that
the families of edges and vertices are locally finite in
provided
the following
is a ball Bd(P, \316\265)
sense: For every \316\241
\302\243
there
centered
\316\224,
at \316\241
which
and
of
\316\224.
Such
meets
vertices
only finitely many edges
a polygon
this
will be called a locally finite polygon
to distinguish
notion from the finite
considered
so far. By compactness of
polygons
sees that a locally finite
in the sphere S2 can
S2, one easily
polygon
and
have
and
many edges
vertices,
only
finitely
consequently is finite.
We
now
prove
discontinuous
a converse
\320\223
of
7.
198
If
the
on X,
continuously
Po G X
metric space
of the
isometries
\316\223
of
group
domains
and fundamental
actions
Group
the Dirichlet domain of
(X, d)
dis-
acts
at the
\316\223
centered
point
is the subset
< d[P,7(P0))for every 7 G \316\223}.

In other
of those
words, the Dirichlet domain centeredat Po consists
of its
points that are at least as close to Po as to any other
points
orbit. It is named after
Gustav
Dirichlet
Lejeune
(1805-1859), who
introduced a similar construction to study the number-theoretic
properties of quadratic
forms with integer coefficients. Dirichlet domains
are ubiquitous
and their variations
in mathematics,
where they arise
under many
different
names.
For instance, if we replace
the orbit of
the similarly
\320\241
defined
Po by an arbitrary
locally finite subset \320\220
X,
subset of X is calledthe Voronoi
domain
of A centered at Po G A.
See also the Ford domains that
we will consider
in Section 12.4.
=
d(P, P0)
{PeX;
\316\224\316\223(\316\2410)
Theorem 7.13. Let the group \320\223

act
and discontinuby isometries
=
or (S2, d8ph). Then, for every
ously on (X, d) (R2,deuc),
(\320\2302,
dhyp)
is a locally finite polygon and,
Pq G X, the Dirichlet domain \316\224\317\201(\316\241\316\277)
as 7 rangesover all the elements of the group \316\223,
the
form
7(\316\224\317\201(\316\241\316\277))
of X.
a tessellation
If,
in
the identity,
domain for the
for
will
We
the
addition,
the
then
action
7.14.
d(P,R)
set
of
and
by
This
spherical
By
perpendicular
analogy
is
\316\241
and
or
with
bisector
of
\316\223
except
is a
\316\224\317\201(\316\241\316\277)
fundamental
d(P,
Then
geodesic
< d(Q,
R)
and containing
set
Ppq
of
R) is
The
points in (X,d) =
that
of R e X such
X. In addition, the
the
closed
half-space
euclidean
2.4 for the hyperbolic case.
D
the euclidean
of the
the
lemmas.
ingredient.
P.
by elementary
See Exercise
several
geometric
distinct
two
be
(S2,\302\24328ph).
complete
immediate
case.
domain
Dirichlet
element
no
construction is the key
in X
Ppq
fixed by
\316\277/\316\223.
= d(Q,R) is a
R G X such that
delimited
Proof.
Let
(H2,dhyP)
(R2,dexic),
Pq is
proof of Theorem 7.13into
split the
following elementary
Lemma
point
points
geometry in the
case, the geodesicPpq is the

\316\241
and
Q.
199
domains
Dirichlet
7.4.
Lemma 7.15. if \316\223

acts
(M2,
deuc),
there
are
(H2,
only
dhyp) or (S2, dgph)

finitely many 7 e
Proof. Suppose,in
elements
many
71,
to the closedball
that
such
is
\320\222
of
then,
for
every
\316\223
such
that
d{P,
all 7n(Po)
that
\342\226\240
\342\226\240
\342\226\240
*\320\277
\320\223
such
at P,
r centered
radius
are infinitely
that there
contradiction,
consisting
d(P,
that
checks
is
\320\222
subset
a closed
belong
Q
X
\302\243
Sinceit is
of X.
from Theorems 6.13, 6.15and

consequence, there existsa subsequence
it follows
bounded,
As a
compact.
all
of
Q) < r.
One easily
clearly
of a
search
\302\267
\302\267
72\302\273
7n,
\302\267,
(X,d) =
\316\241
e X and r > 0,
7(Po)) ^ r-
and discontinuously on
by isometry
that
6.16
\320\222
(7nfc)fceN
as \320\272
tends
to 00.
convergesto someP*, G \320\222
This implies that for every \316\265,there
that
exists
\320\260
such
\320\272\320\276
\320\272
In
\320\272
<
for
for
^ \320\272\320\276^ \320\272\320\276,
particular,
every
every
d(lnk {Pq), Poo)
I
that
such
jnk (Pq)
d(Po,
\302\260
lnk
lnl0
(Po))
d(jnk0 (Po), 7n,
(Po))
+ <\316\241\316\277\316\277,7\316\267,(\316\241\316\270))
< d(7n*0(Po),Poo)
So,
for
\316\265
> 0,
every
ball
is in the
we found
many
infinitely
the
contradicting
\316\222,\316\271(\316\241\316\277,\316\265),
7 G
which
\316\223
for
7(Po)
the action of
fact that
\316\223
is
discontinuous.
proves that our
This
that
\320\222
contains
only
The Dirichlet
7.16.
Lemma
original assumptionwas
finitely
false
and
therefore
many 7(P).
domain
\316\240
is a
\316\224\317\201(\316\241\316\277)
locally finite
polygon.
X
let
be the set of points \316\241
\302\243
\316\223,
ffpo7(p0)
if
Lemma
shows
that
7.14
<
d(P,P0)
d(P,7(P0)).
7(P0) \317\206
is a half-space delimited by the perpendicular
bisector
Po,
i/po7(p0)
=
thc
is of coursc
Po, \316\267\317\201\316\277\316\257(\317\2010)
Pi'o-y(Po) of po and 7(Po)\302\267 If 7(Po)
whole space X and we set \316\262\317\2010\317\2010
to be the empty set in this case.
For
Proof.
such
every
By
the
definition,
t.he half-spaces
that
show
7 G
that
is
Dirichlet
a locally
\316\224\317\201(\316\241\316\277)
that
domain
HPol(Po)as 7 ranges
the family of
over
intersection
is the
\316\224\317\201(\316\241\316\277)
all elements
finite polygon, it
geodesies /3po7(p0)
of
\320\223.
To
consequently suffices
bounding
the
of
prove
to
is
\320\224\"\321\20007(\321\2000)
finite.
locally
for every
Namely,
the ball
that
\316\241
G
meets
only
\316\222\316\261(\316\241,\316\265)
\316\265
>
any
Actually,
actions
7. Group
200
the
< 2d(P, Pq)
Triangle
\316\265
from
Pq.
Po\302\267
By
the
Inequality,
Q G /J7,
Since
is
it
Po. Another
from
distance
is at
j(Pq)
7.15, this can
Lemma
nonempty,
happen
for
only
7 G \316\223.
many
finitely
the family of the perpendicularbisectors/3p07(p0)

is a locally
and therefore that the Dirichlet domain \316\224\317\201(\316\241)
This
is
2\316\265
from
By the
as
such
\316\265
\316\262\316\241\316\277\316\212^\316\241\316\277\316\263
then shows that
Inequality
Triangle
an
find
is
\320\237
Bd(P,
\316\265)
/\320\227\321\200\320\2767(\321\2000)
pick a point Q in this intersection.

point Q is at distance < d(P.Po)+
also at the same distance from
7(Po)
applicationof
many
finitely
do. If
0 will
to
we need
X,
that
proves
finite,
finite polygon.
Before proving
elements
the
under
that
the
of
tessellate
\316\223
these images is also
are at least
every
is an
ranges over all
Lemma
7.18.
domains
a tessellation
form
\316\224\316\263(7(\316\241\316\277))
A
to
X belongs
\316\241
G
point
to
other
\316\241
G
point
if and
is
any
if
\316\224\317\201(7(\316\241\316\277))only
\316\241
is
in
elements
the
orbit
of the
isometry of X, this property

is at least as closeto Po as to
to the fact that

7_1 (P)
\316\241
is in
other point of its orbit. Therefore,
is
in
if
and
if
only
namely,
7_1(P)
\316\224\316\223(\316\241\316\277),
equivalent
is equal
of those
consists
\316\224\317\201(7(\316\241\316\277))
Since
7
\316\223(-\316\241\316\277)\302\267
\316\223(7(\316\241\316\277))
Proof.
each of
\316\223,
\316\224\316\223(7(\316\2410)).
7(\316\224\316\223(\316\241\316\277))
as closeto 7(Po)asto any
As 7
\316\224\317\201(\316\241\316\27
domain.
domain
Dirichlet
The
Proof.
which
X,
a Dirichlet
7.17. For
Lemma
of the Dirichlet domain

that
let us first
observe
images
\342\226\241
7(\316\224\316\263(\316\241\316\277))\302\267
of
the
\316\223,
Dirichlet
of X.
if and
\316\224\316\223
(7(\316\241\316\277))
only
if
d(P,
7(Po))
= d(P,P0),
eT}
\320\253{\320\260(\320\240,\320\243(\320\240\320\276\320\243\320\277'
where the
that
are
only
d(P,Po) + 1. This
The
first
d(P,7(P0))
it suffices
from
comes
equality
there
one
has
two
is
that
= d(P,P0).
Proposition
many 7' G
finitely
7.6. Lemma
such
\320\223
that
7.15 shows
<
d(P, y'(Po))
consequences.
exists at least one 7 such

the
shows
ab ove observation
Indeed,
to considerthe
there
infimum
over
finitely
many
elements,
that
that
so
201
7.4. Dirichlet domains
exists 7
is actually
infimum
the
that
that
\316\223
such
\316\241
G
As
minimum.
there
a consequence,
\316\224(7(\316\2410))\302\267
such
is that the set of 7 G \316\223
that
consequence
\302\267
\316\241
*s a finite
set
\302\267
In
belongs
particular,
{71,72, \302\267,
7n}.
\316\224(7(\316\241\316\277))
second
The
\316\241
G
to
near P, these
and,
only finitely many Dirichlet domains \320\224\321\200(7(-\320\240\320\276))
Ar(7i(-Po)) arc delimited by the perpendicularbisectors\316\262\316\212\316\257(\317\2010)\316\212
These
two
show that the union of the domains
properties
is equal
and
to
X
and
that when two distinct \316\224\317\201(7(\316\241\316\277))
\316\224\316\263(\316\257{\316\241\316\277))
Since
meet
vertices.
meet,
any
they
along edges and/or
\316\224\317\201(7'(\316\241\316\277))
this
two
of these
Dirichlet domains are isometric by Lemma
7.17,
D
completes the proof.
The
of
images
of
combination
the
To prove the
stabilizer
the
secondpart
consists
\316\223\317\2010
two
domains
points
only
j(Pq)
AT(y(P0))
distinct. Thisis exactly
additional
This concludes the proof of

domain
for
the
\317\206
\320\243,
Dirichlet
the
condition
7.13.
domain.
fundamental
For Theorem
so that
are
Y(Ar(P0))
needed to prove that
and
7(\316\224\316\223(\316\241\316\277))
AT(y'{Po))
the
7.13.
whenever
Then,
map.
assume that the
theorem,
identity
and j'{Pq) are distinct
a
\316\224\316\263(-\316\241\316\277)
is
this
of
of the
the
\316\223
form
of Theorem
statement
main
of
action
under
the
\316\224\317\201(-\316\241\316\277)
This was the
of X.
tessellation
shows that
and 7.18
7.17
Lemmas
domain
Dirichlet
7.13 to
Theorem
a
provide
action of \316\223,
we
only of the identity.
(locally
to find
need
finite)
a point
Pq
fundamental
whose
stabilizer
the
the
action is free. In the generalcase,almost
every
in
the
stabilizers
of
all
required
Indeed,
possible
property.
analysis
and
Exercise 7.12 (suitably extendedto the euclidean
spherical
Flom
that
shows
by a point
every point of X can be approximated
contexts)
page 197
with a trivial stabilizer.
We
will
let you check that the results of Sections
4.3, 4.4, 4.5, 6.3
from finite
and 7.3on edgegluings
extend
of polygons
immediately
=
\316\224
M2
to
finite
in
or
X
H2, provided that
polygons locally
polygons
we impose
the following additional condition.
Tp0 consists
This
Finite Gluing Condition.Each

only
finitely
many
other
points
of
of course
point
\316\224.
of the
is automatic when
have
Pq G X will
polygon
is
\316\224
glued
to
7.
202

For every
7.1.
Exercise
lation defined
a. Show
for every P,
7.2.
groups
arise
that
a. Let the
trans-
\342\200\224\342\226\272
\320\232
\320\226
be the
number
let
\302\243,
\342\202\254
Q} of
all such rational
metric
space
72:
a metric.
is not
\316\247/\316\223
is
translations
(\320\226,
deUc).
by d
d induced
semi-metric
quotient
space X =
quotient
Exercise
of isometries of the
Show that the
b.
rational
=
\316\223
{jz;
set
the
that
a goup
\342\200\224
+ f.
(\320\266) \317\207
72
by
domains
and fundamental
actions
Group
the
on
deuc
Q)
d(P,
compute
Actually,
X.
Q \302\243
This exercise is devoted to

in linear algebra.
transformation
classical
a few
consist
of all the linear maps
group GL\342\200\236(M)
associated
matrix \316\234has nonzero
determinant
is
a
of Kn.
Show
that
transformation
0.
\317\206
group
GL\342\200\236(M)
det(M)
x \316\267-matrix \316\234
It may be useful to remember that
with
Hint:
\316\267
any
=
an inverse, and that
0 admits
\317\206
det(MJV)
det(M)det(JV).
det(M)
linear
general
\320\226\"\342\200\224\342\226\272
Mn whose
special linear group
b. Let the
consist
SLn(M)
has
associated matrix \316\234
SLn(M) is a transformation
\342\200\224\342\226\272
Mn whose
Mn
to 1.
that
Show
the linear maps

det(iW) equal
of all
determinant
of Mn.
group
the lines passing through

induces
\342\202\254
Every \317\206
GL\342\200\236(K)
' -\302\273
a map \317\210:
]RPn\"
which
associates
to each line L G MP\"\"1
MP\342\204\242\"1,
Show
that
as \317\210
the line tp(L) G MP\342\204\242\"1.
over all elements of
ranges
form
a transformation
group of
GLn(M), the correspondingmaps \317\210
KPn_1. This group
is called
the projective
general linear group
the projective
\321\201
Let
the
d.
origin
in
Mn
Exercise
2.12).
is traditionally
denoted
Let
the projective
special linear group PSLn(K)consist of
7.3
Exercise
denoted
\316\223,
a- 7
that
(Abstract
by (7,7')
\302\267 \302\267
(V
there
by
PGLn(K)\302\267
as in part
\342\200\224\342\226\272
MP\342\204\242\"1
MPn_1
induced
\317\206:
Show
SL\342\200\236(R).
c.
of all
\320\256\320\240\"-1
consist
and
maps
b.
apace
(compare
7\")
(7
PSLn(M)
is a
groups).
A group
\342\226\240
\320\275-+
for
7
7' G \316\223
\302\267 \302\267for
7')
7\"
exists an element
for every
\342\226\240
= L.
7
\316\223
there
G \316\223,
transformation
every
every 7,
such
G \316\223
exists
group
maps
of MPn_1.
law on a set \316\223

is a map
that:
such
7, 7' G \316\223,
7', 7'
that
G
\317\206
\342\200\224>
\317\207
\316\223
\316\223
G \316\223;
\302\267
\342\200\224
t \342\200\224
l \342\226\240
for
an element
the
all
linear
\321\201
by
7' G
\316\223
such
every 7
that
G \316\223;
\302\267=
7'
7'
Show
defined
that
if
by (7.7')
An
abstract
\316\223
is a
transformation
\316\271-\302\273
7 \320\276
7' is
group
a group
group on a set X, the

law
on
\317\207
\342\200\224\342\226\272
\316\223
\316\223
\316\223
map
\320\223.
is the data of a set \320\223

and
of a
group
law
on
\320\223.
for
Exercises
203
Chapter
Exercise 7.4. Let the group

the metric space (X,d). Show
Exercise 7.5. Let the group
or (S2,dsph)\302\267
(H2,dhyP)
Po \342\202\254
X, in the sense that
for
only
\316\241
G X.
For
this,
let (Pn)neN
length
a. By
there
n,P'n
Proposition
7.6.
if
exists
then
\342\202\254
\316\223,
b.
Show that the
c.
Conclude
on (X,d)
by isometries
\316\223
acts
be a
Let
7.7.
\316\223
be
sequencein
point
complete metric
d) is complete.
X = X/T with
this
space
quotient
< 00.
the group
form
the
(R2,deuc),
an e > 0 such that *f(P) G B<j(Po,e)

it acts discontinuously at all points
of Lemma 7.15.
from
the proof
sequence (Pn)neN
of integral
(x
n)
with
for
Hint:
Poo
point
translations
m,y +
>-<\342\226\240
+
(x,y)
that
X such
in
+ 2~n.
< d(Pn,Pn+i)
sequence (i^)nern convergesto some

that (Pn)neN converges to P*, in (X/F,d).
of
plane (.R2,deuc),
\342\200\224
at some
discontinuously
act discontinuously
on the
group \316\223
to show that the quotient
space
(X/T,
on n, construct
a
= Pn and
d{P'n,P'n+\\)
induction
Exercise
\316\223
act
that
\302\243~=1d(Pn,Pn+1)
every
and by isometries on
discontinuously
finite.
if X is compact, \316\223
is necessarily
hint: Borrow ideas
Possible
Exercise 7.6. Let the

space(X,d). We want
finite
that
Show
many
finitely
\316\223
act
X.
\342\202\254
of the
euclidean
(m,n)
G Z2.
a. Let \316\245
be the parallelogram
with vertices (0,0), (1,1), (2,1) and (1,0),
as in Figure 6.5. Prove that
\320\243
is a fundamental
domain for the action
of \320\223.
Possible
Theorem
hint: Glue opposite sides of Y, apply
6.1, and
check
b.
and
the
that
Do the
same
tiling group is
corresponding
for
the
equal to \320\223.
are (0,0), (1,1),(3,2)
whose vertices
parallelogram
(2,1).
7.8. Let \320\223

be the group of isometries of (S2,dsPh)
the identity map IdS2 and of the antipode map 7 defined
Exercise
a.
Check that
\320\223
is really
a transformation
of
consisting
by
group acting
7(P)
\342\200\224
P.
discontinuously
onS2.
b.
Show that the
plane of
Section
of \320\223
and
apply
Exercise 7.9. In
the
from
quotient metric
deuc
induced
by
fundamental
0 and,
left-hand
isometric to the projective

for the action
domain
the
consider
for
t G K,
side
infinite
by the
=
Show that (Xw,t,deac) is isometric to a quotient

where rWtt is the group of isometries of the
strip
Xw
let Xw,t be the cylinder

{0} x (\342\200\22400,+00) to the
translation \317\206:
{0}
(w,y + t). Endow
<p(0,y)
by the euclidean metric deuc
{w} \317\207
(\342\200\224oo,
+00)
defined
plane,
w >
Xw by gluing the
right-hand side
{w} x (-00,+00)
a.
euclidean
width
dsph) is
(S2/T,
Hint: Find
Theorem 7.12.
5.3.
\317\207
[0, \317\211]
(\342\200\224oo,+oo) of
obtained
space
quotient
space
\342\200\224\342\226\2
+00)
(\342\200\22400,
Xw,t
with
the
of Xw \342\226\240
(R2/TWtt,dcac),
euclideanplane
(K2,dCUc)
a translation
by
generated
6.1 and
Theorems
Hint:
actions
7. Group
204
along a
7.12.
certain vector
\\/w2 +12.
of length
if = w\\ +1\\. Show that the cylinders {Xw-L,t1,

deuc)
are
isometric. Possiblehint: First find a euclidean
(-Xw2,t2>(ieuc)
b. Supposethat
and
w\\ +
=
that \320\223\320\2502,*2
\302\243
{\317\210\316\277\316\267\316\277\317\210^-,\31
and isometry ip:(M.2/Fwl,tl,
deuc)\342\200\224*
\342\200\224\342\226\272such
isometry \317\206:
(R2,de\342\200\236c)
(K2,deuc)
and then use \317\206

to construct
\316\223^\316\271,\316\257\316\271},
/\320\223\321\2102,*2!
\"eucj(\320\226
dmc)
(Xw2,o,
not
are
Look at closed geodesiesin
hint:
Possible
if \302\253/-\316\271
Wi.
\317\206
isometric
(Xw1,o,deac)and
the cylinders
that
Show
\321\201
these
cylinders.
d. Show that
the
if and only if
cylinders
t2 =
w\\ +
(-Xtui.tudeuc)
and
are
(-Xu>2,t2>deur.)
isometric
+ t\\.
w\\
\316\223
act isometrically
7.10. Let the group
the metric space (X,d). Let \316\224
domain of \316\223
at P.
Show
be the Dirichlet
is invariant
of P, namely
that 7(\316\224)= \316\224
that \316\224
under the stabilizer \316\223
\317\201
= P.
\316\223
for every 7 \342\202\254
with
j(P)
Exercise
Exercise 7.11.
a \302\243
let \316\223
be the
\320\226,
For
by the
(M2,deuc)
generated
*-* (\317\207
+ a,y +
\317\2102'(\321\205,\321\203)
plane
at
centered
group of isometries of the
euclidean
\316\271\342\200\224>
+ l,y)
\317\206\316\271:
(\317\207,\321\203)
(\317\207
translations
1). Determine the Dirichlet domain

=
the origin \320\236
The answer will depend
(0,0).
and
of \316\223\316\261
\316\224\316\223\316\261(\316\237)
on a.
act
and
7.12 (2-dimensionalstabilizers). Let \320\223
by isometries
on the hyperbolic
plane. The goal of the exercise is to
It will be convenient to
determine the possibletypes for a stabilizer \316\223\317\201.
Exercise
discontinuously
use the
and
model
ball
replacing
\320\223
by
loss of generality
a.
that
that
Show
(B2, dB2).
the group
every
\316\241
is
line
vvith
fc
center
of the stabilizer
around
\320\236
or
\320\236
of
sending
\317\210
\316\241
to \320\236
assume without
the disk B2.
can
is the
\320\223\320\276
a euclidean
to B2 of
reflection across a
restriction
O.
b. Suppose that every element

an integer n > 1 so that
252E,
angles
\342\200\224
\320\223\320\276
{IdH2}
euclidean
rotation
through
passing
isometry
\316\277
\316\277
we
6 \316\223},
\317\206~\316\271;
\316\267
{\317\210\316\267
the
element
either a euclidean
a hyperbolic
Using
of
rotation. Show that there exists

rotations
of the \316\267
around
\320\236
of
\342\200\224
1. Hint:
\316\267
Consider an element of
is a
\320\223\320\276
consists
\320\223\320\276
0, 1,
rotation
...,
angle is smallest.
least one reflection. Show
that
there
exists an integer \316\267
L passing
the
such
> 1 and a line
through
origin
= 0,
of the n rotations around
\320\236
of angles
that \320\223\320\276
consists
~-, with \320\272
reflections
across the lines obtained by rotating
1, ..., \316\267\342\200\224
1, and the \316\267
\321\201
Suppose
that
whose
contains
\320\223\320\276
at
L around \320\236
fc =
0, 1, ...,
by angles
^, with
consider the elements of \320\223\320\276
that
are rotations.
\342\200\224
\316\267
1.
Hint:
First
for Chapter
Exercises
205
Exercise7.13.
on
the
contains
a.
b.
Let
\316\223
act
and discontinuously
the
group
by isometries
be a point whose stabilizer
hyperbolic plane (E2,dhyp). Let \316\241
more elements than just the identity
map.
Show that there is an angle sector A, delimited

issued from P, which
is a fundamental
domain
may be convenient to use Exercise7.12.
Let
be the
\316\224\316\263(\316\241)
two
by
for
the
infinite
action
\316\223
\317\201
geodesies
of
It
\316\223\317\201.
Dirichlet domain of \316\223

at P. Show that the
fundamental
domain for the action of \316\223.
\316\221
is a
intersection
\316\240
\316\224\316\263(\316\241)
Exercise
7.14.
hyperbolic plane
Let
\316\223
act
by isometries
and
discontinuously
on
the
(H2,dhyp).
a. Let \316\223\317\201
e >
be the stabilizer
of a point \316\241
\302\243
H2, and choose an arbitrary
is isometric,
the
0. Show that
space (Bdhyp(P,\320\265)/\320\223\321\200,<4\320\243\320\240)
quotient
either to a hyperbolic cone of radius
e and cone angle 2zl for some
1
4.7
\316\267
defined
in
Exercise
for the euclidean context) or
^
integer
(as
to a hyperbolic
disk sector of radius e with angle ^ for some integer
\316\267
7.13.
> 1. Hint: Use Exercises 7.12and
b.
in addition, that every element of \316\223

is a linear fractional map.
is
a hyperbolic surface with
the quotient space (\320\2532/\320\223,
dhyp)
as defined in Exercise
4.8. Hint: Use Theorem 7.8.
singularities,
Assume,
Show
cone
that
Exercises7.12,7.13and
euclidean and sphericalcontext.
7.14
have
immediate
generalizations
to the
Chapter
tessellation
The
Farey
and
circle
The
Farey
closely related
Section
objects
to the punctured torus that

to the
and
5.5,
circle packing rank among some of

in mathematics. It turns out that
they
and
tessellation
beautiful
most
packing
group
tiling
constructed in Section6.6. Some

chapter
and
explore
various
additional
number-theoretic
8.1. The Farey
of
of
the
the
we
encountered
the
are
in
tessellation
corresponding
at the end of this
exercises
connections between the Farey tessellation

and combinatorial
problems.
circle packingand tessellation

oo=i
Figure
8.1.
The
Farey
circle
packing
207
8. The
208
For
in
draw
to the
together
We
the
R2 the
plane
\320\266-axis
at
can
get
with
circle Ce
p, q
diameter
of
coprime and q > 0,

X that
is tangent
axis. Thesecircles\320\241\320\265
fit
illustratedin Figure8.1.
view of this circle pattern by zooming
in, as
and
(|,0)
lies above this
the pattern
to form
in Figures
number
rational
every
Farey tessellation and circlepacking
a better
8.2 and 8.3.
\302\273*rrrt\"
16
1
3
14 11
00
2
5
5
13
Figure 8.2. Zooming
413631 26
907968
Figure
57
8.3.
21 37
46 81
UJs
12
in on
the
16
4327 38
11
35
9459
83
24
Zooming
in
once
Farey
more on
circle
392845 17
856198 37
the
Farey
packing
40 23
50
87
circle
29 35
63 76
packing
Farey circle
The
8.1.
By
we
inspection,
209
packing and tessellation

the
can make
experimental
following
observations:
\342\200\242
the
circles
\342\200\242
two
circles
Ce have
disjoint interiors;
Ce and
CV are
pq' -p'q
\342\200\242
three
to each
I
and
Ce ,'
9
circles
Cp> and
fr
other exactly when

^7, namely, when
2l
exactly
tangent
when
\302\261l;
2 <
with
CP\"
\302\24777
^77 is
^77 <
\320\257 \320\257
the Farey
are
\320\252
tangent
^
sum
of
\316\270
\320\252
p+p'
\342\200\224
e! \342\200\224
\320\266
~ \316\225
w
\321\217\" \321\217 q'
The same
rational
number
q+q''
properties hold if
00 =
Figure 8.4.
=
g
The Farey
we
in addition,
consider,
and introduce
circle
packing
in the
as the
\320\241\320\266
disk
model
the
infinite
horizontal
B2
8. The
210
of equation
line
of the
Some
Figure 8.4,
fractional
represents
The numbers
in
that
picture
points
corresponding
image
visible in
is also
circles
of the
Farey circle packing
hyperbolicplane, under
~
= \342\200\224
\316\246(\316\266)
^r sending
map
linear
the
half-plane to the
the upper
hyperbolic
can
the
Q-
at this relationship
a hint
get
diskB2.
of the images\316\246(2) of
label some
this Farey circle packing is relatedto

remarkably,
torus
that we considered in Section 5.5.
punctured
Quite
We
the
B2 for the
disk model
the
of this collection of
beauty
which
> 1.
\321\203
with
circles Or is the Farey circlepacking.
of the
The family
points (x,y)
packing
C^ is dennedas the
the interior of
1, while
of those
consisting
half-space
in
j/
circle
Farey tessellation and
if
we
the
the circles
erase
Cs.,
(^;0) and (^7,0) by a semi-circle

the circles Cs. and C,/ are tanin
The resulting
collection of hyperbolic geodesiesis illustrated
gent.
which
bears
a
with
the
of
tessellation
8.5,
strong analogy
Figure
Figure 6.12
that
we associated to our hyperbolic puncturedtorus. This
and
if
we
\320\266-axis
is made
connection
two points
the
connect
on the
centered
when
exactly
precise
in
8.2.
Section
Figures 8.6 and 8.7 are obtainedby zooming

of semi-circles,
calledthe Farey tessellationof
Figure 8.5.
The
after
Farey
John
Farey
>
0, consider
following
elementary
all rational
this collection
plane.
hyperbolic
tessellation
circle packing and the Farey

(1766 1826), a geologistwho
proof) the
(without
number
The Farey
in on
the
are
tessellation
property.
numbers
\302\243
with
For a
0 <
named
observed
experimentally
fixed
<
\317\201
q <
8.1. The
Farey circle packingand
8.6. Zooming in
Figure
Figure 8.7.
coprime,
on the
more on
Pi-i
Pi
Pi+i
TV
qi-l
Qi
Qi+i
\342\200\224
Piqi+i
1 for any two
_
\317\212\317\213
for anyJ
\316\241\316\257^\317\206\316\241\316\257\317\213
<li
\320\257\320\263-1
QUI
three
property
had
L802 by C.
became
was
only
actually
Haros.
attached
aware
consecutive
the
to the
of Farey's
the
name
Farey
tessellation
size
increasing
TV\342\200\224
1
TV
< \316\2661^, and

consecutive \302\243*\342\226\240
^^ < %\342\226\240
< \317\210*1. The
same
\320\257\320\263
9\316\271
\320\257\320\263-1
+1
been discovered, with

However,
\302\243M
Farcy tessellation
numbers by order of
and list these
Pi+iqi
Then,
in once
Zooming
& f
!A
\316\234
211
tessellation
partial
of Farey
proofs,
series of
earlier
in
order TV
above sequence when

Augustin
Cauchy,
note [Farey], provided a completeproof
who
of
8. The
212
in 1816.
statements
two
these
and circle packing
Farey tessellation
A
Farey series
for the
reference
good
is [Hardy & Wright].

Of
first
to Lester R. Ford
these circles are
also often
Figure 8.8.
The
8.2.
called
The Farey
once-punctured
Let
us
go
Section
in
discussed
vertices
0, +1,
the
considered
-1 and
\317\210\316\271(\316\266)
fî
and
disk model for
H2
and the
torus
group
=
[Ford2].
in the
tessellation
ooelU {oo}at
transformation
circle
In particular,
circles.
Ford
to the tessellation of
6.6. We started with
back
hyperbolic
call herethe Farey
(1886-1967)
tessellation
Farcy
about
anything
account of what we
published
is due
packing
did not know
Farey
course,
geometry.The
\317\206^{\316\266)
_z~\\-
the
the
hyperbolic
plane
hyperbolic
square
infinity
\316\223
generated
We then
H2
X with
We also
transformations
of H2.
by the
showed that the polygons
8.2. The Fareytessellation

and
213
torus
1-puncture
elements of
all the
over
as \317\210
ranges
\317\210(\316\247),
the
a tessellation
form
\316\223,
of
H2.
Let us split the square X along the diagonal

Ooo into the two
T~
T+
T+
and
oo and
and
where
has
vertices
+1
triangles
T~,
0,
\320\263\320\275-\320\263
has vertices 0,-1 and oo. Note
the hyperbolic
reflection
that
the vertical
across
half-line Ooc exchanges T+ and T~, so that these
two triangles are isometric. (Actually,
8.4 below will show
Lemma
that any two triangles
It follows
with
are isometric.)
a tessellation
tessellation.
this
We
will
prove
tessellation,in
the
sense
joining
| to
|j
that
this tessellation is exactly the Farey
that its edges are exactly the hyperbolicgeodesies
when
consisting
PSL2(Z)
pq'
\342\200\224=
\302\2611.
p'q
convenient to consider,as in Example 7.3,the

of all linear fractional
maps
it is
this
For
cz
with a,
Exercises
that
7.3
Example
and
2.12
Since
PSL2(Z),
c,
b,
ad
\316\226
and
\302\243
When we consider a
that
8.1.
Lemma
pair,
if pq'
pair
Farey
oo =
of
exception
then
Proof.
1.
We already
If
and
\317\206\316\271
</?\320\267
generating
\320\223
is
q are coprime
We
say that
=\302\243.
\302\243
\342\200\224=
p'q
fib)
of
See
H2.
\320\223
are
elements
of
we will
Qu{oo},
| \317\202
>
and that q
0, with
E, ^ eQU {oo}form
use
the
a
\302\2611.
e PSL2(Z)
\317\206
an(^
number
rational
observed in
in PSL2(Z).
contained
and
\317\201
\302\245>(\302\247)
Immediate
\320\263-j.
+ a
is a transformation group
PSL2(Z)
7.2 for an explanation of the notation.
the gluing
maps
we conclude that
convention
\342\200\224
=
be
set
az + b
\317\210(\316\266)
the
infinity
and
of the triangles \317\210{\316\244+)
\317\206(\316\244~),
denote
of H2 by ideal triangles. Let \316\244
collection
the
that
e \316\223,
forms
\317\210
at
vertices
with
form
computation.
and if 2,
4 e
a Farey
pair.
QU
{oc}
form
a Farey
Note that the pairs {0,oo},{1,oo}and

are Farey pairs.
oo}
{\342\200\2241,
that
From Lemma 8.1 and the fact that \320\223
we
conclude
\321\201
PSL2(Z),
I he
a
of each edge of the tessellation\316\244
form
endpoints
Farey pair.
8. The
214
be a geodesicof
Conversely, let g
circle
and
tessellation
Eîrey
whose
H2
packing
form a
endpoints
Farey pair.
Lemma 8.2.
Let
and
gi
endpoints each form
be
gi
a Farey
endpoints of g\\
indexing so that p[qi - piq[ =
\342\200\224
and
then
be the
But this is
the
satisfy
any
ideal
fact
e PSL2(Z)
\317\206
with
endpoints
22. an(j
that
~ ^2^2 -
by
00. Let
meet each other,
have
opposite
by Lemma
signs.
8.1, they must

\316\240
\302\2611\302\267
geodesicg whose endpointsform a Farey

T. Indeed, the tiles of the
and their interiors consequently cannot
geodesic. Therefore, g
to g' by Lemma 8.2.
T, and must be equal

This shows that
Ea
denned
0 and
and g'
the
choose
we
tessellation
the
triangles,
complete
if
disjoint.
map
If g
<p(g2)-
the
that a
an edgeof
\316\244
are
the
ip(g) so that
relation ^2^2
8.2 shows
pair must be
contain
of
incompatible with
Farey
Lemma
tessellation
endpoints
meet
must
4>{g')
+1,
ane
~h and
and
\317\210-
the geodesic
g to
\342\200\224
sends
\317\210{\316\266)
1\316\271\317\212^+1'
are
and #2
whose
of H2
geodesies
Then gi
pair.
If the
Proof.
distinct
two
must
meet
an
edge g'
of
the
of the tessellation \316\244
are
the
exactly
edges
U {00}
form a Farey
geodesies of H2 whose endpointsin \316\234
the tessellation 7 coincides with
the
Farey
pair. As a consequence,
In
this
that
the
is
tessellation.
tessellation
particular,
proves
Farey
indeed a tessellation,something
that
we had taken for granted so far.
complete
If
and
Horocircles
8.3.
\316\234
\302\243
U {\320\276\321\201}
is a
\316\276
recall
\320\241
=
\316\227
and
from
to M.
line
circle packing
Farey
point at
that a
\320\2302
\320\241
where
{\316\276}
tangent
horizontal
6.8
Section
the
infinity
of
horocircle
\320\241
is
the
hyperbolic
centered at
We
had
torus
In particular,
when
encountered
of Section
Coo, C_i, Co, C\\
\316\276
in H2.
contained
already
curve
circle passing through

=
a horocircle is just
\316\276 oo,
a euclidean
Note that since linear and antilinear

fractional
H2
of
to
to circles, every
sends
horocircle
isometry
punctured
plane H2,
is a
\316\276
5.5. For
centered
at
maps
send
circles
horocircle.
horocircles when analyzing the

used horocircles
o, we indeed
to cut out
00, \342\200\2241,
0, 1, respectively,
a given
8.3. Horocircles
and the Fareycirclepacking
215
oc
El
. 1
j \316\271
(
8.9.
Figure
pieces
value
be equal
\320\276
to
\316\233
hyperbolic
respect
\317\206^1
'HI2
set of four
the
the
tiles
the
by
under the
centered at
with
\317\206{\316\247)
eQU
when
they
when
their
centers
are the
identify
this
family
to combine the
contained
in PSL2(Z).
Lemma
centered
8.3. Considerthe horocircle

at oc. For every
\302\243
\317\206
PSL2(Z)
of
lemma
C^
of
happens
exactly
tessellation
the
Farey
pair.
the
with
upper
with
Farey
half-space
hyperbolic
to the
of horocircles
following
this
that
ends of an edge
with
horocirclesmeet only
of these
and
intersection
their
at
{oc}\302\267 Looking
centers form a Farey

The family of these horocircles,combined
tessellation T, is illustrated
in Figure 8.10 for the
in
8.11 for the disk model B2 for the
Figure
To
= \320\241
\317\210\316\257(\316\237\317\202)
\317\202/
the hyperbolic plane

horocircles
of
all
horocircles,
family
T, namely, when their
it suffices
sensethat
of these four
images
tile, it is immediate that two

are tangent to each other,
a given
\342\200\224
\317\210\\,
\317\2102 \317\206^1,\302\245>\320\267,
\316\250\316\261
tessellate
as we
the
\302\243
\316\223,
\317\210
Indeed, we
packing.
=
maps
gluing
\302\243
\316\223
form
\317\206
transformations
points
circle
Farey
horocircles, in the
\342\200\224
\316\276'\342\226\240
Therefore,
\317\206\316\257(\316\276)
whenever
with horocircles
square
from the
horocirclesarc tangent
This is the secretbehind
observedin Section5.5that
this
&
hyperbolic squareX. If we take the

in Section
to 1 (which was not allowed
5.5), these
to each
other. Sec Figure 8.9.
Uq, U\\
U-i,
\320\270\320\266,
\320\225\321\217
Farcy
the
{z e
the form
H2, and
plane.
circle
packing,
fact that
\316\223
is
1}
\320\2352,1\321\202(,\320\263)
8. The Farey tessellationand
216
with
Cs,
a, b, c, d
\342\200\224
{f},
where
\316\226
and
\316\266
packing
is equal
to
I, the image \317\210(0\316\277\316\277)
to
euclidean circle of diameter
tangent
^
ad\342\200\224
be
Cs, is the
circle
at*.
Figure 8.10. The
8.11. The
Figure
disk model B2
Farey
Farey
tessellation
circle
packing
and circle packing
and tessellation
in
the
Proof.
and since it
to horocircle
horocircle
sends
\317\206
Since
issue is to compute the
\", the only
217
the Farey tessellation
8.4. Shearing
(euclidean)
can be easily checked by decomposing

horizontal translations, homotheties and inversions
Cs.. This
as
\317\210
oo to
sends
circle
the
of
diameter
a composition
in Lemma
as
of
2.12.
8.4.
now
We
Shearing
and
5.5
Sections
the partial tessellationsassociatedto
is
property is the
The key
tori.
punctured
following.
\316\234
a triple of distinct points \316\276\316\271,
\316\225
U {\316\277\316\277}
\316\2762,
\302\243\320\267
there
distinct
points \316\276[,\316\276'2,
triple of
{\320\276\321\201},
êlU
a unique isometry \317\210
the
each
sending
of
hyperbolic plane (H2, dhyp)
Given
8.4.
Lemma
and
plane.
hyperbolic
8.4.1. Revisiting
incomplete
of
associated tessellationsor partial
and their
6.7.2,
the
of
tessellations
and incomplete punctured tori
the complete
revisit
such
another
to the
\316\276\316\271
corresponding
that
point
of
each
at
Also,
such
any
the
that
first
a unique horocircle Ci centered at

at
are
tangent to each other and meet
Cj
to
hyperbolic
geodesic going from \316\276\316\271
\302\243j.
is
there
\302\243;,
two
Ci
complete
The
Proof.
fact
\316\276[.
&
and
a simplealgebraiccomputation,
part is
every isometry
of
the
plane
hyperbolic
the
using
linear or
is a
an-
Exercise 2.9. Observethat

is
\317\206
orientation-preserving,
namely, it is linear fractional, preciselywhen
and
have the same
(\316\257\316\271-\316\2572)(6-\316\2573)(\316\2573-\317\211
(ii-U)(U-ft)(i3-ii)
is
when
one
of
these
equal to oo).
sign (suitably interpreted
points
fractional
tilinear
To prove
restrict
the
map;
compare
second
statement,
to
attention
one
specific
the
first
example,
part
oo. The result then follows

geometric considerations. CompareFigure8.9.
the
points
are 0,
A consequence
has a
centeredat
other.
1 and
of Lemma
preferred basepoint,
its
endpoints
8.4 is that
namely,
and
the
from
every edgeof
point
that
shows
such as the
elementary
\316\240
an
ideal
where the two
singled out by Lemma
we can
case where
triangle
horocircles
8.4 touch
each
The
the
gluing
E\\
edge
1 by the
0 to
from
going
ideal square X
from the
obtained
and oo by
tori constructed in
punctured
hyperbolic
were
6.7.2
circle
Farey tessellation and
8. The
218
going from
packing
Sections 5.5 and

\342\200\224
vertices
with
oo to
\342\200\224
1 to
1,
0,
the edge E2
map
\316\275 z+1
\316\266
+ a
and
by
In the
edge E3 going
the
by
map
we considered,
2 and the
that
case
so that
going
=
\320\276
b =
in Section 5.5, the constantswere

construction provided a complete
torus.
punctured
the
along
along its diagonal Ooo, namely,
oo. This gives two ideal triangles, one with
and another one with
vertices
0, 1 and oo.
the square X
from
0 to
going
Split
geodesic
\342\200\224
vertices
1, 0,
8.4
ApplyingLemma
each of
the
When a
send
exactly
oo,
to these two
of X,
edges
i e
1 +
\320\240\320\267
E3 and
P4
2, the
a base point on
triangles now provides
= \342\200\224
1 + i e \320\225\320\263,
P2 = \\ + ^ \316\225
E2,
namely, \320\240\320\263
= 8.9.
e
+
i\302\2434.
Compare
Figure
|
\\
gluing maps
the
by
generated
group
tiling
by
and
E\\\342\200\224*
E2
\317\210\\\302\267.
base point to base point.
late the hyperbolicplane

the
edge E\\
\342\200\224
1
first
chosen
from 1 to oo to the
the
gluing
0 to
from
images
is
This
of X
the
and
\317\210\316\271
\317\2103,
\342\200\224>
\316\225\302\2673
E4
\317\2063:
when
why
we tessel-
under the elementsof

fit nicely
horocircles
together, as in Figure 8.10.

is not
this
However,
to the
geometric
interpretation
of
of
and
\317\210\316\271
\317\2103.First
maps defined by
In
the
horocircles
of
P2 =
edge
so in the general case. We

and
b occurring
constants \320\276
all, recall the definition
now
give
in the
of
the
definition
other
gluing
and
\317\2062 \316\250\316\2201
\317\206\316\221
\317\206^1.
E\\
is the
\317\2102(\316\247)
the
\317\2062(\316\2252),
image
base
=
point
determined
+ i(a
\317\2062(\316\2412)\342\200\2241
\342\200\224
of
1)
by the
the base
point
base
the hyperbolic distance from
this
particular,
^.
\342\200\224
=
i
point to the base point \316\241\317\2071 + determined
by the horocircles of
as seen from the interior
X is equal
to |log(o - 1)|. More
precisely,
\342\200\224
of
is at signed
distance S] = \342\200\224
\316\247,\317\2062(\316\2412)
1) to the left of
log(o
is to the
as
when
the
where
we
count
the
distance
point
Pi,
negative
right.
In
8.4. Shearing the
219
tessellation
Eîrey
S&ai
Figure 8.12. Horocirclearcsin
point
determinedby
the
we see
\316\271
\317\206\316\271
\317\2102\316\271
determinedby
P2
the
S\\
is
If wc
symmetric.
of
the
\317\2062(\316\247),
base
of the \"outside\"
left of the base point
horocircles
to
the
\317\2102(\316\247).
situation
as seen
that,
signed
to the
edgeE2
of X,
interior
the
from
is at
\317\210\316\271(\316\247)
distance
the
to
s\\
by
\317\210\316\271
(\316\225\316\271)
the base point

left of the base
by X.
determined
by
of
geometric
Similarly, on the
determined
signed distance
horocircles
the
Transporting
point
by
\317\2102(\316\2252)
is also at
polygon
=
\316\225\317\207
on
6.7.2
of Section
tessellation
the
Note that this signed distance convention

look at the edge E\\ = \317\2062(\316\2252)
from
the interior
marked
\320\240\320\263
fSXi
-1
edgeE3
base
the
\317\206\316\221(\316\225\316\271),
point
s3 =
distance
is at
\316\250\316\261(\316\247)
signed
log(6-
1)
\316\250\316\261{\316\241\316\261)
from
the
base
as seen from the interior

determined by the horocircles
of X
of X.
the
base point \321\203>\320\267(\320\240\320\267)
is to the
Also, on the edge E4 = \302\245>\320\267(\302\243?\320\267),
left of the base point
seen
X.
from inside
P4 as
we
have
the
on each edge of the partial
same
situation
Actually,
tessellation
of the hyperbolic plane associatedto the square
X
and
point P3
to the
gluing
and
\317\210\316\271
^3.
maps
element
or \317\206(\316\225\316\266)
for some
\317\210(\316\225\316\271)
by
and
and
\317\210\316\271
\317\2063,
associated
\317\210(\316\247)
base
and
to
separates
another
the
such edge
of
\317\206
the
polygons
\320\223.
\302\243
As
\302\267\317\210
seen
\316\225
is
tiling
of the
group
from
\317\210(\316\247)
from
determinedby
This
\317\206(\316\247).
our
by \317\210
\317\210(\316\247)
analysis
of
form
=
\316\225
\316\223
generated
the
inside
determined by \321\204(\320\245)
is at signed
distance si if
=
\316\225
if
to
left of the
distance
S3
signed
\317\206(\316\2253), the
point
at
Each
polygon
the
\317\210(\316\247),
~
\316\225
\317\206(\316\225\316\271),
base point
follows
by transporting to
immediately
the partial tessellation near X.
8. The
220
Farey
circle
and
tessellation
This is illustrated in Figure 8.12 in the casewhere

and S3 = \342\200\224
1.
this figure to Figures 8.9 and
Compare
6.12
and
6.16.
Figures
In
corresponds
to
=
\302\253i S3
one
Actually
tile
every
particular,
of this
goes
from
\316\244
associated
\316\244
to
TSl S3 by
progressively
left
the edges,
the
and by a
to
\316\244\316\2621\316\2623
case where
torus).
s\\ or
or
0.25
and
8.10,
sliding all the
along
signeddistanceof
to whether the edgeconsideredis associatedto E\\
We say that TSlS3is obtainedby shearing
group.
shear parameters Si and .S3.
the
si
partial tessellation
to
tessellation
0 (and corresponding to a completepunctured
of the
a tile
packing
tiles to
S3 according
E3 by
the
tiling
to the
7 according
8.4.2.
the Farey tessellation. We can generalize
the
Shearing
the
above construction by introducing an additional edge, namely,
X
to
00.
of
formed
the
This
0
diagonal
by
geodesic
geodesicjoining
X into two ideal triangles: the triangle
T4
with
vertices
0, 1
splits
oc. Given an
and 00; and the triangle
T~
0 and
vertices
with
\342\200\2241,
additional shear parameter
S5, we can then deform X by slidingT~
of S5 to the left of T+. Namely, we can replace
\302\2435
by a distance
along
\320\275->
T~ by its image under the hyperbolic isometry \316\266
c~Sr,z.
00
\317\204-
\317\204+
1,
\316\225,
\320\225\320\252
~-\\
fk\\
\320\224\320\273
8.13
Figure
The corresponding new

any more) is illustrated
Starting
with
in
this
a partial tessellationof
\320\225\321\212
\316\271
1 \316\271
hyperbolic
Figure
quadrilateral
the case where
(not
a square
S5 =
\342\200\224.25.
quadrilateral, we can then construct

hyperbolic
plane as before, using shear
sheared
the
8.13 in
8.4. Shearing the Farey

si and
parameters
the
new
S3. In practice,one begins

X
quadrilateral
\342\200\224>
E4 denned
E3
\317\2063:
221
tessellation
the
using
by
gluing
the sides
gluing
of
\342\200\224> and
E\\
E2
\317\206\316\271:
maps
by
,
u
'
+ l
eS5z
\321\207
es^z+ e~Si+1
and
\316\226~\316\233
\316\262-**
\316\216
\316\275
\317\2063(\316\266)
'
-z + e1* +
These
are
formulas
gluing
easily
using
maps,
considerthe partial
to
these
associated
edgegluings.
illustrates
8.14
Figure
from the formulas for

c-Sl
+1 and b
obtained
the fact that
One can then
=
\320\276
Proof.
maps
form
This
We
and
use
-> E3,
\316\225\316\273
\317\210\317\207\\
the
Farey
only
1.
plane
and
\342\200\2240.75
the tiling group \320\223

generated
by
whole hyperbolic plane \320\2502exactly
under
the
Poincare's
Polygon
->
\316\2253
\317\2103:
E4,
6.25 asserts
if the
original
e\"3 +
tessellation
Theorem 6.25. The
E2
\317\2062:
that the quotient
composition map
gluing
-\302\273
-\302\273
and
\320\225\320\263
\316\2254
E2
\317\2064-
an edge cycle around the ideal vertex

data.
is the only edge cycle in the gluing
Theorem
if
will
Figure 8.14. Shearing

8.5. The imagesof X
the gluing maps \317\210\316\271
and
is
\317\206$
when Si + S3 + S5 = 0.
the
hyperbolic
where sx = 0.25,S3
Lemma
of the
tessellation
the case
-e-85
\342\200\224
00 = {00,1,0,
e-\"5}.
space (X, dx) is complete
\316\277 \316\277 \316\277 is

\317\2064 \317\2062 \317\2103 \317\2061
horocyclic
at
oo.
Farey tessellationand circlepacking
8. The
222
that
Remembering
</?2
an
\316\250\316\261
\320\243\320\267\"1!immediate
and
\316\250\317\2121
yields
computation
= c2\302\253i-+
\316\277 \316\277 \316\277
^\320\267+\320\263^
+ \316\271
+ eS3
\316\250\316\261
\317\2102\317\2063\316\250\316\271
(\316\266)
e-\"3+Sl
horocyclic if and only if Si + S3 + S5 = 0.

If si + S3 + S5 = 0, Theorem 6.25 guarantees that the quotient
is complete.
Then Theorem 6.1 shows that
the
space (\316\247,\316\254\317\207)
images
H2. Note that X has no finite
of X under \316\223
that
tessellate
so
vertex,
the completeness of the quotient
the
that
is
we
space
only hypothesis
In
this map is
particular,
have to checkwhen
6.1.
Theorem
applying
H2.
tessellate
Conversely, suppose that the images of X under \316\223
Theorem 7.12 shows that
is isometric
to the quotient
(\316\247,\316\254\317\207)
7.6 implies
(H2/r.(Jr) of H2 under the action of \316\223,and Exercise
The
of
that (\316\2272/\316\223,
is
converse
Theorem
6.25 now
part
complete.
dr)
proves that si + S3 + S5 must be equal to 0. (We could also have used
Then,
the analysis of
Section
6.7.2.)
In Chapter 10, we will generalize

in addition to shearing, bending into
we need to considerthe 3-dimensional
introduce
in
next
the
Exercise8.1.
third
by allowing,
For this,
we
which
space,
dimension.
hyperbolic
chapter.
for Chapter
Exercises
construction
this
endpoints of an edge of the

Farey
?, ^ g Q
edge separates two tiles of the
tessellation which are ideal triangles with respective vertices (at infinity)
|,
=
= \317\206 (abandonning the convention
and
with
\317\206 and
\302\24377
\302\24377
2jT
| ^
^7
| ^
all fractions
that
have positive denominator, by keeping
numerators
and
denominators coprime), where \317\206
denotes
the Farey sum.
tessellation
Exercise 8.2.
vertices
\342\200\224
1,
0, 1,
show
Rigorously
are
Consider
that
\320\270
{oo},
the
hyperbolic
00. In Section
8.4, we
if the
this
square
split
X of Figure 8.9, with

the geodesic Oooto
it along
and applying Lemma 8.4 to these two triangles

ideal
triangles,
us with base points
on each of the edges of X. Compute the base
that
one would have obtained if we had instead split X along the
points
other diagonal of the square, namely,
the hyperbolic
along
geodesic going
1 to \342\200\2241.
from
obtain
provided
two
for
Exercises
Exercise 8.3 (The
223
Chapter
For every N > 0. consider

is
such that 0 < q < N.
|
are only finitely many such rational numbers between any
two
we
order
all
list
as
can
these
and
them
rationals
integers,
numbers
all
Property).
Farey
rational
Sincethere
denominator
whose
consecutive
\342\200\242\342\200\242\342\200\242<fi=i<fi<r\302\261i<\302\267\302\267\302\267
with
a. Show that
then
if
|g\"|
b.
every
^\302\261\302\243.
<
Eli
that
p'q
\316\265
<
If
\316\225
^ P+P'
\302\243
=
Prove by induction on N that

that
any
series form a Farey pair, namely
G Z. Hint: Use part a.
every \320\263
that
Show
that
2i
any
and 5,-1
+pi-i-i
+qn-1
8.4 (Pythagoreantriples). A
(a, 6, c) of
three
that
and
q' > 0,
equality
then
f\302\261\302\243,
terms
two consecutive
integers
coprime
a, 6,
not
axe
in
the
\342\200\224
= 1 for
\316\241\302\273?\302\273+\316\271
pi+iqi
be the circleof
triple
such that a2
Pythagorean
\316\226
coprime).
necessarily
Pythagorean
\321\201
> 0
instance, (1,0,1) and (3,4,5) are well-known

one.
(387, 884,965) is probably a lessfamiliar
Let S1
< ^j
consecutive terms of the Farey seriesare such

^ =
that
î\"1^<Tl for every i G
Exercise
a.
1 and g,
pq'
\302\243lri
\302\243ixi
\302\251
namely
pi_i
(although
three
\342\200\224
=
f < f^
<
f^
Farey
c.
bi-infinite
This
coprime.
N.
G Q with
^7
Hint:
\302\243
are
5\302\273
of order
are such
G Q
_J^
and
p\302\273
series
Farey
| and jjr
q + q' for
only for
holds
0 and
qi >
where
\320\263
G Z,
sequence is called the
is a triple
= c2. For
triples, while
b2
K2. Show
correspondence
between Pythagoreantriples (a, b, c) and rational points of S1 located
first quadrant,
in the
namely, points (x,y) G S1 whose coordinates x,
are rational
and nonnegative.
\321\203
that
the
map
b. Considerour
(H2,dhyp)
point J
\321\201
Conversely,
that
radius
\316\246:
b,c)
(\316\261,
usual
1 and
center (0,0)
isometry
the
in
= \342\200\224from
\316\246(\316\266) fizf
the upper
disk model (B2,dB2). Show

that
\316\246
sends
of S1 in the first
\316\240
to a rational point
[0,1]
to the
G
plane
a one-to-one
1\342\200\224> defines
(\302\247,
\302\243)
for
(x,y) G S1 with x,
rational number
is a
\320\244~1(\321\205,\321\203)
rational
\321\203
in
the
and
interval
half-space
each
rational
quadrant.
nonnegative,
[0,1].
show
\316\277
As a consequence, the composition\316\246-1
a one-to-one
\316\246
provides
and all Pythagorean
rational
numbers in the interval
[0,1]
=
=
Iriples. For instance,\316\246_1\316\277\316\246(^)
(387,884,965).
(3,4, 5), and \316\250-1\316\277\316\246(^)
correspondence
between
Farey tessellation and circlepacking
8. The
224
8.15.
Figure
Traveling
in
the
tessellation
Farey
Farey tessellation). Consider a Farey

can
be
vertices |, E*P7,
S ^ 0. This triangle
of
connected to the base triangle
vertices 0, 1, oo by a sequence
To with
= \316\244
each \316\244\316\257+\316\271
that
in such a way
T\342\200\236_
Farey triangles To, \316\244\316\271,
\316\2232,
...,
1, T\342\200\236
to \316\244\316\257
As one enters \316\244\316\257
from
is adjacent
and
that the \316\244\316\257
are all distinct.
there
are exactly two
to backtrack
to \316\244\316\257_
\316\271,
Ti_i, since we are not allowed
which
are respectively
to the left or to the right of
possibilities for \316\244\316\257_\316\271,
Exercise
Ti as
...,
8.5
\316\244
with
triangle
seen from
Tn -i,
in the
(Travelling
nonnegative
\316\244
can
sequence of
be described
above
The
\316\223,_\316\271.
=
Tn
therefore
Farey triangles To, \316\244\316\212,

T2,
by
of symbols
a sequence
each Si is the symbol L if 7\316\257+\316\271

is to the left of T\302\273,
and
S1S2 \342\226\240..
Sn, where
of \316\223,.
Si is the symbol R if it is to the right
To is
By convention,
is the
consideredto have
been entered through
the edge Ooo, so that
Si = L if 7\316\212
is the triangle
triangle 12oo, and Si = R if \316\244\316\212
0|l.
\316\244
For instance, Figure
the case of the triangle
with
8.15
illustrates
=
and
vertices
associated
the
to
S1S2S3S4S5S6
symbol
sequence
^f, \320\251- |,
LLRLRL. (The vertex \320\251is not labeled due to lack of space.)
consider
Finally,
=
\316\273
(\317\214
\\)
matrices
the
and
\317\201
...
(\\
and
\302\260),
let
the
be associated
matrix \317\203
to the symbol sequenceS1S2 Sn by the property
= \317\203\\\317\2032
= \317\201
= \316\273
\342\226\240
\342\226\240
that \317\203
where
when
when
Si = L and to \317\203,
\317\203\316\267
\317\203,
Si = R.
read from the
the vertices 2
Show
that
can be directly
^ of \316\223
^\316\206,
matrix \317\203,
by the property
n. It may also be convenient
fractional
that
map
sends
\317\210\\
that
~
\317\203
to
\317\206\342\200\236
(\316\266) ^\320\231 associated
To to
the
triangle
(p, p).
Hints: Proof
by
induction
12oo
oil.
Exercise 8.6 (The

continuedfraction
is an
Farey
tesseUation
expression of the
on
as in Exercise 2.12, the linear

to the matrix a\342\200\224
(\\ bd), and note
and that <pp sends
To to the triangle
consider,
and continued
form
fractions).
for
Exercises
225
Chapter
. . .
\316\2372,
[\316\237\316\271,
, On]
=
\316\261\317\212
\316\227
1
+
\316\2612
\316\223
\302\267+\342\200\224.
For
f and [2,1,1,1,1] = \317\210.With the notation of

sequence S1S2 ...Sn as LmiRniL\"12Rn*...
where
Lmi denotes m, > 0 copiesof the symbol
L, and similarly
n\302\273
> 0 copies of R.
instance,
LmkRnk,
\320\257\"'
denotes
Show
[2,1,1,1]
Exercise 8.5, write
the
symbol
that
= [mi,
\316\240\316\271,
m2, n2,...,
mk,nk]
and
*r =
the
using
on
conventions
that
[mi,ni,m2,ra2,... ,nk-i,mk],
=
= 0 and 0+00 = 00. Hint:
5 00, ^
Induction
k.
Exercise
8.7 (Domino diagrams). In the
diagram
!\302\267\342\200\224\342\226\272\302\267\342\200\224\342\226\272\302\267\342\200\224\342\226\272\302\267\342\200\224\342\226\272\30
\\
\\
(8.1)
\\
\\
2\302\267\342\200\224+\302\267\342\200\224>\302\267\342\200\224+\302\267\342\200\224+\302\267\342\200\224+\302\267\342\200\224+\30
for i, j G {1,2},
the paths that jump from bullet
to bullet
by
on the left to
go from the bullet marked \320\263
following the arrows, and that
the bullet
let riij be the number of such paths. For
marked
j on the right;
from
instanceone relatively
the
easily sees that among the paths starting
bullet marked 2 on the left, three of them end at the bullet
marked
1 while
= 3 and \320\23722
= 5. A
(ive of them end at the bullet marked 2, so that
\320\23721
= 8 and \320\23712
= 13.
little more perseverance shows that
\320\237\321\206
consider,
The above
l.ypes of
\"dominos\",
diagram can also be
describedby
chaining
together
two
namely
\\
\342\200\242
\302\267
\342\200\224+
and
/
\302\267
\342\200\224+
\302\267
If we denote the domino on the left by L and the domino on the right
by R,
l.he above diagram correspondsto the chain LLRLRL.
Comparing with the
=
that \302\24311
8.5, we may find it surprising
example discussedin Exercise
f,
.Hid 2ia = \317\210.Namely,

described
in the Farey tessellation, the path
by the
211 ( \321\210\320\264
siime symbol LLRLRLleadsto the ideal triangle \316\244
with
vertices
(
\"\302\273+\"\". We
is no coincidence.
iitid
this
want to show that
n21+n22
The
8.
226
Farey
and circle packing
tessellation
each
Si is L or R, consider
sequence S1S2 . -- Sn, where
obtained by chaining together the dorninos
L and R
\342\226\240
- Sny as
\342\226\240
be also the matrix associated to S1S2
associated to the Si. Let \317\203
exercise.
in Exercise 8.5. We will use the notation of that
a symbol
Given
the
a.
domino
Write
diagram
=
\317\203
^2)
(*jj
- - \302\267
Show
\317\203\316\271\317\2032
\317\203\316\267.
=
\316\206\316\261^
\317\203*
(\"(i)
^s21
*\")
S22
that
Remember
')\302\267
=
\317\203
that
... _
J1)J2) J3)
>)
\302\273l,<2,--,\302\253n-l6{l,2}
It
may
b. In our
be useful
case,
L or \320\257.
Show
c. In the domino
d.
e.
to
first
do
that
a few
(J
each term
diagram
examples
with
n.
small
to whether the symbol Si is

according
\302\267
is equal
to 0 or 1.
sL s,-?LsinL \302\267
\302\267
s*
\342\226\240>
\342\226\240
\342\226\240
associated to S1S2\342\226\240
Sn, label each bullet on
\302\260
=
\317\203,\342\226\240
({ ) or
\\)
I.
the top row by 2 and each bullet
on the lower row by
Show that
. = 1 if and only\" if there is a *path in the domino
... Si' \342\200\224
\320\265\320\271
Sill
s)\320\2631\320\2632
{\342\200\236
1 *n
\320\2630\320\2631
\320\263\320\277
*2*3
the fcth bullet is labeled
for each fc=l,2)...,n+l)
where,
diagram
byifc-i \342\202\254{1,2}.
of paths from \320\263
to j in
Conclude
that stj is equal to the number
ny
the domino diagram.
Let
\316\244
be
as in
S\342\200\236
\"11+\"12\"
\"21+\320\23722
the Farey
Exercise
triangle associated to the symbol

8.5. Show that the vertices of
sequence
\316\223
are
S1S2
211,
' ^
\302\25321n22
\342\226\240\342\226\24
and
Chapter
3-dimensional
The
space
hyperbolic
dimension higher, to the 3-dimensional

with
space
space is defined in completeanalogy
hyperbolic
plane. Most of the proofs are identical to those that
used in dimension 2.
already
We
now
to one
jump
This
H3.
hyperbolic
9.1. The hyperbolic

The
of
3-dimensional
the
upper
with
metric spaceconsisting
{(x,y,u)\342\202\254R3;u>0},
the hyperbolic
\320\270
for the last
number
If 7 is
is the
space
half-space
using the letter

complex
we
space
hyperbolic
H3 =
endowed
the
metric
e?hyp
coordinate
below.
defined
in order
Here we
to reserve \316\266
for
are
the
= \317\207
\316\266
+ \\y.
a piecewise differentiable
curve
in H3
parametrized
by the
vector-valued function
a^t^b,
\316\257\316\227\302\273(\317\212(\316\257),\316\271/(\316\257),!\316\220(\316\257)),
its hyperbolic
length is
dt.
4\320\243\320\240(7)
W)
227
hyperbolic
228
9.1. The
Figure
The
distance
hyperbolic
Q)
dhyP(P,
The
proof
that
proof
= inf
2, the
from
\320\273/\320\2602
+ 1?
H3
then
\316\241
to
defined as
Q}
space is identical
hyperbolic plane
hyperbolic norm of
=
\320\2303
\316\241
is
\342\202\254
\321\203,
(\317\207,
\320\270)
||#||euc
H3 is
\342\202\254
a metric
for the
to the
Lemma
in
a vector
\317\213
based
2.1.
at
as
defined
1
-
\321\2012
is
the
ll^llhyp
where
is
(\320\2353,\320\265?\321\214\321\203\321\200)
As in dimension
the point
\316\241
to
7 goes
{4\321\203\321\200\320\253;
statement
same
the
of
from
space
hyperbolic
space
\"\"\320\237\320\265\320\271\321\201
\320\270
usual
euclidean
norm of
=
\316\275
b, \321\201).
(\320\276,
The
H3
hyperbolic
\342\200\224>
H3,
which
space admits
are immediate
isometries
;
several \"obvious\"
\317\206
extensions of their 2-dimensional
counterparts.
These
include
the
\317\210(\317\207,
\321\203,
u)
for
xo,
\342\202\254
\320\263/\320\276
R, and
translations
horizontal
=
(x +
for
> 0.
\316\273
+ \316\257/\316\277,
x0, \321\203
\320\270)
the homotheties
ip(x,y,u) =
defined by
(Xx,Xy,Xu)
The
9.1.
A
not
but
new,
u-axis,defined
cos
\321\203,
\317\210(\317\207,
\320\270) (\317\207
by
R.
\316\270
\342\202\254
3-dimensional
analogue of the
the inversion across the unit
the
Finally,
unit
circle is
map
R3
\317\206:
U {00}
, =
/
W,V>U)
-> R3 U
defined
{00}
(
+
\\^\317\2072
Lemma
and
if
the
of
differential
As a
based at
a vector
which
\317\206,
is
consequence,\317\206
an
the
proof
circle is
an
of Lemma
of
isometry
Consider the
vertical
to itself.
unit
sphere,
under
\316\214\317\201\317\210(\316\275)
image
is such
\317\206(\316\241),
that
of (H3,dhyp).
identical
computation,
to the
across
inversion
one used
the
plane.
hyperbolic
unit
half-plane
II
the
u2
y2 +
across the
its
vector based at
2.3 to show that the

the
H3
the inversion
isometry
Proof. This is an immediate
\317\2072
+
half-space
\316\241
\316\266
\316\2343,then
is a
is
This
\320\270
>
U2< \317\2072
+ y2 + u2
\342\200\224*
9.1. If \317\206:\316\2343
H3
is
\316\275
is
sphere.
\320\243
y2 +
the
across
inversion
by
This inversion clearly sendsthe upper
in
of the
consists
\342\200\224
\317\207
\316\270
sin \316\270,
sin \316\270
cos \316\270,
+ \321\203
\321\203
\320\270)
for
type of symmetry
very different,
around the
rotations
229
space
hyperbolic
\342\202\254
R3;u
{(\317\207,\316\237,\317\205)
> 0}
\320\241
\316\2273.
half-plane has a natural

H2.
For this identification,
hyperbolic plane
of
the 3-dimensional
a
curve
\316\2273
is the same
in // \320\241
hyperbolic
length
as the 2-dimensional hyperboliclength
of a curve
in H2, The same
of
a
holds for the hyperbolic
norm
at
vector
\316\275
to \316\227
tangent
|M|hyp
letter
the
lleplacing
with
identification
\320\270
by
the
letter
y, this
the
\316\241
\320\257
\320\2353.
\342\202\254
\320\241
We
can
therefore
identify the
with
\320\257\321\201!3, endowed
half-plane
is the infimum
l.o Q
joining
I. he
in
hyperbolic plane (H2,dhyp)

the metric
of the hyperboliclengths of
H. Theorem 9.4 below, which
identifies
is just
\316\241
to Q in H3, shows that \320\260\321\206
hyperbolic
metric
dhyp
of
H3.
d# for
all
which
curves
the
to
the
\320\260\320\275(\320\240,
Q)
that
shortest
the restriction
join \316\241
curves
to
\316\227
of
3-dimensional hyperbolic space
9. The
230
Theorem9.2.
The
isotropic.Namely,
=
with
\\\\v\\\\hyp
that
exists an
there
H2
plane
w
\316\275,
\316\241,
to
translations
the unit
across
so that
H3,
the desired
to
joining \316\241
the
in
\320\266-axis,
This
w.
these
factors
an isometry
H3
\317\210:
half-
half-plane.
sends
isometry
\316\241
is a
and
homotheties,
Extending
plane.
to
space
hyperbolic
the inversions by
extend to isome\342\200\224>
H3 which
has
that
in the
curve
is complete.
(H3,dhyp)
of Theorem
hyperbolic
from
is contained in the
Q that
The proof
to
shortest
The
and centered
result in
the
in
curves
Theorem9.4.
Proof.
the
sphere, all of
extends
\317\206
The
Shortest
both
to that
both tangent
to
map sends \316\275
Proof. The proof is identical
\316\241
and
Q are
\316\241
and
properties.
Theorem 9.3.
9.2.
w are
along
circle
unit
the
across
tries of
\316\275
and
whose differential
inversions
that
translations
H3), we can
exists
there
composition of
of
isometry \317\206
iSatQ
such
(H3,dhyp)
every
the hyperbolic plane H2 is isotropic

H2
which
an isometry \317\206:H2 \342\200\224>
because
Q and
inversions
that
\320\241
and
\316\2273,
Then,
\316\241
and
Q by suitable horizontal
are isometrics
of
(which
and
of generality
loss
(Proposition
2.20),
the point
vS.
\316\243>\316\241\317\210(\316\275)
and rotations about the it-axis
assumewithout
and
is homogeneous
(H3,dhyp)
\317\213
at
Q and
\317\210{\316\241)
Modifying
vector
every
||^||hyp,
Proof.
space
hyperbolic
for
on the xy-plane
is identical to the
\316\241
to
6.10.
\316\240
space
H3 is
\342\202\254
the circle
vertical circlepassing
(possiblya vertical
one we
used
to prove
arc
through
line).
the same
Theorem
2.7. Namely, first consider
line
as in Lemma 2.4.
on the same vertical
Then, for the general case, use a suitable compositionof horizontal,
homotheties
and inversions to send \316\241
and
translations,
Q to the same
vertical line, and then use the previous
case.
We leave the details as
the
dimension
case where
an exercise.
2,
\316\241
and
namely,
Q lie
of the
Isometries
9.3.
9.3. Isometries of the

To
of the
isometries
all
list
hyperbolicspace
hyperbolic spaceH3, it
xy-pla,neto the complexplane C, in
identify the
9.5. Every linear or
Lemma
continuously
{\320\276\321\201}
to H3
restriction
Proof.
By
231
space
hyperbolic
antilinear
is
of
map
fractional
to a map \317\206:\316\2273
extends
U
is an isometry of (H3, dhyp)\302\267
manner.
usual
the
to
convenient
= \320\241
U
\320\241
\342\200\224>
whose
H3 U \320\241
\320\241
\342\200\224>
is
\320\241
\320\241
map
2.12, the linear or antilinear
\317\206:
of translations, rotations, homotheties, and inversions
unit circle. We observed that
all of these
factors extend to
Lemma
a composition
the
across
of H3UC
transformations
continuous
inducing isometries
of (H3,dhyp)\302\267
D
the extension \317\206\316\277\316\257\317\210

provided
by the proof of Lemma 9.5
as a composition
on the choice of the decomposition
of \317\206
A priori,
depend
might
of translations, rotations,
circle. To show that this
the unit
across
homotheties, and inversions
is not the case, we use a simple geometric
observation.
The inversion
9.6.
Lemma
centered on
a vertical
the
to
xy-plane
across the unit sphere

a sphere centeredon the
sends
any sphere
xy-plane,
possibly
plane.
Proof. The
and
inversion
the
sphere
S are
both symmetric
with
to the
around the line joining
the
\320\236
origin
the 2from
S.
The
follows
sphere
property consequently
dimensional fact that the inversion
the unit circle is an isometry
across
of H2
and therefore
sends a circle centeredon the \320\266-axis to another
\342\226\241
circle centered on the \320\266-axis (possibly
a vertical
line).
center
the
of
9.7.
Lemma
map
rotations
to
respect
y>:
The extension
\342\200\224>
\320\241
\320\241
provided
H3
\317\210:
by the proof
of the linear or antilinear

Lemma
9.5 is independent
of
of
\342\200\224>
H3
choices.
Proof.
If
that
pick three
\316\241
\342\202\254
H3,
arbitrarily
spheres Si,
on
the
xy-plane,
passing
\316\241
is
the
only point
of the intersection \320\2303

\320\237
Si
centered
;ire of
course
many
spheres
like
through
this.
P,
and
S2 and
sufficiently
\320\237
S2 \320\237
S3.
S3
generic
There
9. The
232
The
sends
C3. By Proposition2.18,\317\206
Cj, C2,
circles
S'3
on the
centered
C2, C3.
xy-plane
9.6
Lemma
By
the extensionof
must
\317\206
a consequence,
As
\302\2433.
unique spheres S[,

this
intersect
which
\302\273S2,
along C[,
xy-plaae
obvious) statements for

z-axis and homotheties,
send
the sphere Si to S[, 52 to S'2 and S3
is the unique
point of the intersection
\317\206(\316\241)
and
rotations
translations,
there exist
Then
in C.
\320\241'\321\212
\320\241(,C2,
horizontal
to
in three
\320\241
circles
xy-plane
the circles \320\241\321\214
to
\320\2413
C2,
the
intersect
5\320\267
52,
Si,
spheres
3-dimcnsional hyperbolic space
similar (and
about the
In particular,
is independent
of the decomposition of
\317\206(\316\241)
of translations, rotations, homotheties, and inversions
used in the proof of Lemma 9.5.
as
\317\210
a composition
was
that
linear or antuinear fractional

continuous extension \317\206:tfuC
9.8.
Theorem
Every
a unique
\320\241
has
proved the
We just
Conversely,let
a linear or antilinear
H3 coincides with
Since
another
is
\321\204
complete
isometry
every
Conversely,
Proof.
is an isometry of
to H3
restriction
an
(H3,
an
isometry
fractional
map
be
\317\210
of
\342\200\224>
\320\241
\317\210:
map
whose
\342\200\224>
tfuC
dhyP)\302\267
o/(H3,dhyp)
existenceof
is obtained in
(H3,dhyP)\302\267
We
isometric
whose
\317\210
way.
in Lemma
extension
the
this
want
9.5.
to find
extension
to
\317\210.
it sends the oriented geodesicOoc

isometry,
of H3, going from
\320\241.
\342\202\254
zi to \320\2632
By
to
geodesic
linear fractional map \317\206

0 to Z\\ and
sending
\320\276
the
isometric
extension to H3,
isometry \321\204
\317\210~\316\271
now
sends
the oriented geodesic Oooto itself.
\316\277
if necessary,
we can therefore assume
Replacing \317\206
by \317\206
\317\210~\316\273
the geodesic
loss
of generality.
that
sends
Ooo to itself, without
\317\206
if
we
with
a
can
even assume
Composing \317\206
homothety
necessary,
that it fixes some point
of this
is
an
it
Since \317\206
isometry,
geodesic.
now fixes every point of the geodesic
Ooo.
there
elementaryalgebra,
00 to
is a
If \317\210
is its
\320\263\320\263.
Let g be
half-plane
complete
a completegeodesic
contained
in
the
vertical
euclidean
is a
some point Pq. Then,\321\204(\320\264)
H2
is
the
of
all
Note
that
union
geodesic passing through Pq.
\320\2302
H3
\320\241
and
complete geodesiesthat
crossing
meet
both
Ooo at
Ooo and
g\342\200\224
{Pq}-
Therefore,
\321\204(\320\250?)
of the
Isometrics
9.3.
isthe union
and
of all
consequently
Composing
\321\204(\320\264).
can
therefore
In particular,
classification
Ooo
containing
around Ooo if
a rotation
necessary, we
that
\317\210(\316\211?)K2.
to an
restricts
now
\317\206
of (H2,
isometries
of
vertical euclidean half-plane
with
\317\206
assume
\342\200\224
Oooand \317\210{\316\261)
{\316\250(\316\241\316\277)},
geodesies meeting
complete
is the
and
233
space
hyperbolic
2.11, there
Theorem
in
dhyp)
isometry of H2. By
the
consequently
fractional
with
exists a linear or antilinear
real coefficients,
map
\317\210,
\316\277
coincides
whose isometric extension \317\206
with \302\267\317\206\316\277\316\267\316\2342.
Then,
\317\210
\317\206-1is
of
H3
which
H2.
a hyperbolic
fixes
of
The
same
every point
isometry
\316\277
as in the proof of Lemma 2.10then shows
that
argument
\317\210\317\206-1is
H2.
either
the identity map or the euclideanreflection
across
shows
is possible
given linear or
an
not very
In
linear
H3
\317\210:
of
We
\342\200\224\342\226\272
H3 U \320\241),
is
\320\241
reference,
9.9.
the restriction
denotea linear
associated
or
are
will
say
an
that
made up
of (H3, dhyP)
isometry
isometric
the
\342\200\224+
H3 is
H3
\317\206:
which,
although
incorrect (sincethe actual extensionis

short-hand
a convenient
here the
we indicate
Let Bdhyp(Po,r)
terminology.
and Bdhyp(Po,r) be
each
Endow
of the hyperbolic metric
property.
following
of these
rfhyp\302\267
Then
unique
extension
with
balls
two
balls
two
every
just
follow the
lines of
the
proof
the
with
isometry
to an isometry
\316\2273.
We
anti-
isometry
hyperbolic
\342\200\224>
has
a
\320\222\320\260\320\254\321\203\320\240(\320\240\320\276>\320\263)
\317\210:
Bdhyp(Po,r)
Proof.
of a
expressions
continuous map ^:H3UCî3UC
same radius r > 0 in (H3,dhyp).
-*
\316\2273
\317\210:
these
the same letter to
\342\200\224>
of \317\210:
\320\241
to
\320\241
For future
Lemma
map
\342\200\224>the
\320\241
\320\241,
\317\210:
sensu mathematically
U
extension
the
for
\316\271\342\200\224>
\316\266
\320\276\320\263\320\263\320\270
to
^\302\261^
^jj^
See Excercise9.2.However,
we will use
two maps.
extension
H3
\317\206:
fractional
illuminating.
general,
stricto
dhyp)
or antilinear
linear
some
extension is unique.
that the
antilinear
fractional map
-> H3, and the
these
of
\317\206
to provide explicitformulas
of H3.
isometry
of (H3,
isometry
every
\317\210.
9.7
Lemma
that
extension
isometric
the
with
fractional map
It
the proof
concludes
This
coincides
of Theorem
9.8.
hyperbolic
234
everything
Transporting
can assume
Ooo.
the
by
Then,
of
\320\260\320\273
isometry
by
of
loss
without
that
generality
used
arguments
the
in
with
we can progressivelycompose\317\206
various
reduce
the problem to the case where
to
then sends the intersection
of
Bdhyp(Po,r)
sends
then
H2
\316\240
Bdhyp(Po,r)
itself,
fixes every
this
is immediate
extension
9.4.
9.4.1.
a
case
that
notice
isometry
of the
send each geodesic

D
it must
\320\276
hyperbolic
plane
in
the
hyperbolic
sphere centered
euclidean plane. In particular,
is that of the hyperbolic plane
with
H3
of
a vertical
with
or
of
itself, and
every point of
Ooo to
with
A hyperbolic
intersection //
xy-plaxve
special
once we
planes.
Hyperbolic
on the
Pq
9.8,
of (H3, dhyp)
to Pq, and
planes and horospheres
Hyperbolic
space H3 is the
sends
\317\206
itself.
Pq to
from
emanating
of Theorem
extensionto a global
map) of H3 is immediate.Theuniqueness
the identity
(namely,
proof
isometries
of the
the existence
point,
on the geodesic
point of Bdhyp(Po,r).
and
then
\320\237\320\250\320\240,
\320\222<1\321\212\321\203\320\240(\320\240\320\276,\320\263)
At
we
H3 if necessary,
Pq is
and then fixes
to
space
plane
a euclidean
\316\2273.
\320\2302
\320\241
9.10.
Proposition
to hyperbolic
plane
plane.
Proof. The property holds

for
rotations around vertical
axes,
on the xy-plane (including

Lemma
2.12,
which
that
homotheties,
across spheres centered
by Lemma 9.6 and
translations,
inversions
planes)
then follows from
result
prove
of this
transformations
horizontal
and
vertical
The
observations.
elementary
of (H3,dhyp) sends hyperbolic
isometry
Every
every
isometry
and
\316\2273
is
\316\227
\320\241
9.4.2.
the
image
a;i/-plane
with
H3
\320\241
\316\2343
at
\320\241
and
compositionof
of
horizontal
checks that every hyperbolicplane
under an isometry of
(H3,
dhyp)\302\267
is the
centered at \316\266
G \320\241
is tangent
to the
euclidean sphere S which
A
above
this
and
lies
horosphere
\316\266,
xy-plane.
A horosphere
Horospheres.
intersection
of H2
9.8
one easily
homotheties,
is a
type.
Conversely,using an appropriatecomposition
translations
Theorem
of a
for
Exercises
Figure 9.2. A
centered at the point
235
Chapter
\321\201\320\276
is just
\320\257
and
plane
hyperbolic
a horizontal
inH3.
Proposition 9.11.
isometry
Every
a horosphere
euclidean plane contained
of (H3, dhyp)
sends horosphere to
horosphere.
Proof.
As
in
9.6, the
Lemma
a horosphere
inversion
respects
send
\320\241Therefore,
Since
spheresto horospheres.
horizontal
the result
translations,
inversion across the
to a sphere,which
homotheties
immediately
follows
must
unit
be tangent
sphere
to
\320\241
since
must
the
the standard
inversion sends horothe same
clearly holds for
property
and rotations around vertical axes,
from Theorem 9.8 and Lemma 2.12.
D
9.1
(Dihedral
angles). A (hyperbolic) dihedron isthe region
which is delimited by two hyperbolic
half planes \316\240\316\271
and
\316\2402
meeting
where
a hyperbolic
along a complete geodesicg = \316\240\316\271
half-plane is one
\316\2231\316\2402,
of the two regions of a hyperbolic plane delimited
geodesic. If
by a complete
\316\241
is a point of this
let
be
the
Up
plane which
geodesic
g,
unique
hyperbolic
is orthogonal
to g at P. Then, D \316\267
Up is a angular sector in Up delimited
from P.
issued
and
Up \316\240
\316\240\316\271
Up \316\240
\320\251
by the two semi-infinite
geodesies
of
Show that the angle of this angular sector D \316\240
is independent
at \316\241
Up
the choice of \316\241
\302\243
Possible
hint:
Use
an
of
\320\264.
isometry (H3,dhyp) sending g
to the geodesic going
from
0 to 00.
Exercise
of H3
This angle is the dihedral angle of

will play
angles
10.
polyhedra in Chapter
Dihedral
an
important
the
role
D along its edge g.

we consider hyperbolic
dihedron
when
3-dimensional hyperbolic space
9. The
236
Exercise9.2
a.
az + ^
\316\271\\ _
~ (
+
\317\210[\316\226'\316\267'
c{cz +
b. Give
\316\266
\320\241
and
\302\243
the
take
then
\320\270
>
0.
+ d\\2 +
\\cz
a composition
as
\317\210
and inversions, and

factors.
these
extension of the
the isometric
for
\\cu\\2)
Decompose
of the isometric extensionsof
formula
\\
homotheties
composition
antilinear
map
\317\206(\316\266)
jjfif.
B3 =
be the open unit
B3, parametrized
as
Hint:
\\cu\\2)'
rotations,
9.3 (The ball model for
Exercise
given by
\320\270
+ d\\2 +
d){\\cz
with
^^,
\317\206(\316\266)
R is
\320\241
\321\205
translations,
similar
fractional
map
|cu|2
VcT+d
for every
of horizontal
isometries).
fractional
R3
\320\241
isometry of \320\2303
1, to an
be
of the linear
the extension
that
Show
ad
for hyperbolic
formulas
(Explicit
{(x,y,
in R3.
ball
t 1-+
by
the
x2 +
\302\243
R3;
u)
For every
y2
+ u2
< 1}
a ^
(x(t),y(t),u(t)),
Let
space).
hyperbolic
b, define
curve
7 in
its B3-length
b
4\320\267(7)
from
the
infimum
\316\241
to
Q in
a. Let \316\246:
R3
is
over
taken
\342\200\224>
R3 be
that
all
the inversion
at the
point
half-space E3 toB3.
Show
\316\241
to
B3
\302\243
be
goesfrom
\316\241
to
Q},
differentiable
piecewise
curves
going
B3.
-y/2 centered
b.
\342\226\240
l-x(ty-y{ty-u{ty
= inf{43(7);7
dBz(P,Q)
where
2/J a
B3-distance from
let the
Finally,
y/x'{ty+y'{ty+u'{ty
the restriction
to (B3,dB3).
Possible
hint:
(0,0,-1).
across the euclideansphere of

Show
that
radius
it sends the upper
of \316\246
to H3 defines an isometry from
dhyp)
(\316\2273,
If if is a vector based at \316\241
\302\243
\320\2223,
compute
11^\321\204_1(^)11\321\214\321\203\321\200.
c.
d.
e.
S be a euclideanspherewhich
meets the unit sphere
orthogonally
S2 bounding
S respects B3, and
B3.
across
Show that the inversion
\317\201
restricts to an isometry
For \316\246
as in part a,
of (B3, dB3). Possible hint:
\316\277
it may
\316\277
be easier to prove that
of (H3, dhyp).
is an isometry
\316\246-1
\316\246
\317\201
Show that every composition of inversions
across
euclidean
spheres
Hint:
orthogonal to S2restricts to an isometry of (\320\2223,\320\271\320\262\320\267).
part \321\201
Let
is a composition
of
show that every isometry
of (\320\2223,\320\271\320\262\320\267)
inversions across euclideansphereswhich
meet S2. Hint:
orthogonally
First consider isometrieswhich
fix the origin O.
Conversely,
for Chapter 9
Exercises
circle which
euclidean
Hint:
every geodesic of (B3,dB3)
that
Show
f.
237
Use the isometry
of
\316\246
is
meets
orthogonally
a circle
the
arc contained
sphere S2
in
two
in
points.
b.
part
9.4. Let S = <S,dhyp(-Po>''\")

in
be a hyperbolic
sphere of radius \320\263
=
of
\316\241
those
\320\2303
such
that
r.
Endow
S
with
\342\202\254
H3, consisting
dhyp(P, Pq)
the metric ds for which
is the infimum
of the hyperbolic
lengths
ds(P,Q)
of all piecewise differentiable
\316\241
to Q in S. Show
curves
that
the
joining
metric space (S,ds) is isometricto (S2, (sinhr-)dsph)
where (sinhr-)dsph is
the metric on the standard euclidean
\302\2472
obtained
the
sphere
by multiplying
spherical metric dsPh by sinhr. Possible hint: It may be useful to consider
the ball model (\320\2223,
of Exercise
9.3, and hyperbolic spheres centeredat
\320\260\320\262\320\267)
\320\236
in this ball model.
the origin
Exercise
Exercise 9.5
Mobius
(The
The elementsof
sphere (including
euclidean
Lemma
of
across
reflections
transformations.
sends
\302\243
\320\234\320\267
every euclidean
\317\210
lines
(including
9.6, and
note
among
circles).
circle is the
every
that
euclidean
planes).
Show that
every
sphere to a euclidean
and every euclideancircle

Hint: Compare the
spheres),
among
planes
circle
R3 U
are
Mobius
\320\234\320\267
transformation
Mobius
be the
Mdbius group \320\234\320\267
inversions
all
{oo} generated by
Let the
group).
group of transformations of R3
across euclidean spheres (including
intersection of two
to
proof
circles.
Show that
if \317\210
is a Mobius
transformation and if
G \320\234\320\267
vectors based at the same point
the
\316\241\316\276\316\2313,
angle between
the vectors \316\214\317\201\317\210{\316\262)
and
is
to
the
\316\275
and
between
v}.
equal
angle
\316\214\317\201\317\210{\316\277)
In particular, isometries of (H3,dhyp)
are
in this sense.
angle-preserving,
Hint:
First
consider
the case of inversions.
9.6.
Exercise
\316\275
and
w are
Exercise 9.7 (A characterization

is to prove the converse of
of
homeomorphism
a.
Show
is a
sphere
Mobius
of K3
identification
= \320\241
\320\241
\317\207
\320\241
{0}
sends
which
R3
there
that
the usual
of Mobius transformations).
the statement of Exercise 9.5.
\320\241
\321\205
\320\241
R, \317\206(0)=
and
\320\241
\321\205
\320\250
such
\302\243
\320\234\320\267
\317\206
the
=
\317\206(0),\321\204(1)
standard
b.
\320\241
delimited
Set
\317\206
to the same
by R
Show
that
respects
C,
\320\276
\317\210
\321\204-1.
points 0,
1, oo,
and
delimited
by R
in
that
for
inclusions
=
<\317\201(\317\212),
\317\206(\316\277\316\277)
<\317\201(\316\277\317\214),
sends
\321\204
\321\204(\320\226)
<\321\200(\320\226),
\317\206(\316\2343),
\321\204(\320\241)
<\321\200(\320\241),
\321\204{\320\2503)
of
be
\317\210
to sphere.
transformation
with
The goal
Let
half-planeas \317\206.
each
half-plane
to sphere, fixes the

sphere
H3
and
each
of
the two half-planes
R,
sends
\317\206'
C.
m = ^{x + y) is uniquely
\302\243
R, the midpoint
x, \321\203
the
exists
two
circles Ci, C2 and two
fact
that
there
by
the following properties: The points m and \317\207
lines L\\, Li in \320\241
with
to C2; the lines L\\, la are each
to C\\\\ the points m, \321\203
belong
belong
tangent to both of C\\ and Ci\\ the three lines L\\, Li and R are disjoint.
\321\201
Show
that,
determined
for any
9. The 3-dimensionalhyperbolicspace
238
that
Conclude
a picture).
(Draw
of
is the
\317\210'(\317\204\316\267)
midpoint
and
\317\210
(\317\207)
v'(y).
d. Use part
pel
and
\316\267
N.
\302\243
that
Show
e.
=
for every integer
by induction on \\p\\, that \317\206'(\317\201)
\317\201
\316\226
induction
on n, that \317\210'{-^) = -%r for every \317\201
\302\243
= a; for
Conclude
that \317\210'{\317\207)
every i\302\243R,
\321\201
to show,
Then show,
sends
\317\210'
on R.
centered
lines
the
that
by
circle in
a circle
every
Such
Hint:
to
tangent
to
two points of
of the
circle
another
by the property
characterized
is
\320\241
each
\320\241
at
in R
center
\320\241
with
R
\320\241
\320\237
are
disjoint.
f. Use part e to show that

proof of Lemma 9.7.
g.
i.
that
Conclude
upper
isometry of
show
precisely
Let
9.8.
the
respects
be a
G \320\234\320\267
\317\206
Hint:
S at
sphere centered
\320\241.
the points of S \316\240
\320\241
to a
map of R3.
of
Hint:
Compare
sends
which
R3
to
sphere
Adapt
that
at the
R3, its jacobian
if \317\206:
HI3 \342\200\224>
that
H3 is the
in
restriction
the
that
the steps of Exercise 9.7; more

so that
we can take \321\204
it induces
the steps in parts b-i to concludethat
exercise,
follow
then
of R3 which
of \317\206
to H3 is an
transformation
Mobius
Show
a of that
in part
Remember
9.9.
H3.
half-space
an isometry of H3, and

Exercise
on
to
the
Compare
transformation.
(H3,dhyp).
that,
\320\241
Hint:
centered
tangent
homeomorphism
every
sphere is a Mobius
Exercise
of R3
planes
is the identity
g to show that \317\206'
of Lemma 9.7.
Use part
the proof
h.
at the
Look
Hint:
point of
every
each sphere
sends
\317\206'
that
Show
on C.
fixes
\317\206'
if
point
is a
\317\210
function of three variables valued

Show
determinant
detDpî.
the
\316\241
is
isometric extension of
linear
or
antilinear
\342\200\224>
\316\2273
fractional map \320\241
the jacobian
det Dp<p is positive at every \316\241
\302\243
\320\241,
\342\200\224>
for
an
for a linear fractional map \320\241
and
it is negative at every Pel3
\320\241,
an inversion, and remember
antilinear
fractional map. Hint:
First
consider
\316\277 =:
\316\277
\316\214\317\201\317\210.
(\317\206\317\210) \317\213\317\210(\317\201)\317\210
that
Dp
of
(H3,cihyp)
In
an
other
is
extension of a linear
of 3-dimensional
fractional
map
to an isometry
isometric extensionof
See our
map to H3 is orientation-reversing.
and the
orientation-preserving,
fractional
antilinear
discussion
words, the
orientation
in
Section
12.1.1.
9.10 (Classification of orientation-preserving isometriesof

the isometric
extension of a linear fractional
\342\200\224>
in addition that \317\206
\320\241
\320\241.
Assume
is not the identity map.
\317\206:
Exercise
Let
a.
\342\200\224>
\320\250\320\273
\320\2303
be
\317\206:
Show
that
\342\200\224>
fixes
\320\241
\320\241
\317\206:
exactly
one or
two
points
of
\320\241
\320\2303).
map
for
Exercises
b.
one point \316\266

let ^bea
\302\243
\320\241,
\316\277\316\277
Show that \317\206
translation; in other
\317\210\317\206-1is a horizontal
of
all
H3
horizontal
by
replaces
words,
transporting
points
\317\206
^bya
is said to be parabolic.
translation. In this case, \317\206
If
fixes
\317\210
\316\266
to
c.
only
oo.
case where
distinct points z\\ and zi of

z\\ to 0 and zi to oo. Show
\316\271\342\200\224>
\316\277
\320\276
a
\316\266
az with
a \302\243
\320\241
that
is
\317\210\317\206\321\204~1
homothety-rotation
{0}.
Conclude that
the complete
respects
hyperbolic geodesic g going
\317\206
from
of constant
z\\ to Z2, and acts on g by a translation
hyperbolic
is said to be elliptic if it fixes every
distance | log \\a\\ |. In this case, \317\210
point of g (namely, if \\a\\ = 1), and loxodromic otherwise.
the
consider
Now
C. Let
d.
239
Chapter
two
or loxodromic isometry
a parabolic
Show
that
point
of E3.
Show that the

geodesic in H3.
complete
Exercise 9.11
Let \317\206:
HI3
fixes
\317\210
be a
\321\204
of
(Classification
\342\200\224>
H3 be
fixes no
(H3,dhyp)
elliptic isometry form
fractional
antilinear
of H3).
isometries
orientation-reversing
map
=
\316\277
\317\206.
\317\2062 \317\210
a.
\342\200\224>
Show that \317\2062:
\320\241
is a linear fractional
\320\241
fixed point of \317\2101
to a fixed point of \317\2062.
b.
With
map, and
that
sends
\317\210
each
is parabolic
the terminology of Exercise 9.10, supposethat
\317\2102
and is not the identity.
Show that there existsa hyperbolic
isometry
\320\276
\316\277
such
of the euclidean
is the composition
reflection
that \321\204
\321\204
\317\210
\321\204~\320\263
the horizontal
across a vertical euclideanplane
with
translation along
a nonzero vectorparallel
that
\321\201
Suppose
fixes
\317\2062
z\\ and
both
fixes
\317\210
hyperbolic isometry
through
from
going
In
this
d. Supposethat
the
fixes
\317\2062
z\\
\317\210
exchanges
and
this
is orientation\317\206
case,
such
\321\204
that
zi
Show
\316\277\316\277
\317\206\317\210\317\206~'is
suppose that
exists a
of a
the composition
\302\243
C,
and
there
that
reflection
two points z\\,

exactly
zi (compare part a).
the
angle
\316\270
which
is
suppose
Pq
H3
\302\243
zi
\302\243
C,
and
suppose that
exists a
there
that
Show
of the
composition
the rotation
our it-axis) by
(namely,
\316\277
\316\277
is the
\317\206~\316\273
\317\210
\317\206
origin
of
0 with
\317\200.
In
this
case,
is
\317\210
elliptic.
Finally,
that
centered at the
passing through
not an integer multiple
a sphere
line
vertical
across
around
point
In
plane.
two points z\\,

exactly
zi (compare part a).
such
hyperbolic isometry \321\204
inversion
an
that
across a vertical euclideanplane passing

the point 0. Show that
the complete geodesic g
respects
\317\206
and
acts on g by a nontrivial
z\\ to \316\2262,
hyperbolic translation.
loxodromic.
a
is
case,
\317\210
with
homothety
to
parabolic.
reversing
e.
of
of an
points
extension of an
the isometric
its square
\342\200\224>
\320\241
\320\241.
Consider
\317\206:
fixed
that
is
\317\2062
the
which
is not
fixed
identity
by
map.
\317\210
(which
Choose an
must
arbitrary
exist since
is
\317\210
the
not
identity),
passing
and let
jbea
and
<p(Po).
Let
be
\317\206
going
from
0 to
Po
through
the vertical half-line

either
the inversion
g to
is
composition of the
across a
hyperbolic space
euclidean
an
geodesic
hyperbolic
complete
unique
of H3
isometry
oo. Show that
at 0 or the
centered
sphere
around
angle \317\200
is a hyperbolic
Then \317\210
reflection
elliptic in the
0.
in
the
case, and
case.
first
second
sending
\316\277\316\277
\317\210~\316\273
\317\206\317\210
a sphere centered at the

the vertical line passing
across
inversion
the rotation of
with
3-dimensional
The
9.
240
it
origin
through
is again
parabolic or loxodromic isometry

an orientation-reversing elliptic
that
point
one point of \316\2273,
and
that the fixed points of a
exactly
\320\2353.
\320\241
hyperbolic reflection form a hyperbolic plane \316\240
f. Show
an
that
of (H3, dhyp)
fixes
isometry
9.12
Exercise
space H3 =
fixes no
of H3,
volume). If D is
(Hyperbolic
{(x,y,u)
\302\243
let
> \320\236},
\320\2323;\320\270
volhyp(O)
Note
a.
that
-^dxdydue
///
may be
volume
this
infinite
if D
the
in
region
hyperbolic
volume be defined as
its hyperbolic
[0,oo].
is unbounded
H3.
in
the
horizontal translation, a rotation around
a
an
or
inversion
across
the unit sphere. Show that
it-axis,
homothety
=
area in Exercise 2.14,
volhyp(O). As for the hyperbolic
volhyp(^>(0))
of variables in triple
for changes
you
may need to remember the formula
Let
\342\200\224\342\226\272
\320\2303
\320\2303
be a
\317\206:
integrals.
b. Conclude
that
9.13
Exercise
of Exercise
model
a.
b.
\342\200\224\342\226\272
\320\2223
\316\2273
is an
\317\206:
arbitrary
that
Exercise
Show
that
fffD
the change
Remember
use a convenient
i?dhyp(P,
convenient
isometry
use
isometry from
to (H3,
\320\260\321\212\320\267)
(\320\2223,
dhyp).
of the choice of the
isometry
\317\206.
radius
the ball
ball is centered at the
origin
{1_x^8y2_z2)3d*dyd*.
of variable formula
for triple
integral,
and
\317\206.
Show that
9.14.
\320\2303
of
\320\241
\320\263)
to
dhyp)-
vol33(0)
Exercise
(H3,
volhyp(p(D)),
volume is independent
9.12.
this
Show
Hint:
Hint:
isometry of
(Hyperbolic volume in the ball model). Let B3 be the ball

of B3, define its hyperbolic volume as
9.3. If D is a region
volB3(D)
where
for every
=volhyp(0)
volhyp(^>(0))
the hyperbolic volume of
\320\263
is equal
to
hyperbolic
\342\200\224
2nr.
Hint:
\317\2008\316\220\316\2671\316\2712?-
It might
model B3, and to consider

O, as in Exercise 2.13a.
the
case
where
ball
be
the
10
Chapter
Kleinian
groups
is devoted
to kleinian groups, which
are certain
groups of
chapter
isometries of the hyperbolicspaceH3. We begin with an experimental
investigation, in Section 10.1,of the tiling groups that one obtains by
This
suitably bendingthe Farey

hyperbolic
and
H3.
space
properties
of Section 10.1by
l.hc
the
\320\241
which
natural
are
Crooked
of
the
hyperbolic
T+
fractional
/\\
with
In Section
tessellations.
Farey
Si, S3, S5SM
numbers
hl\302\253altriangle
triangleT~
at least
10.1.1.
real
to the examples
in some cases, that
return
then
experimentally observed correspondto real

facts.
a few surprising properties, such
This
includes
occurrence
of continuous curves in the Riemann
sphere
at very few points.
differentiable
10.1. Bending
associated to
develop the basic definitions
we had
phenomena
mathematical
us
proving,
rigorously
the 3-dimensional
into
tessellation
following sections
of kleinian groups. We
The
with
Si +
S3 +s5
plane H2, defined as follows.

with vertices 0, 1 and 00, and
\342\200\224
vertices
e-\"5,
0 and
00. We
We
8.4.2, we
= 0 a tessellation
started
with
the
the hyperbolic
also consideredthe linear
maps
es*z +
_w
-,,.-(e~Sl +1)^+1
241
\"
\302\245*(*)
z~\\
\"s5.
-,
over
as \317\210
ranges
\317\210{\316\244~)
\316\223
generated
by
and
\317\210\\
fractional maps of
all
e^
\320\265.5\320\263+1
+
of the
that
form
of the
triangles
all elements
\317\206$.Recall
(*)
\302\245>3
\342\200\224
\320\265^\320\267
+ \320\223
then consistedof
groups
\302\245>4(*)
The tessellation
or
Kleinian
10.
242
transformation
group
of all
\316\223
consists
\317\206(\316\244+)
the linear
form
the
\342\226\240
\316\277
\317\206-\317\210\316\257,\316\277
\317\206\316\2572 >4>ik
each
where
is
\317\206^
to
equal
or
\317\206\316\271,
\317\206\316\271,
\317\2063
standard
The
\317\206\302\261.
corresponded to the casewhere
tessellation
= s2
Si
= s3
Farey
= 0.
\316\2502(\316\244+)
T-
Vi(T
T+
\316\225\316\271
\320\225\321\212
\316\2253
E4
\316\225\316\271
&21\321\202\320\273.
H-e-s*\\
(\316\275\316\233\316\244-)\316\257
'
Figure 10.1
when
even
make
now
We
Si,
key observation that this
the
S3, s5
\320\241
are
\342\202\254
consider ideal triangles

in
Kit
Tool
the
when
\320\241
is
\342\202\254
the
in
be
the
oo\342\202\254C=
CU
0 to
00. See
1,
of the complexexponential
for the definition

number.
e*
a complex
triangles
{00},
be
\302\2433,
\302\2435
\302\2434,
\302\2432,
from
provided that we
space H3. See SectionT.4
numbers,
complex
hyperbolic
Indeed, given complex numbers

ideal
setup makessense
in
and
Figure 10.1.
.si, s3, s^
hyperbolic
\342\200\224
e~\"5,
0 and
edges, where
1 to \321\201\321\216,
from
\302\2434
their
from
\302\2433
the
space
oogC,
\302\2431
goes
0 to
let
\342\202\254
C,
H3
and
T+
vertices
with
\316\244
0, 1,;
respectively. Let E\\,

from
\342\200\224
e-\"5,
\342\200\224
e-\"5
and
to
from
\302\2435
\321\201\321\216,
Eq
0 toi
\342\226\240
10.1.
the
Bending
The linear fractional

which
denote
isometries
\320\223
of
family
\316\244
of
all
and
\342\200\224
\317\210\\{\316\266) e,5ezl^X\\+1
maps
<\321\200\320\267{\320\263)
of the
hyperbolic space (H3,dhyp),

same letter. We can then consider the group
on H3 that is generated by \317\206\316\271,
the
and
and
\317\206\302\261,
\317\2102,
\317\2103
ideal triangles \317\210^^) as \317\206
over all elements of
ranges
isometries
\320\265~\"\321\212
define
-\320\263+\321\221*\320\267+\\
we
243
tessellation
Farey
by the
\316\223.
Of
no
way
they
can
will
see that
geometric
objects.
we
the triangles \317\210^\316\223^)

are 2-dimensional,
the whole 3-dimensional space H3.
because
course,
cover
We
Farey
Figure 10.2.Side
10.1.2.
before
any further.
+ \302\2535=0 was
\342\226\240\321\207\320\267
better
behaved,
whole hyperbolicplaneH2.Forthe
and aesthetic), we will
with
S\\ + s3 + s5 = 0.
of the
view
In the
restrict
In particular,
our
of
\316\244
family
provided
reasons
same
attention
this
a
\317\210{\316\244^)
triangles
look at a
real case,the
it
However,
interesting
tessellation
Farey
Let us
as
the
is
in H3.
tessellation
examples.
Experimental
going
the
call
will
crooked
(2-dimensional)
lead to some very
these triangles still
there
situation
examples
s\\ +
of the
mathematical
where
a tessellation
(both
to complex
guarantees
few
that
s\\,
S3,
S5
\320\241
\342\202\254
the isometry
10. Kleinian groups
244
of
defined
H3
by
= \320\265281+28\320\267+28*\320\263
\302\260 \302\260 \302\260
+1
\316\2504\316\2502\316\2503\317\210\316\271(\316\266)
eS3+Sl
\320\2658\320\267+
\316\271
\316\271
\316\271
e2s3+si+s5
\320\265\302\253\320\267+\302\2731+\302\2735
e2s3+2si+s5
= z
+ 2+
2eS3+Sl
2eS3
Note that we already encountered

this
in Sections
element
of \320\223
5.5 and 6.7.2, where it
was usedto gluetogetherthe two sides of the vertical half-strip V.
of
is
\316\223
translation.
a horizontal
\316\277 \316\277 \316\277

\317\2104\317\2102\317\206\316\206
^
\316\277 \316\277 \320\276 is

Since \317\210\\
\317\2102\317\2063(^!
\316\244
is
invariant
under
an element of \320\223,
the
this horizontal translation.
crooked
tessellation
Indeed,it
sends
triangle
\316\277 \316\277 \316\277 \316\277

of \316\244
to \317\2104
is
which
\317\2062 \317\2063 \317\206\317\207
\317\206{\316\244^)
\317\206\316\266\316\244^),
triangle
of T.
First considerthe casewhere si

is no shearing or bending,and
there
tessellationin the hyperbolic
plane
= s$
we
= s^
just
= 0. In this
the
another
situation,
standard Farey
10.2 for a
Figure
get the
\320\2302
\320\2353.See
\320\241
3-dimensional view.
Figure
10.3.
The situation
away
s3
from
\320\270
0.15
Shearing and bending
the
becomesmore interesting if
0. Figure 10.3 represents the

+ 0.42i and s5 = 0.04
tessellation
Farey
we
slightly
casewhere
- 0.97i.
Here,
Si
we
a little
move the
s\302\273
j
\342\200\224
\320\270
0.19+0.55iJ
have
rotated
the!
10.1. Bending
so that
picture,
crooked Farey
\317\204-axis
the
in

the translation
\316\277 \316\277 \316\277 \302\243

which
\320\223,
\317\2104\317\2102\317\2103\317\210\316\273
tessellation \316\244
invariant,
standard
245
coordinate
to be
appears
frame for M3.
Note the bendingalongthe edgesgoingto \321\201\321\216.

The
bending
is
in the
a
to
but
results
little
harder
edges
see,
of the crooked tessellation as it approaches
the Riemann
the other
shape
C =
CU
bounding
{\321\201\320\276}
the
Figure 10.4.Shearing
much
hyperbolic
and
the
leaves
parallel to the
bending
along
wiggly
sphere
space H3.
the
Farey
tessellation
more
10.4 offers another

where
+ 1.4i,
si = \342\200\2240.5
s3 =
example
0.3
and s5 = 0.2. Note that
is no bending between T+
there
and
T~
because
is
real.
On
the
other
s$
hand, the picture clearly
more
intricate
which
is consistent
with the
than Figure 10.3,
appears
fact that Si and S3 are \"less real\" in this case, in the sensethat their
Figure
\342\200\224
1.4i
imaginary
parts
are
larger.
In both Figures10.3and 10.4, the ideal

crooked tessellation
triangles of the
complex
appear to draw a relatively
curve
in the sphere C = Cu {\321\201\321\216}
the hyperbolic
space H3.
bounding
More precisely,let us plot the vertices
For the
of all ideal triangles.
casesof Figures 10.2, 10.3 and 10.4, these \"footprints\"
of the crooked
L0.1.3.
Footprints.
10. Kleinian
246
tessellationin \320\241
are
in Figures
represented
groups
10.5, 10.6 and
10.7,
respectively.
The vertices of the
10.5.
Figure
(a boring
Figure
10.6. The vertices
Figure
10.7. The vertices of the
One can construct

\342\200\224
The picturesof
drawn
were
by Masaaki
pictures
complex
written
by
What
that
the
using
10.2
ideal triangles of Figure
ideal
triangles
in this
examples
Figures
10.5-10.8
(and
piece of
the wonderful
10.3
of Figure
is
very
clearly
side
apparent
appear to
of the
form
picture to
We cannot
way.
help
is particularly pretty.
Figure 11.2 in Chapter 11)
software
in Figures
a continuous
the
10.4
correspondingto Si =
developed
OPTi,
Wada [Wada]. Figures10.2-10.4

many
(and
in this book) were drawn using Mathematica\302\256
the author.
these footprints
left-hand
many
of the
in Figure 10.8,
example
\342\200\224
s\\ and
S3 =
S5 = 0, which
1.831 2.16355i,
of Figure
triangles
more
one
including
ideal
line)
straight
right-hand
other
programs
10.5, 10.6and
curve,
side,
and
10.7
is
going from
invariant
Figure
under a
continuous
curves
points.
as
we
seen
have
complex.
Then,
the
one
one observesthe
crookedtessellationand
that
crooked
limit
complete
suddenly,
tessellation
section
are
groups
examples
of
\316\223
the
in
whole
the
H3 and in
space
all
sphere C.
Riemann
and their limitsets
crooked
of kleinian
the
a while,
the pictures are getting more

chaos occurs: The triangles of
are everywhere
cover
S5 away
the
similar to the examples
set look very
so far, except that
S3 and
8\\,
For
phenomenon.
following
the
10.2. Kleinian groups

tiling
the parameters
moves
directions, and its footprints
The
example
closer inspection, the same

Upon
of the curve is much
10.8, where the intricacy
for
line
of
the
Except
straight
Figure 10.5,these
do not appear to have a very
well-defined
line
tangent
Experimentally,
from 0.
Another pretty
for Figure
more amazing.
at mast
10.8.
247
translation.
horizontal
holds
actually
limit sets
groups and their
Kleinian
10.2.
tessellations
groups, and the
of the
curves
previous
drawn
by
their
10. Kleinian
248
in
footprints
\320\241
are
kleinian
of these
orbit in
Pel3U
\320\223(\320\240\320\276)
(ln)neN
of
elements
of
and considerall
hyperbolic
there
for
\316\241
for
\316\246
7n(Po)
limit
points
point of the orbit

exists a sequence!
a limit
{\321\201\320\276}which
that
of the
isometries
precisely,
=
\316\241
M3 U
give,
is discontinuous.
Pq G H3,
such
\320\223
us
more
\316\267
and,
every
such that
importantly,
in
of
\320\223
on H3
U {\321\201\321\216}.
More
a point
is
group
a point
choose
M3
these kleinian groups. Let
concepts.
action
whose
Arbitrarily
of its
is a
group
space (H3,dhyp)
sets of
limit
the
the precise definition
groups
and
{\321\201\320\276}
lim 7\342\200\236(P0)
n\342\200\224*oo
euclidean
for the
lim
metric deiic.This means
that
= 0
deuc(P,7n(P0))
\\
n\342\200\224*<x>
\316\241
and
that
\321\201\320\276,
\317\206
when
lim
= +00
4uc(Pi,7n(Po))
n\342\200\224*oo
an
for
base point Pi when
arbitrary
=
\316\241
limit set of the kleinian group

in M3 U {00}.
of
the orbit \320\223(\320\2400)
points
The
Lemma 10.1. The limit

=
the Riemann sphere \320\241
and is independent
of the
set
\320\233\321\200
of a
00.
is
\316\223
Pq e
of all
\316\233\317\201
limit;
kleinian
group
the
U {\321\201\320\276}
\320\241
bounding
point
set
the
is
\320\223
contained
hyperbolic
in
space H3
H3 chosen.
;
i
Proof.
=
a point \316\241
since
all points
Clearly,
limit
point,
\316\2343
with
\320\265
\321\203,
\320\270)
(\317\207,
of the orbit
\320\270
<
0 cannot
\320\2303
have
\320\241
\320\223(\320\240\320\276)
be
positiveij
\316\220\316\257-coordinate.
Suppose
the
limit
(7n)neN
\320\270
a point
>
\320\265
\320\2303,with
0, is in]
(\317\207,\321\203,\320\270)
Then limn-*oodeuc(P,jn(Po)) = 0 for some sequence!
in \320\223
\316\241
for
n. A simple comparisons
with
every
\317\206
7n(Po)
=
\316\241
that
set.
and hyperbolic metrics, similar to the one used ati

we
proof of Theorem 6.10or to the estimatesthat
= 0 as]
use below in this proof, shows that
linin-ôo
dhyp(P,7n(Po))
are infinitely
well. In particular, for every \316\265,
there
many jn suchj
of
the
that
euclidean
the
end
of our
dhyP(P,7n(Po))
<
\316\265,
contradicting
our
hypothesis
that
\316\223
actsj
Kleinian
10.2.
can be
limit
point
To show
that
another
on the
to
third
point
coordinate
u' < eDun

From the
<
the
for
formula
for every
Then,
and
point P' =
7n(Po)>
As
g going from 7n(Po)
geodesic
is such that
eDdeuc(\302\243,7n(P0))
= eDdn.
length, we
hyperbolic
deuc(7n(-Po),7n(fo))
(\317\207,
j/,0)
=dhyP(Po,PO) =
a hyperbolicisometry.
of
\321\203',
(\320\266',
\320\270') the
every
i*s
7n(-Fo)i
notation.
since jn is
and
2.5,
for
point
< dhyp(7n(Po),7n(PO))
< 4yP(7n(Po),P')
Lemma
choice of base point,
be a
G \320\241
\316\276 \316\231\317\212\317\200\316\220\316\267-\317\207\317\207,
7n(Po)
geodesic g joining 7n(Po) to
hyperbolic
\342\200\224
consequence,
to
the
simplify
of the
\321\2031',
(\320\266',
u')
\321\201\321\216,
C.
=
so that
\320\276\321\201,
\316\276
\317\206
= (xn,yn,un),
=
dn
deuc(\302\243>7n(Po))
7n(P0)
dhyp(Po,Po)
Let
set
limit
the
the point
\320\223(\320\240\320\276).
consider
\320\241. Write
by
of
set
First
log
Pq G H3.
\342\200\224
\320\270
0 plus
of the
\316\233
is independent
\317\201
point
limit
y,
(x,
arguments shows that
u) e M3 with
set is contained in
the limit
that
namely,
consider
of these two
the set of
is contained in
noPei3
of the
combination
The
249
(compare Lemma 7.15). Therefore,

either.
orbit \316\223(\316\241\316\277)
on H3
discontinuously
limit sets
and their
groups
conclude that
<
< eDdn\302\243byp(g)
4\320\270\321\201\320\253
<
eDdndbyP('ln(Po),ln(Po))
êDdndhyp(P0,Pi)=eDdnD.
Since liirin-ôo
to 0 as \316\267
tends
dn
= 0,
to oo,
this proves that

so that
lim 7n(Jft
\316\267\342\200\224+oo
for
deuc. As
metric
the
orbit
dexiC
a consequence,\316\276
is also
argument
is similar when
\316\276 oo.
lim deuc(O,7n(P0))
the
lim
7n(P0)
n\342\200\224*oo
converges
\316\276
a limit point
of the
\316\223(\316\241\302\243).
The
for
7n(Po))
(7n(Po),
origin
=
\320\236
bound U, namely, if
(0,0,0).
un
<
If the
U for
Then
= oo
coordinates
every
ra,
then
the
un
admit
same
an
upper
argument
as
10. Kleinian groups
250
before
that
shows
<eDUD,
deuc(7\302\273(fi>),7\302\273(^))
by the
so that
Triangle Inequality,
> deuc(0)7n(fb))
<\316\234\316\270,7\302\273(\316\257\316\277))
-deuc(7n(Po),7n(i8))
^douc(0)7n(^))-eDi70
as
tends to oo
subsequence
that
such
(7nfc)fceN
of Lemma
application
that
\320\243'\320\237\320\272,
u'nk)
oo as
tends
to
\320\270\320\237\320\272
orbit
in
that
If
Proof.
picking for
is
that
complete
in
it
is
points
of this
limit set
the
sequence
If
in
Ap,
-ynk
^
(\316\241\316\262)
limit
point
of the
also
\320\223(\320\240\320\276)
a limit
deuc (O,
oo is a
of
is
have
point of
the
same
the
base
and
\316\223(\316\241\316\277)
\316\223(\316\241\317\214)
on the
depend
kleinian
set
limit
The
under
7 e
by every
respected
of
limit
\320\233\321\200
of a
invariant
is
and
choice of
orbit
of the
7n(Po)
close to \316\276\316\267,
we see that
of the
7n(Po)
statement
orbit
the
with
in the
is closed
group \320\223
on \320\241
in
the action of \320\223
\320\223.
of points
a sequence
the cases accordingto whether

is
7\316\267*(-\316\241\317\214)
sufficiently
proof
not
a point
\316\267
sequenceof
oo.
Therefore,
point
does
\316\233\317\201
that
is the
each
to oo.
it follows that
Riemann sphere C,
sense
unk
the third coordinate of
^ \320\270\320\237\320\272
\320\265~0,so that
\320\270'\320\237\320\272
every limit
\316\223(\316\241\317\214)\302\267
By symmetry,
the
cases.
\320\223(\320\240,5)both
Lemma 10.2.
lim*-,,\302\273
\320\272
tends
This proves that

limit points, so
point P0 e H3.
there is a
Then, another
Otherwise,
infinity.
2.5 shows that
is such
(x'nk.
to
tends
ra
of
e \320\233\320\263,
then,
\316\276\316\267
point Pq
the limit
is also
\302\243<,<,
the
base
(Exercise:
\316\223(\316\241\316\277).
appropriate
Write
e H3
of a
e's, and distinguish
or not.) As a consequence,
\302\243<,<,
holds for any such converging
\316\276 oo
Since
\316\233\317\201.
this
this proves that
the
limit
set
\320\233
is closed.
\320\263
of points 7n(-Po)of the

are
also in
converging
points 7 \316\277
\320\223(\320\2400)
7\316\267(\316\241\316\277)
As
a
and
to
of
\320\223(\320\240\320\276),
consequence,
converge
7.
continuity
j(\302\243)by
in the limit set \316\233\317\201.
this holds for every \316\276
and
Since
e \320\233
\320\263
7(\316\276)is also
D
this
is invariant
under the action of \320\223.
that \320\233\320\263
7 G \316\223,
proves
orbit
G \320\233\320\263
and
\316\276
7
consider
\320\223,
to
Then
\316\276.
a sequence
the
Kleinian
10.2.
The
set \316\233\317\201
is the
of Lemma 10.2.
smallest
Proposition 10.3. Let

least
has at
two
\320\232
be
Then
points.
Riemann sphere
which
\320\223
and
group
set Ap.
limit
the
conclusions
the
of a kleinian
\320\232
contains
cases,
degenerate
subset of the
a closed
under the action
is invariant
\320\241
which
that except in a few

subset of \320\241
satisfying
shows
result
following
the limit
251
limit sets
and their
groups
at least two points, there existsa complete

a base point Pq
whose endpoints are in \320\232
\320\241.
Pick
\320\241
Proof. Since\320\232has
g of H3
geodesic
on this geodesicg.
the limit set \316\233\317\201,
first
consider
is different
ball Bdeuc(\302\243,e)
the
euclidean
Then, for every \316\265,
of
the
contains
an element
orbit
with
G \316\223.In
7
T(Pq),
y(Po)
meets
this
Because
the
ball
particular,
geodesic
g is
7(5)
Bd,H<.(\342\202\254,\316\265).
also a euclidean semi-circleorthogonal
to M2 in M3, elementary
of 7(5)
euclidean
shows
that at least one of the endpoints
\316\276'
geometry
Note
is contained in Bde\342\200\236c(\302\243,e).
that
is in the subset K, since the
\316\276'
under
the
endpointsof g are in \320\232and since this set is invariant
is a
\316\276
If
of
action
point of
from oo.
for
\320\223.
Therefore,
we
\316\265,
every
\320\232
is
< \316\265\302\267
Since
êuc(\302\243,\302\243')
closed,
found
a point
this shows that
The argument is similar in the casewhere

of both
combination
cases proves that every point of
that
See Exercise10.1for an
the hypothesisthat \320\232
has
set
is the
\320\233\321\200
H3
whole
We claim that
by
for
\316\241
e
every
n.
the
Pq
also
\316\2337
belongs
to K,
quotient
By the
\320\223
is
(\320\2353/\320\223,
dhyp)
compact.
Then
so
D
10.3
of the
the limit
G H3.
there is a number
Indeed,
\316\2273/\316\223.
a sequence
induction,
that
kleinian group
Riemann sphere C.
by the
Proof. Picka base point

every
to K.
\342\200\224 The
\316\276 oo.
showing that in Proposition

two elements is necessary.
example
at least
Proposition 10.4. Suppose

space
\316\276
belongs
that
in K.
is contained
\320\233\321\200
hyperbolic
\320\232
such
\302\243
\316\276'
such
that
we would
otherwise
(Pn)neN in
such
\320\2353/\320\223
dbyP(P, Pq) < D for

be able to construct,
that
diiyp(Pn, Pq) ^ \316\267
there
compactness hypothesison \320\2353/\320\223,
exists
10. Kleinian
252
subsequence
_
lim
\342\200\224
Po) =
dhyp (Pnk,
k\342\200\224+oo
the
as
required.1
sequence
j
'
existenceof
constant
7.6,
ranges over all elementsof
exists a point j(Pq) of the
there
H3,
the distances
is
for every
\320\223.
Therefore,
that
orbit
such
\316\223(\316\241\316\277)
< D.
d(Pn(P0))
\\
a point
Given
of the
\316\276
given
apply
is at euclideandistance <
Lemma
are points of
distance
from
there
euclidean
limit set
For
\316\265
from
+ 1).
< e(eDD
l(Po))
êuc(^)
property to
This
\316\276.
any
a point j(Pq) G
as in the
estimates
this
shows
< eDeD,so that
small,
that
\302\2
we conclude
\\
small
at arbitrarily
which
are
\316\223(\316\241\316\277)
\316\276.
Namely,
oo, namely,
Pel3
which
point
provides
\316\265
sufficiently
Taking
the orbit
is not
\320\241
which
infinity
< -D\302\267
The
same
dhyp(-P,7(-Po))
10.1 then show that dew:(P, j(Pq))
such
that
\316\223(\316\241\316\277)
proof of
at
sphere
the above
e C,
\316\276
is
G \320\241
\316\276
in
\342\2
the
of \320\223.
\320\233\321\200
the
point
very
far
namely,
case,
previous
=
\320\236
from
orbit
the
euclidean
which
\320\223(\320\240\320\276)
are
Namely, oo is in
oo, pick
the
to z, again for
of
\316
Pq )
(\316\241<\317\207>,
dhyp
the infimum
of
\320\260\321\212\321\203\321\200(\320\240,\320\240\320\276)
By Proposition
as 7
7(Po))
that
\342\200\224
\342\200\224
This proves the
(Pn)neN-
dhyp(-P,
\316\241
G
P^, so that
the inequality of Exercise 1.4). But

this
would
\\
= \321\201\321\216
fact that \\\\\321\202\320\277-+00<1\321\212\321\203\321\202>{\320\240\320\237\320\272,\320\240\320\276)
by construction
j
the
contradict
of
:j
^
use
instance,
(for
to some
converging
(Pnk)keN
groups )
the
\316\266
e \320\250
that
point
for the
(0.0,0)
close to
euclidean metric.
oo, '
By the
:
points
metric.
It follows that there are points .
close to oo for the euclidean
metric.
;
which
contains
\320\223(\320\240\320\276)
arbitrarily
limit
set
is very
are very close
\342\226\241
\320\233\321\200.
First
10.3.
In
6,
Chapter
plane
H2
etry and
our
provided
discontinuously
tessellations
of various
examples
us
with
many
on
H2,
tessellations of
examples
arising
of groups
as the
tiling
groups
the
hyperbolic
acting by isom- ,
groups
of these
(Proposition 7.10 guarantees discontinuity). Let us see .

also lead to examples of kleinian
groups.
how
these
proof
If you have taken a course

that every continuous function
= d(P, Po).
f(P)
function
fuchsian
example:
rigorous
in
or topology, you may

analysis
on a compact space is bounded,
recognize here the \342\22

as applied to the :
10.3. First
rigorous example: fuchsian
An isometry
circleat
infinity
V(x)
of
\317\210
\320\250+l
of
= CU
first
in
and
case,
^1^
of
transformation
to an
extends
\320\241
uniquely
yields a
=
by
second case. This
map
1. Replacing
formula
\342\200\224>
\320\241
\320\241
defined
\317\206:
in the
antilinear
ad-bc=
above
the
{\321\201\321\216}
transformation
antilinear
the
a linear or
and
a,b,c,deR
ff+\320\221
extensionto the
determined by its
{oo}, which is
wi*11
ieRbyzeC
or
dhyp) is
(H2,
l=KU
253
groups
\317\206
(\316\266)
linear
in
|^
or antilinear
linear
isometry
\342\200\224+
\316\2273
of
\316\2273
\317\206:
(H3,dhyp).
Since
\342\200\224>
circle RcC,
\316\2273
its extension \317\206:
is
that
bounded
this
which
circle,
plane
by
the
\342\200\224\342\231\246
\320\241
\320\241
\317\206:
respects
the
\316\2273
respects
hyperbolic
is
H2
\320\270
> 0}
R2;
centered on \320\241
(in
then
case the
which
property
translation
a horizontal
a homothety,
\320\270
G \320\2322;
> 0}
0, \320\270)
{(\317\207,
the
\342\200\224\342\231\246
\316\2272
\316\2272.Indeed,
\317\210:
isometry
\342\200\224\342\231\246
\316\2273
\316\2273
to H2
\317\206:
of
restriction
The
{(re, u)
of
an
\316\2273.
\320\241
is exactly the original

is immediate when \317\206
is
inversion
across a circle
3-dimensional extension is the
with the same center and the sameradius), and

2.12
the general
case follows from these specialexamplessinceLemma
a decomposition
(or, more precisely, the proof of Lemma
2.9) provides
of every isometry
of H2 as a composition of homotheties,
translations
and inversions.
the
inversion across
In this
sphere
can
We
in the
For
2.5).
g meets
where
coordinates,
p(P)
also provides
<l{P) =
=
\316\241
hyperbolic
There
way.
following
H2.
=
is
Elementary
\302\261dhyP(P,p(P))
Figure
is a
+ u2) if
=
\316\241
This
(\317\207,
\321\203,
\320\270).
distance function q: H3
where
\302\261
is
the
sign
of the
construction
\342\200\224\342\231\246
R defined
y-coordinate
by
of
10.9.
is an isometry
10.5. If \317\206
of the hyperbolic
to an isometry of the hyperbolic
space
extension
natural
follows
(compare
is a unique complete geodesicg that
to H2; then p(P) is the point
orthogonal
shows
that in cartesian
geometry
(x, 0, yjy2
a signed
as
there
H3,
\316\241
and
See
\321\203,
(\317\207,
\320\270).
Lemma
Us
\316\241
G
through
passes
the
\342\200\224\342\231\246
\316\2272
defined
\317\201:\320\2303
orthogonalprojection
Exercise
of
\317\210
isometry
to the hyperbolic
give
extension
this
plane H2 has a
H3.
space
less algebraic and more geometric descriptionof
each
way,
extension
natural
plane
(\320\2502,\320\260^\321\203\321\200),
(H3, dhyp)
sends
10. Kleinian groups
254
Figure
the
H3
\316\241
G
point
distance
q(il>{P))
=
The orthogonal
10.9.
point of H3 that
from H2 as P, and
to the
q(P)
G \316\2272
\317\201(\317\210(\316\241))
\317\206(\317\201(\316\241)) image
Proof.
This
of
H3
to
\317\206
Let the group
10.6.
on
\320\223
under
of p(P)
the same
at
that
signed
to the point
projects
\317\206.
follows from the fact

immediately
is an isometry and respects each of
on the hyperbolic
action on the
of
is
\317\201
extension
the
that
two
the
hyperbolic
delimited by H2 in H3.
half-spaces
Lemma
projection
H3
plane
act
\316\223
and discontinuously
to an isometric
by isometries
Extend
this action
(\320\2352,\320\265?\321\214\321\203\321\200)\302\267
space
hyperbolic
as above.
(H3,dhyp)
Then,
action
the
is discontinuous.
Consider a point Pel3 and its projection

p(P) G H2. By
the
action
of
\320\223
H2
is
on
at p(P). This .
discontinuous
hypothesis,
means that there exists a small radius \316\265
> 0 such that there are only
for which
is in the ball Bdhyp (\317\201(\316\241),\316\265).
finitely
many
7 G \316\223
j(p(P))
Proof.
By
exists
In
other
of the
continuity
an
such
\316\267
words,
that
dhyP(p(P),p(Q))
the image
intheballBdhyp(p(P),e).
orthogonal projection
<
of the ball Bdhyp
p:
\316\265
whenever
under
(\316\241,
\316\264)
H3
\342\200\224>
H2,
dhyp(P,
there
Q) <
is contained
\317\201
'
\316\264.
example: fuchsiangroups
First rigorous
10.3.
If
is in
j(P)
Bdhyp(P,S),then p(j(p)) is in
shows that
Lemma 10.5
Bdhyp(p(P),e).
Therefore,
the ball
G Bdhyp(P,S)
only when
of \316\265,
this
occurs
only for finitely
This
proves
of
the action
that
p(-y(P))
bal1
the
-y(p(P)).
By
\316\212(\317\201(\316\241))
Bdhyp(\317\201(\316\241),\316\265).
7(P)
choice
255
7 G
many
is
\316\223
\316\223.
at every
discontinuous
\316\241
G
at3.
discontinuous
isometric
By Lemma 10.6, every
the hyperbolicplane
of
H2
extends
to a group \316\223
whose action is also discontinuous
on H3.
Namely,
a kleinian
group.
fuchsian
group.
kleinian
The limit set \320\233\320\263

of a fuchsian
circle l = Ru {00}.Indeed,
if
its orbit
group
\316\223
is
called
in the
contained
\320\223
is clearly
the base
in H2 so that
contained
is completely
\320\223(\320\240\320\276)
is
way
choose
we
action on
of H3
this group
in this
obtained
group
group
isometries
point Pq
its limit
in
H2,
points
be in R.
must
If the
is compact,
quotient space\320\2302/\320\223
to one dimension lower)
instance,this will occur

associatedto the gluing
of
the
of
examples
hyperbolic
The following
lemma
that
shows
Proposition
whole
is the
\320\233\320\263
10.4 (adapted
circle R. For
tiling group of a tessellation

bounded
polygon in H2, as in
edges
Section 6.5.
when
is
\320\223
the
of a
enables
us to
generalize this to more tiling
groups.
10.7.
Lemma
edge
data
gluing
images
In the hyperbolic plane

the conditions
satisfying
of X under the
gluing maps
element of
the
E2, let X
group
tiling
form a tessellation0/H2.
be
with
a polygon
of Theorem 6.1, so that

Suppose
\320\223
generated
in
addition
the
by the
that
touches the circle at infinity

R at only finitely
many
points
(possibly
\320\223
we
the
limit
set
is
extend
to
a
\320\233\320\263
Then,
none).
if
group,
fuchsian
to
the
whole
circle
R.
equal
Proof.
the
Let
prescribed
be the
(\316\247,\316\254\317\207)
gluings
on the
quotient
space obtained by
edges of X.
By
Theorem
performing
6.25,
we can
choose a horocircle\316\237\316\276
at each
of X so that whenever
;i gluing
In addition,
sends
it
to
also
sends
to
map
\316\276 \316\276',
by
\316\237\316\276>.
\316\237\316\276
be
small
that
chosen
(complement 6.24, these horocirclescan
enough
10. Kleinian
256
are
they
the only edges met
and that
disjoint
For
each ideal vertex
leading to \316\276.
the
horocircle
by
C!j.
Then the imagesof

union
\316\223
is the
group
horodisks
off
under
\316\222\316\276
point PQ e X, the complement
bounded
horodisk
infinitely
the
two edges
the
\316\237\316\276
the
of the
elements
all
of (usually
Also, the hypothesisthat

ideal vertices \316\276
implies
is left is bounded in H2. Namely,
at
what
X,
a family
are
by
be
\316\222
\316\276
in H3.
only
infinity
\316\247
\316\240
(L
\320\222
of
let
\316\276,
groups
tiling
disjoint
many)
the circle
touches
at
clip the \316\222\316\276

base
arbitrary
in a large ball
if we
that
an
for
\342\200\224
\316\222
is contained
\316\276
(J?
Bdb\342\200\236(Po,D).
The
Let
re
very similar to
is then
argument
of the
a point
\320\232
be
circle at
infinity
that
of
10.4.
Proposition
\316\234
which
from
is different
is at euclidcan distance < \316\265

from
of the horodisksof B, we can move it
\317\207
of \320\222
while
it at euclidean distance < \316\265
from
\320\222
out
keeping
(since
euclidean disks tangent to R). As a consequence,
consists
of disjoint
\316\241
we can always choose the point
outside
of B.
Since the images
the elements of \316\223
be
X
under
tessellate
there
exists 7 G \316\223
of
H2,
the
tile
\316\241
\316\241
is at hyperbolic
distance
such that
is in
y(X). Then,
as in the proofs
< D from the point y(Po) of the orbit \316\223(\316\241\316\277)
and,
of Lemma 10.1and Proposition
10.4, at euclidean distance < eDeD
it follows that the
from
this
\316\265
small,
point
sufficiently
7(^0)\302\267 Taking
are
at
orbit \316\223(\316\241\316\277)
contains
which
points
arbitrarily small euclidean
is contained
in the limit set
distancefrom x. In other words, \317\207
G \316\234
oo. Pick a point
x.
If
\316\241
G
to
\316\241
happens
which
H2
be in one
Ar.
For the
previous
for
the
case,
euclidean
are
arbitrarily
the
limit
set
from
far
very
namely,
a point \317\207
\320\232
which
is very close to 00,
\342\202\254
the origin \320\236
for the euclidean
metric. By the
are points of T{Pq)that
there
are very close to x, again
It follows that there are points of \320\223(\320\240\320\276)
metric.
that
metric.
close to 00 for the euclidean
Namely, 00 is in
\321\201\321\216,
pick
point
Ar.
According to a traditional
to be of the first type if
the
R; otherwise,
of
provide many examples
it
is
terminology,
its
limit
second
of fuchsian
a fuchsian
group is said
the whole circle

Lemma
10.7and
type.
set is
groups
of the
at
infinity
Chapter
first type.
10.4. Poincare's Polyhedron Theorem
257
include
of fuchsian groups of the secondtype
\320\275-> in
the
the
\316\266
inversion
\316\223\316\271
group
following:
generated
by
|,
which case the limit
set
is empty
is finite
with only two
(\316\223\316\271
\316\233\316\263\316\257
\320\275->
\316\266
\316\266
+ 1, for
generated
by the translation
elements); the group \316\2232
the
which \316\233\317\2012
of the single point \321\201\321\216;
consists
\320\2233
by
generated
group
= {0, \321\201\321\216}
\320\275->
l.he homothety \316\266
has
See
two elements.
2z, for which Ap3
Rxercise 10.11for a fuchsian group of the second type whose limit set
in not finite.
examples
Simple
(he
Fuchsian groups are convenient

of kleinian
examples
groups, but
not
because of their intrinsically 2-dimensionalnature.
very
exciting
Theresultsof the next section will enable us to construct more
interesting
examples.
Poincare's
L0.4.
Theorem
Polyhedron
is the natural generalization

Theorem
to three
Tessellation Theorem 6.1 and of Poincare's
It will enable us to construct tessellationsof the
6.25.
Polygon Theorem
space H3 by hyperbolic polyhedra, and will provide
many
hyperbolic
of kleinian groups.
examples
I
'oincare's
Polyhedron
dimensions
of the
10.4.1. Gluing the faces

line
do
polyhedra
this,
of
a hyperbolic
polyhedron.
We de-
3-dimensional hyperbolic space H3. In orderto

need to fix conventions
about
polygons.
in the
we first
A polygon
in H3 is a
subset F
of
hyperbolic
plane
\316\240
\320\2353
\320\241
finitely
many geodesies called its edges.
the hyperbolic
\316\240
is
isometric
Recall
that
to the standard
plane
the
hyperbolic plane
H2. Under any such isometry,
in \316\240
contained
polygon
Mien corresponds
to a polygon in H2, as defined in Section 4.5.1. As
in the case of H2, we require that
can only meet at their endedges
which
is delimited
in
\316\240
by
points, called vertices, and that each vertex is adjacent to exactly

l wo edges.
to be infinite
Some of these edges are allowed
and lead to
.1 point
\320\241
of the sphere at infinity
such a point is a vertex
U {00};
at infinity
vertex of the polygon. Also,
the
F
or an ideal
polygon
is required to contain all its edgesand vertices,
so that F is a closed
subset
ofH3.
10.
258
Kleinian
groups
space H3 is a region X in H3
called
its faces. By convention,
by finitely many polygons,
faces
can only meet along some of their
and vertices, and an
edges
is
to
As
for polygons, we require that
edge adjacent
exactly two faces.
a polygon
all of its edgesand vertices,
so that it is a closed
contains
A
the
in
polyhedron
hyperbolic
delimited
subset of
H3.
edges and vertices of

ideal
vertex
faces. \316\233\316\267
The
of
its
of
vertices
the
at
sphere
\320\241
which
infinity
polyhedron.Thereidealvertices
one is that of an ideal vertex
mon
a polyhedron are the edgesand

at infinity is a point
or vertex
two distinct faces of the
touches
can
be of two types. The most com-,
of a face, also corresponding to an
endpoint of an infinite edge. However, it is also possible for two faces

without
the endpoint
G \320\241
Fi and F2 to touch at a point \316\276
\316\276
being
of an edge; this happens when
and F2 touch \320\241
two circle
Fi
along
arcs that are tangent to each other at \316\276.
To avoid
unnecessary
we assume
that the polygon X approachesan idealvertex
complications,
from
one
\316\276
direction, in the sense that there exists a small eu-:
only
clideanball Bdeuc (\316\276,
in R3 such that the intersection \316\247
\316\240
\316\265)
Bdeuc (\316\276,
\316\265):
is connected.
now introduce face gluing

of polygons in Sections
We
the
case
faces of
the polyhedron X
{F2P-\\,
F2P}.
etry
\317\206-ik-i'-
bolic
metric
ip2k
be the
Let
\316\241
e X
we
Namely,
are
faces,
partition of
defined
element
the
by
\316\241
G
property
X containing
the
dx(P,Q)
differentiable
quotient
The
proof of
to prove:
\302\267
\302\267
\302\267
\320\276
\302\260
\302\260
<Pu
</?\320\263\320\272_,
(P),
where
infimum
defined
that
for
\316\241
consists!
the indices
for every
ii,
%2i
j.
property thai
by the
metric
dx
of the
all
piecewise
hyperbolic lengths
can
in
X.
We
then
considerthe
Q
curves joining
semi-metric
the)
\342\226\240
F4}, ...
an isom-
\317\210^-\316\275
Endow X
with
group
restriction of the hyper-;

and we define tp2k- F^k \342\200\224>
to
F2k-i
\302\267\342\226\240\342\226\240
\316\277
g Ftj
\316\277\317\210\316\257\316\271(\316\241)
\317\210\316\257\316\257_\316\271
the
given
with,
to the
points Q = <fik
ik are such that
is
{F3,
{\316\257\\,
F2},
{F2k-\\,F2k},we
respect
the corresponding
of all
...,
these
to
dhyp
analogy
complete
pairs
disjoint
such pair
\342\200\224*
F2k with
F2k-\\
inverse
be the
every
For each
into
in
data
4.3 and 4.5.
\316\241
to
of
an. X.
\316\254\317\207
Theorem 4.3 automatically
extends
to
this context;
10.4. Poincare's PolyhedronTheorem

The semi-metric
10.8.
Lemma
Polyhedron
Theorem
Using the homogeneity
Fi
\317\210^.
map
Fi, sends X
along
to the sideof
maps
gluing
in
As
2, the
form
\316\223
a tessellation
j(X)
images of
the
of the
(2) the intersection
hyperbolic space
of
two
any
ball Bdhyp(P,e)
The bending
edge
as
in
is not
\316\225
is
euclidean
union
point
action of
\316\223
on
are
exists
many tiles
tiles j(X),
distinct
for the
j(X),
\316\241
\342\202\254
\316\2273,there
finitely
only
\316\257'(\316\247)
which
\"f(X)\302\267
the polyhedron
H3.
of the
of a hyperbolic
boundary
polyhedron X along
is defined
E, which
by its dihedral angle along
\316\241
\316\225
More
a
which
for
\302\243
geometry.
precisely,
point
to
sector of
polyhedron X
it
\316\223
give
domain
and
a vertex
(-decks that
tiles
measured
orthogonal
a disk
meets
which
7e
distinct
addition,
a fundamental
an
for every
Finiteness)
(Local
and
tiles j(X)
distinct
edges and faces of

only
also vertices, edges or faces of \316\216(\316\247);
is
if:
H3
of vertices,
consists
If, in
the
X under
polyhedron
to H3;
is equal
(3)
these
the
of the tiling group \316\223,
ranges over all elements
the
the
sense
that
their
cover
whole spaceH3, in
as 7
(1)
gluing
by
\342\200\224>
\316\2273
\316\2273.
\317\210^.
dimension
elements of
I[
ii\302\261i that
As before, let the tiling group associated

to the above
be the group \316\223
of isometries
of (M3,dhyp) generated
extended
a hyperbolic
\342\200\224>
F,\302\261jto
X.
is opposite
data
\342\200\224>
\316\2273
\316\2273
that
ipt:
of H3 (Theorem 9.2), Lemma

3-dimensional context, and provides
isotropy
of each gluing
extension
isometry
and
to the
extends
immediately
;i unique
3-
statement.
a single
4.8
\316\240
of the
version
Polygon
into
that
Theorem.
We now consider a
Tessellation Theorem 6.1 and of Poincare's
6.25. It is convenient to combine the two results
Poincare's
LO.4.2.
dimensional
in the sense
metric,
whenever P^Q.
Q) > 0
dx(P,
is a
\316\254\317\207
259
\316\265
> 0
for
\316\225
at
\316\241
cuts
radius
along
does
\316\265
and
the
not
edge
depend
small, the hyperbolic plane

sufficiently
the intersection
\316\247
\316\240
along
\316\265)
Bdhyp (\316\241,
of angle
\316\225
is
\316\230.
The
exactly
on the point
dihedral
this
angle
angle
\316\230.
One
\316\225
\316\241
\342\202\254
(see
Exercise
of the
easily
9.1).
10. Kleinian
260
Theorem 10.9
polyhedronIci3
in addition
glued to
onE;
\316\225
add
can
of
such
an
Fi \342\200\224*
Fi\302\261i sends
\317\206\317\212.
orientation
the
Condition)
in
oriented
be
that
way
for
(3) (HorosphereCondition)
every
can select a horosphere \316\236\316\276
such
map
also
sends
tessellation of
the
spaces
quotient
metric
the
acts
\316\223
group
Edge Orientation
and
from
finite
the
away
from
(2),
form a
y(X)
and these
E,
two
edge
indicated
usually
by
a few
vertices, provided
Indeed, for a
\316\241
I3
to an ideal
\342\202\254
semi-infinite edge
vertex \316\276
G C, we
by
adding
from
\316\241
to \316\276.
For
can introduce a new vertex
and
for the
an orientation
holds.
vertex
direction
vertices, we
\316\225
accordingly,
we
\316\276\",
\316\223
generated
the two
\320\276\320\277\320\2503,
discontinuously
direction along
(3)
a finite
\316\225
in
split
and
tiles
are isometric,
(\316\247,
\316\254\317\207)
Condition
of a traveling
the HorosphereCondition
two
vertex
space H3.
an arrow. This is easilyensured

\316\225
going
gluing
ideal
tiling group
\342\200\224>
\316\2273
\317\206\316\257:
\316\2273,the
(\320\2353/\320\223,
(Jhyp)
choice
can orient
we
X,
are complete.
spaces
In the
\316\225
is
of the
elements
maps
tiling
the
to
hyperbolic
In addition, the
\316\276
of
\302\273% \302\273%'.
all the
as 7 ranges over
the
extended gluing
by
Then,
vertex
the
the
sends
it
whenever
ideal
that
ideal vertex to
the
Fi \342\200\224*
Fi\302\261i sends
\317\210\317\212.
it
\316\276',
edges of the polyhedron X

whenever
a gluing map
to an edge E',
edge \316\225
orientation
of E';
the
\316\225
to
the
angles of
up to
(2) (Edge Orientation
of
every edge \316\225
for
X along the edges that are

some
> 1 depending
integer \320\277\320\265
^- for
dihedral
the
a connected
10.4.1, suppose
hold:
three conditions
Condition)
Angle
(Dihedral
polyhedron X,
as in Section
data
gluing
face
the following
that
(1)
with
For
Theorem).
Polyhedron
(Poincare's
groups
orient
a finite
the resulting two
M.
For a
bi-infinite
edge
can
again
introduce
a new vertex
\316\225
joining
edge
\316\234
at
two
at
\316\234
\316\225
joining
its midpoint,
edges E'
ideal
the
and
vertices
midpoint
E\"
\316\276'
of
the two points \316\225

\316\240
\316\225
and
\316\240
determined
by the horospheres
5\317\202\302\273
\316\236\316\276\302\273
the
orient
the resulting
Condition
and
provided by
Horosphere
(3),
The setup is
two new semi-infinite
E'
E\"
from
M.
and
edges
away
Poincare's
10.4.
261
Theorem
Polyhedron
then specially designedso that the gluing maps <\302\243\302\273:

Fj \342\200\224>
F{\302\261irespect
these new vertices, and also respect the edgeorientations
so defined.
Condition
2-dimensional case, the DihedralAngle
(1)
critical.
The Edge
Condition
are
much
more
Horosphere
(3)
introduced
to simplify the
Orientation Condition (2) was essentially
statement of the Dihedral
Angle Condition (1).
As in the
and the
Proof of Theorem 10.9.The

dimensional
case,
l>elow. Consequently, we only

Our proof of Poincare's
to
Lends
.sphere Condition (3) (to

the
Proposition
6.23),
To prove
i,he
particular,
of gluing
l.o the
be compared
tptl,
face Fii for
show that
of the
because
Horo-
(1) of
condition
with
is complete.
(\316\247,\316\254\317\207)
6.1, by
a tile \317\206(\316\247)
is adjacent
maps
10.10
of the arguments.
Theorem 6.25 immediately ex-
Polygon
Theorem 10.9, we
Theorem
Tessellation
the 2-
in Lemma
a sketch
give
space
quotient
identical to
indicated
twist
context to
3-dimensional
the
is essentially
proof
only a minor
with
of the proof of
strategy
In
one
tile
after
the
other.
setting
to X at \316\241
if there
exists a sequence
the
follow
such
...,
\317\206^
\317\206\316\2572,
\342\226\240
\342\226\240
\342\226\240
\302\260
\302\260
belongs
(\316\241)
\317\210\316\2571
\317\210\316\257^1
that
every j < I (including
the
fact
that
\316\241
\342\202\254
F^)
and
\302\267
\302\267
\302\267
\302\260
\302\260
\302\260
\316\250=\316\250\317\212*
\316\250\317\212\316\266
\316\250\316\252?'\302\267
More
generally,
\316\241
G
above
the tiles
and
\317\206(\316\247)
are
\317\210(\316\247)
\320\237
if \317\210-1\316\277
is adjacent
\321\204(\320\245)
\317\210(\316\247)
\317\206(\316\247)
adjacent
to X
at
at the point
in
\321\204~1(\320\240)
the
sense.
some thought is the following

requires
really
and
6.2
iinalogue
Complement 6.3. We need some
\316\241
a polyhedral
ball sector with
and
radius
in
center
\316\265
Let
terminology.
IH3 be a region in the ball
delimited
on
its
sides
finitely
by
(\316\241,
\316\265)
Bdhyp
the
P; we allow the
hyperbolic
planes passing through
point
many
case where the polyhedral
ball
ball sector is the whole
Bdhyp(P,\316\265).
is the 3-dimensional
This
analogue of disk sectors,specially
designed
such
\320\275\320\276
that
ball Bdhyp {\316\241,
every
point of X is the center of some
\316\265)
The only point
that
of Lemma
hat
\316\247
\316\240
Bdhyp
(-Pi\316\265)>3
\320\260
polyhedral
ball
sector.
10. Kleinian
262
Lemma 10.10.
to X at
adjacent
pose a small
ball
disjoint
interiors.
Proof.
First,
that
finitely
many tiles \317\210(\316\247)
are\\
In addition, these adjacent tiles decom-l
into finitely polyhedral ball sectors
with .
are
There
the
only
P.
point
groups
Bdhyp(P,e)
we observe that
are
there
only
many points
finitely
of X that
are glued to P. This
is automatic':
point, since it is only glued to itself. Similarly,
a face
point,
namely, a point of a face which is not contained in;
an edge, is only glued to one other point, and a vertex can onlyS
be glued
vertices.
The case of edge a
to some of the finitely
many
will require 1
vertices,
namely,
points of edges that are not
points,
=
\316\241
\316\241
is
more
thought
and critically
relies on the
HorosphereCondition
(3)
of i
be glued
\316\225
can
are
\317\210(\316\241')
j
distinct edge points P' and P\" of the same
together. Indeed, if two such points P' and P\" =
no two
that
claim
We
Pn
interior
an
10.9.
Theorem
edge
...,
P2,
Pi,
when
together
glued
by the
\302\267
\342\226\240
\342\226\240
=
\316\277 \316\277
\316\277
\317\206 \317\206^ \317\206\316\2572 \317\210\316\257\316\271_
map
gluing
\342\226\240\342\2
its orientation by the

In
it
Edge
addition, must send at least
(2).
If both endpoints
finite
one point of \316\225
to itself:
of \316\225
are
vertices, j
fix these two endpoints since it respects
must
the orientation
of'!
\317\206
is a finite
fix :j
of \316\225
must
one endpoint
E; if exactly
vertex, \317\206
clearly
\342\226\240
this
is a bi-infinite
edge joining two ideal
endpoint;
finally, when \316\225
fix the intersection
vertices
and
must
and
?
\316\276
\316\276',
points \316\225\317\200\316\236\316\276
\317\206
\316\225\317\200\316\262\317\202
determined
associated
to \316\276
and
\316\276'
by the i
by the horospheres S$ and 5\316\276/
Condition (3). As a consequence,
the restrictionof \317\206
Horosphere
to;
\302\267
\316\225
is an orientation-preserving
at
least
one
and
isomctry fixing
point,
is consequently
the identity. But this would contradict our hypothesis
,
=
that
are
distinct.
the edge points P' and \316\241\" \317\206(\316\241')
then
the
sends
\317\210
This
\316\241
can
edge
\316\225
to
itself,
and respects
Condition
Orientation
proves that the set of points

at most one point of
include
that
are glued
each edge, and
to an
is
edgepoint!
]
consequently
finite.
in all
Therefore,
P2,
...,
X that
\316\277\316\271
\316\241\316\267
For
small
\316\265
Bdliyp(P,,e)
is a
cases, there are only

are glued to P.
enough,
the intersection
polyhedral
many
finitely
points
\342\200\224
\316\241
P\\, j
\\
of X
ball sector. Let
with
<Sdhyp(-Ppe)
each
of the
balls
denote
the
\342\226\240
Poincare's
10.4.
metric
the
with
all curves
lengths of
metric
the
l.hat
metric d<,v
space
in
As
endow
usual,
the
of
Sj
hyperbolic
Sj.
a factor
vertex
at each
9.4 shows
sinhe, Exercise
^ isometricto a
(Sj, ^jjjfe^j)
whose
angle
(\302\2472,\321\2014\321\200\321\214)>
sphere
by
distance\316\265
from
points that are at
Q to
joining
rescale the
If we
263
be the intersectionX\320\237Sdhyp[Pj,s).
dsj where dsj {Q,R) is the infimum
let Sj
/';, and
of the
consisting
sphere
hyperbolic
Theorem
Polyhedron
\316\241
is
the
in
polygon
to the
equal
along the
The restriction
P.
of
edge containing
then
defines
of
the
isometric
maps
edges
Sj
for these spherical polygons. Because of the Dihedral
gluing data
Angle
Condition (1) of Theorem 10.9and because
no two distinct points of
l.lie
same
edge are glued together, the TessellationTheorem6.1 (as
dihedral
of X
angle
(.liegluing
to the
\317\210\316\271
to disconnected
extended
\316\271
hat
to
6.20
Proposition
this
In
guarantee
if we
particular,
the
with
;i tessellationof
where
\342\200\242p(Sj),
\320\232
at
we obtain
follows
immediately
the polyhedron
from
the polygons
to
is adjacent
\317\210(\316\247)
tessellation of Sdhyp(P,
Exercise 6.3).
Lemma
10.10
has
\316\265)
now
finitely
immediately
D
Lemma 6.2 and Complement 6.3,

immediately extends to show that the
with 7 G \316\223
tessellate
the hyperbolic
space H3. In
is a fundamental
domain
for the action of the tiling
other words,X
10.10 for
6.1 now
Theorem
j(X)
polyhedra
gluing data,
are exactly
tessellation
that
of S2, this
Lemma
of
and
\320\241
5\316\212
\316\265)
<Sdhyp (\316\241,
these observations.
Substituting
ihe proof
this
\302\2472.
sphere
\316\241.
\317\206(\316\241,)
tiles (compare
follows from
such
the
where
compactness
By
<Sdhyp(P,
tiles of
G \316\223
is
\317\206
\316\241
and
many
sphere
It
\316\265).
shows
space)
quotient
this
using
and using
6.3.4,
of the
a tessellationof
start from the polygon
procedure
tiling
the
that the
definitions
Section
data provides
gluing
proceed
polygons in
completeness
\320\223
on I3.
\321\206\320\263\320\276\320\270\321\200
Once
action of
immediately
we have shown that

the
\316\223,
extend
discontinuous,
proofs
three
to
and
X is a
of Proposition
dimensions
that the
domain
fundamental
for
to show that
the
quotient space (\320\2353/\320\223,

dhyp)
action
of
\316\223
is
is isometric
i*(X,dx).
Similarly,
the
7.10 and Theorem 7.12
we
have
the following
analogue of Theorem 4.10.
10.11.
Theorem
Under the
of Theorem
hypotheses
groups
10.9, suppose
in\\
that:
addition
the Dihedral
(1)
of
angles
maps are
the
space
are
to
glued
\316\225
is
to
equal
(/?,:
\342\200\224>
\316\2273
\316\2273
of
the
gluing
orientation-preserving.
is locally
(\316\247,\316\254\317\207)
space
quotient
X,
(3) are unchanged;
extensions
3-dimensional
the
(4)
10.9 is strength*
of the dihedral
of Theorem
the sum
(1)
for every edge \316\225

of
X along the edges that
Conditions (2) and
(2-3)
Then,
Condition
Angle
so that
ened
isometric
to
the
group
the
hyperbolic
(H3,dhyp)\302\267
the action
will prove that
Wc
Proof.
\316\241
for
namely, that \317\210{\316\241)
\317\206
from
the identity.
Suppose,
\316\241
of
geodesic
H3.
g of
tessellation
the
otherwise
is a
some
\316\225
of
Replacing
7_1(\302\243J)
that 7
of
\316\225
of
edge
Let
X)
\316\223
is
free,
G \316\223
different
\317\206
tile \317\215(\316\247),
with
7 \320\261
10.9. Indeed, \317\210
would;
excluded
by the fact thai
of a
by Theorem
is
which
the action of
g contai:
\316\223.
Therefore,
tile j(X),
fixes
\321\203>\320\254\321\2037_1\320\276\321\203>\320\2767
(which
if necessary,
is the
interior
the
meet
provided
send this tile to itself,

fimdamental domain for
an edge
tiling
and every
H3.
The geodesicg cannot

of
\320\223,
of
H3
\342\200\224
\316\223
that some \317\210
\342\202\254
contradiction,
{\320\253\321\206\32
because
is1
Then Exercise 9.10 shows that
\317\206
a
by condition (4), it fixes each point of whole*
orientation-preserving
complete
\316\241
G
every
of a
search
in
a point
fixes
Kleinian
10.
264
In
identity.
we can
point of
each
assumewithout
now
\317\206
particular,
fixes
the
edg<
loss
of generalitj
every
point of
ari
X.
= 12(X),
\316\247\316\273
=X,X2
\302\267
\302\267
Xn
\320\245\320\267
7\320\267\320\2400, \302\267,
be
7\342\204\242P0
th
be the dihedral
tiles sitting around the edgeE, and let \316\270\\
angle of t
=
^\316\257 2\317\200\302\267
polyhedron Xi alongthis edge E. Then 5\316\226?=\316\271
half of Theorem 10.9,the inclusion
X \342\200\224
map
By the second
an isometry
induces
is bijective impliesthat
only
if
there
exists
\342\200\224>
In
\320\2353/\320\223.
two
points
an element
7e
the fact that this
particular,
P, Q
\320\223
such
X
\302\243
that
are
glued
Q
together
\342\200\224
j(P).
maj
if anc
Therefore
More examples
10.5.
the
of X that
edges
is
also
265
axe glued to \316\225

are the edges \316\225,
7^\"1(\302\243), \316\267^\316\271{\316\225),
the dihedral angle of X along the edge 7\320\263~1
(\320\225)
Note that
(E).
\342\226\240..,
7~1
of kleinian groups
to #,.
equal
However,there are duplicationsin this list. Indeed, the tile \317\210(\316\247)

=
= \316\225
and jJ'1(E) = \317\206~1(\316\225)
since
is one of these JQ, so that
\317\206 ji
\317\206
fixes
point of E. Therefore, the sum of the dihedral
every
angles of
=
X along the edgesthat are glued to \316\225
is strictly
less than \302\243)7=\316\271
^\302\267
Dihedral
in
the
the
Condition
2\317\200,
Angle
contradicting
stronger
(1)
of Theorem
hypotheses
This proves that

discontinuous
space
It
the
action
Theorem
by
of
\316\223
on
isometric to
can
be shown using Lemma
actually
not
condition
(4)
of Theorem
relaxed,
expense of making
more cumbersometo state.
at the
but
Exercise10.8
shows
conditions
Section
realized,
Theorem
without
quotient
10.10that
\320\237
conditions
10.11 can
the
be significantly
result
precise
somewhat
10.11 fails when only
condition (4) or
(2-
10.11 to
for Theorem
any
its
similar
hypothesis.
More
10.5.
We
are
(1-3)
that
the
action is
(H3,dhyP).
necessary
really
free. Since this
7.9 showsthat
10.9, Corollary
is locally
hold. Similarly,
additional
H3 is
(\320\2353/\320\223,
Jhyp)
Theorem 10.9 are
3) of
10.11.
return
to
10.1.
We
examples
of kleinian
examples of crooked Farey

now have the tools to rigorously
the
groups
of
tessellations
justify
some
of our
observations.
10.5.1. Kleinian groups associatedto crooked

Farey
will prove that when the shear-bend parameterss\\, S3,
We
\316\223
of the crooked
s5 are sufficiently small, the tiling
group
Farey
act
to
tessellation
associated
these parameters
discontinuously on the
hyperbolic spaceH3.We will restrict our attention to the casewhere
this
condition.
S5 is real, as the arguments are a little simpler with
First consider our original punctured torus exampleof Sections
5.5 and 6.6, corresponding to S\\ = S3 = s$ = 0. Then, the square
T+
of \320\223
If we
U T~
is a fundamental domain for the action
on i2.
tessellations.
10. Kleinian groups
266
of
action
the
extend
\316\223
on
p:
p~1(T+
is a
T~)
action on H3, Lemma
the preimage X
domain for the action of
fundamental
10.5
the
to
respect
a consequence,
As
\342\200\224>
\320\2503
H2.
orthogonal
projection
a fuchsian
H2 to
is well behaved with
this action
that
shows
\320\223
on
H3.
a little
better.
As usual,
analyze this fundamental domain
let \316\225\316\271,
\320\223+
U T~,
where E\\
Eh,
E3 and E4 be the edgesof the square
1 to oo, and E4 from
from \342\200\2241
to \321\201\320\276,
0 to 1, E$ from
0 to
from
goes
\316\225\316\271
\342\200\224
X is bounded by the preimages\320\251= p~1(Ei),
1. Then
and each Hi
is a hyperbolicplane in H3. More precisely, #1 and II3 are vertical
euclidean
of
while H2 and ff4 are euclideanhalf-spheres
half-planes,
radius
centered
In addition,
we
extend
the
at
when
gluing
I
\302\261|.
\342\200\224>
to hyperbolic
\316\2273
sends
isometries \317\206^.
Hi to Hi and
maps
H3,
\317\210\316\271
Let us
sends
\317\2103
to
\320\2573
Hi.
create a very
We will now
general case where

part
S3 +
where Si and S3
(and where, as usual,
real and
S5 is
too large
not
is
which
s5 = 0 is satisfied).
Recallthat
the
\316\223
of
group
tiling
the
in the
domain
fundamental
similar
an
have
more
imaginary
Si +
relation
the
corresponding
crooked Farey
. .
z-\\
tessellation is generatedby
. .
<Pnz)
eS5z +1
and
Consider the four circles C\\, C2,

the euclidean line passingthrough
=
\316\270
C\\
\342\200\224
|(\317\200 Im(si))
is
is
the
circle
passing
the
\320\266-axis,
10.12.
cos(Im(si))
of the
points
intersection
In
>
point
\320\2655\320\267
+ 1
1 and
as follows:
\320\241
defined
making an angle of
angles
counterclockwise;
is the circle
C-i
\342\200\224e_Ss;
to
tangent
\"S5
\342\200\224e and
C3 at
the line
tangent
to the
1;
line
10.10.
If S5 is
\342\200\224
and
e~S5,00}
when
C3 is
1 and
real and iflm(si) is sufficiently

two distinct
Ct and Cj meet
any
\320\264|1\320\264|~|,
{0,1,
addition,
point
counting
0 and
through
Ci at -e_S5.SeeFigure
Lemma
C4 in
C$,
to C3 passingthrough
line parallel
the
the
with
_Ss
^<\320\240\320\267(\320\263)
w = \320\265
-\320\263
+
passing through the points 0 and

C4
^:\342\200\224;\342\200\224_,,
, \317\204
\320\265\320\2575\320\263
+ \320\265-\321\2171
+ 1
only
to each
Ci
to C2,
and
sends
\317\206$
C3
at 0
other
meet.
they
sends
\317\210\316\271
are tangent
small
to C4.
at
that
or 1
their
examples of kleinian groups
10.5. More
Proof.
Figure
10.10.
crooked
Farey
the
z-axis.
that
the
group
for the
tiling
group
of a
two
circles
Ci
tessellation
By elementary
the same tangent
have
fundamental
267
euclidean geometry, the

line at 0,
for the first
makes
which
and
\320\2414
\342\200\224
with
angle of \317\200 \316\270
we only need to check
C\\ and that the circle
an
statement,
Therefore,
the
line
C2 is disjoint from
is
This
is
from
the
line
C4 disjoint
C3.
equivalent to the property
that
the
distance
between
the two lines C\\ and C3 is greater than
the diameters of both \320\241\320\263
and
these quantities by
C4.
Computing
circle
elementary trigonometry
To prove
at
the
point
in
second
the
1 is
Figure
statement,
10.10 gives
the condition stated.

the differential of
note that
the complex multiplication
by
e~S5~S3,
</?\320\267
by a
It follows that the line tangent

to
\342\200\224
=
at 0
an angle of \316\270
the
+ Im(\342\200\224s5 S3) with
^\320\267(\320\241\320\267)
9?\320\267(1)makes
\342\200\224
=
x-axis. By choice of \316\270
because
of
our
and
hypothesis
|(\317\200 Im(si))
\342\200\224
a linear fractional
that \342\200\224
Since
s-, is real, this angle is equal to \317\200\316\270.
that ^\320\267(\320\241\320\267)
sends
circleto
circle
it
follows
map
2.18),
(Proposition
\342\200\224
=
=
is a circle passing through
the
0
points
^\320\267(1) and
e_S5
<Pz(og)
using
computation
2.15.
Proposition
and whose tangent line

There is only one circle
at
0 makes
with
an angle
\342\200\224
of \317\200
\316\270
with
these properties, namely, C\\.
the
:r-axis.
Therefore,
C4^\320\267(\320\241\320\267)
The
considerations.
proof that
\342\200\224follows
Ci
\317\210\317\207{\316\237\317\207)
from very
similar
D
Kleinian
10.
268
10.13.
Proposition
cos(Im(si)) >
Proof.
For
touches
the sphere
= 1,
\320\263
at
faces
four
ideal
the
H\\ and
that
Note
X is
the
Then,
Farey
s$ real
action
and
of
\316\223
group.
hyperbolic
plane in H3 that
the circle C{. Let X be the
upper half-space
half-planes
crooked
the
55 with
a kleinian
four hyperbolic
these
ff4.
\316\223
is
\320\241
along
infinity
by
the euclidean vertical

half-spheres H2 and
four
be
\320\251
points in the
of those
consists
\316\262],
S3,
s3 + s5 = 0).
Si +
4, let
2, 3,
group of
tiling
parameters
In particular,
bounded
polyhedron
the
(and
is discontinuous.
H3
on
to
eils'i+i
the
\316\223
be
Let
associated
tessellation
groups
planes.
H3
\320\251and
that
above
Namely,
are between
the euclidean
a hyperbolic polyhedron with

or finite vertex, and with
Hi, ff2, #\320\267,#4, with no edge

\342\200\224
e\"5.
vertices 0, 1, \321\201\321\216,
H3
sends
Hi to H210.12, the isometry \317\2061:\316\2273\342\200\224>
the
an
it
is
of
additional
also
immediate
By considering
image
point,
that
X to the side of \320\251that
is opposite
it sends
X. Similarly,
\342\200\224>
H3
H3
sends
H3 to \320\251and sends X to the side of H3 that
\317\2103:
is opposite X. Consequently, we are in the situation of Poincare's
Lemma
By
10.9.
Theorem
Polyhedron
The polyhedron X
Theorem 10.9, we only
of
in order
to apply
the Horosphere Condition (3)
at the ideal vertices of X. As in the 2-dimensional
that s\\ + s3 + s5 =0 will be
8.4, the hypothesis
statement
that
setup
Section
of
has no edge. Therefore,
here.
critical
We need
to
find
at 0,
SO, S\\, Sx, Sl_e-\302\2735 centered
=
=
that \317\206\316\271(3\316\277\316\261)
Si,
ifi(S_e-,5)
=
So- We could construct these
<pz(Si)
it will be easier to usean argument
similar
horospheres
1, 00, \342\200\224e_S5,respectively,
So, tpziSac) = <S_e-\302\2735 and
horospheres\"by
to
that
an
and
an
simultaneously
6.23.
We
<P3(Sao).
equal
to
\320\276
if
\317\210\316\271
namely,
</?\320\267(\302\243\320\276\320\276),
The
condition
property that
S<x, centered at 00, namely,

=
euclidean plane. Then set 5\316\212
v?i(<Soo)
will then be done if we can choose SO to be
horosphere
arbitrary
horizontal
arbitrary
\302\243Le-s5
such
but
hand\",
of Proposition
Start with
with
check
to
need
</?3(5\316\212)
these
\316\277
and
to
\317\206-s\317\210\316\271(3(\316\247>)
two horospheres
centered at 0 are equal.
=
\302\260
</?\320\267
\317\210\316\271\302\260
<Pi(Soc)
\317\206-iiSoo) is equivalent
\316\271
\302\260
\302\260 \302\260 =
\302\260 \302\260 \302\260
respects
\317\210\316\271
</?\320\267
\317\2104 \317\210\316\271
\317\210\316\271
\317\210^ \317\206^1 </?\320\267
that
^\316\271(5_\316\262-.\316\222)
to the
the
More
10.5.
10.11.
under
the tiling
Figure
under
liorosphere
the
Sao- We
^40^0^30
group
of a
\320\223
he
of C,
translation.
In
plane
so that
gS3
+ 2+
its
particular,
2e\"3
_|_
si +
.S3+ S5 =
0,
+ eS3+ eS3+Sl
I
g2S3+Sl+S5
g2S3+2si+S5
+2eS3+Sl
isometric
to H3 is a
translation respects
extension
this horizontal
SOo, thus we are
domain X
because
+ 1
+ Sl+S5
X\302\260
tessellation
tessellation
Farey
translation
horizontal
fundamental
e2si+2s3+2s*z
\316\250\316\271(\316\266)
= z
in a
the
crooked
already computed that
horizontal
domain
group
The images of
10.12.
tiling
images of the fundamental

of the standard Farey
\316\223\302\260
The
Figure
269
of kleinian groups
examples
done.
10. Kleinian groups
270
apply Poincare's Polyhedron Theorem 10.9,and

a fundamental domain
for the action
of \316\223
on H3
therefore
can
We
X is
conclude
that
and that
this action
is discontinuous.
the
fundamental domain X under
tiling groups
=
10.11 for the standard case where Si \342\200\224
are illustrated in Figure
s3
=
s5
0, and in Figure 10.12for a more general example satisfying the
in this case Si = \342\200\2240.5
+ 1.4i,
10.13,
S3 =
hypothesesof Proposition
1.4i and s5 = 0.2. More precisely,
thesefigures represent
in \320\241
0.3 \342\200\224
the
of the circles C\\, C2, C3, C4 (bounding the hyperbolic planes
images
of
the
elements
H\\,
#3, #4 delimiting the polyhedron X) under
#2,
the
The
images
of the
tiling
group
\320\223.
We
Farey
When
translation
these figures, it is important

to remember that
10.7 have been rotated soas to be invariant
by a
and
groups
Limit sets.
set
<Q>
now
We
of
ideal
Q U
of the
\320\233\321\200
kleinian
10.13.
standard Farey
of the
vertices
sets
all rational
points
tessellation
we
T,
Farey
{00} of
T\302\260
triangulation
circle at
in the
infinity
10.1
the
that there is a one-to-onecorrespondence
between
faces,
edges
and vertices of \316\244
and
the faces, edges and vertices of the
standard
each ideal vertex \317\207
is
G Q of T\302\260
Farey tessellation T\302\260.In particular,
\320\241
of \320\242.
associated
to an ideal vertex \316\273(\316\271)
\342\202\254
R.
Given
This
<Q> in
R.
a crooked
the limit
consider
by Proposition
\320\223
provided
The set
the
a;-axis.
to the
parallel
10.5.2.
is
corresponding
and 10.7the crooked

group of Figure 10.12.
comparing
10.4
Figures
in Figures 10.4
to the kleinian
encountered
already
tessellation
\320\223
of \316\244
is a
group
Let
parameters
(and
e|\342\200\236j)|~^
kleinian
group),
all
rational
points
Proposition
it
has
10.13
a continuous
real numbers.
Proposition 10.14.
associated to
a map on the set of

under the hypothesesof
defines
correspondence
We will show that
(so that the tiling

extension to all
in Section
indicated
Si +
s1; s2,
\316\244
be
the
such
*\320\267
s3 + s5 = 0).
crooked
that
The
Farey tessellation
s5 is
above
map
a homeomorphism
->
\316\232
\316\247:
real and
\320\233\320\263
cos(Im(si)) >
\316\271\342\200\224>
\317\207
extends
X(x)
to
More
10.5.
at
circle
the
between
of kleinian
examples
infinity
set
the limit
and
271
groups
\316\233\317\201
of the
tiling group
\320\223\320\276/\320\242.
The
will take
proof
Figures
10.11
and
\320\223
to
capture
well
We
10.12.
this
to
Si, s3
arbitrary
a kleinian
of
of
Let
of
we
T,
of
of C\\,
will
\320\223\302\260
or T\302\260
by
above
\320\223.Following
the
collection
corresponding
of circles
between
edges and vertices

edges and vertices of
faces,
Given
of the
\302\260.
namely,
group
tiling
the
G\302\260
denote
where Si =
denote the
10.12,
Figure
object
any
as possible to
a superscript
circles of
let
\320\223
is
Remember
on H3.
the elements
convention,
in the case
that
guarantees
\320\2302
H3.
\320\241
adding
of the
\320\241\320\263,
\320\241\320\267,
C4 under
\316\244
faces,
as much
try
collection
the
\320\241
denote
of
T\302\260
\320\223
= 0, s5 real,
correspondence
\316\244
and
whereas
tessellation
+ s5
discontinuously
and
between
\320\223\302\260,
tessellation
object
corresponding
10.13
natural
tessellation
Farey
the standard Farey

associated to \320\223
or
the images
s5 = 0,
+ s3
si
Proposition
\302\260|.\320\264|~|\302\267
elements
\320\223
and
crooked
the
and s5 with
to denote by
convenient
be
will
it
group, namely, it acts

10.1 that there is a
Section
elements
in mind,
strategy
and cos(Im(si)) >

from
several
partial steps.
the
comparison of
by
of circles j{Ci), with
use
the family
of the limit set, and compare this data
to the standard
Farey tessellation.
into
= s^ =
group corresponding
the tiling group of the crookedFarey
denote
associated
associated
is split
illustrated
to si
\320\223\302\260
the
tiling
will
will
the structure
to the data similarly

With
a while and
is reasonably
Our strategy
s3
s5 =
0, as in
Figure 10.11.
To fix
some
by an actual
of \320\241
or
by
on
More
\320\241
itself.
circle
the
if
\320\241
every
Lemma 10.15.
For
circle (namely,
are
than
\316\265.
Proof.
For
each
every
by
not
> 0
\316\265
and
\320\241
circle.
and every
there are
such circle
H3 bounded by this
say that a
a line) if
point
is
is located
it
surrounded
on the
inside
generally, a subset ofthe planeis surrounded

point in this subset is surrounded by C.
a line),
not
surrounded
that
let us
terminology,
circle \320\241
(namely,
whose
only
is an
G that
\320\241
\342\202\254
finitely
euclidean
many
circles
diameter
C, considerthe hyperbolic
actual
\320\241
G \320\241
is greater
plane
H'
in
10. Kleinian groups
272
= (xq, yo, uq) G H3 whose

projection xq + ij/o G \320\241
the
is surrounded
hyperbolic
by C. We claim that
in terms of the euclidean
distance from Pq to H' is uniformly
bounded
if \316\241
is the
diameter D of C, of the coordinate u0 and of \316\265.
Indeed,
of H' with
the
apex of the euclidean half-sphere H', namely,
point
the
third coordinate, we can join \316\241
to Pq by a curve made up
largest
of a vertical
line segment of hyperbolic length
< log ^f and of a
that
horizontal
line
whose hyperbolic length is < ^-. It follows
segment
= log
the hyperbolic
distance from Pq to H' is bounded
by r
^ + ^-.
an
Pick
therefore
Lemma
we just
those circles in
by
the
set
p~x(E),
= \321\201\321\216.
Otherwise,
\316\273(\316\277\316\277)
x. Let Qx
surround
6\302\260
that
between circles in
correspondence
The
circles
of
where
\316\225
ranges
also
6\302\260
are
we consequently see two
map
set of
the
G\302\260
be
to
associated
in
circles
6\302\260
G\302\260.
of the hyperbolicplanes
of
the
tessellationof H2
edges
the
Section 6.6, and
different
these
all
to
associated
edges
\316\225
are
by
our
also
Farey tessellation,
to whether \317\207
is
according
of the
patterns
or not.
rational
If
it cannot belong to any circle

of 6\302\260.
Therefore,
of 6\302\260
are nested
and can be listedas \320\251, K%,
together
in such a way
that
each ET\302\260
is surrounded
by \320\232^_\320\263.
\317\207
is irrational,
circles
...
ET\302\260,
If \317\207
is rational,
the elements
First thereis a common

with
let
be
\320\241
\320\241
\320\241
and
standard punctured torus. In particular,

edges of the Farey tessellation.By inspection
many
the
the boundaries
over
squares constructed in
hyperbolic
the
\317\207
\342\202\254\320\226
under
\320\233\320\263.
=
\317\207
oo,
If
many
finitely
(Comparethe proof
D
of a point
the image
describe
now
can
I ->
\316\273:
polyhedra\317\210(\316\247)
meet
the proof.
This concludes
7.15).
We
tessellation of H3 by the
ball Bdhyp(Po; r) can only

only finitely many such H'.
closed
the
G \316\223,
\317\210
and
\317\210(\316\247),
of
of the
finiteness
local
By
with
base point Pq
arbitrary
circles
each
families
K%, K%,
stalk
...,
A\"\302\260
surrounded
K\302\260p+1,K\302\260p+2,...,
circles which do
left; again,
each
by K^_x.
K\302\260,...
do
surrounded
Then,
and
A\"\302\260
to
by
into three
be listed
empty)
not
(possibly
K\302\260
which
contain x, with
AT\302\260
is
can
of 6\302\260
families.
consisting of finitely
contain the point
into
6\302\260
splits
right
and
\320\232^_\320\263
of
\317\207
and
is
L\302\260n
x,
two infinite
L\302\260+1, L\302\260+2, ...,L'\302\260,
the
...,
...
L\302\260
to
surrounded
of
the
by
More examples
10.5.
for
L\302\260n_j
with
of kleinian groups
In addition,
\316\267
+ 1.
> \317\201
every
273
all
K\302\260
surrounds
A\"\302\260
and
L\302\260
\317\204\316\271
+ 1.
> \317\201
Let
and
\316\225\316\223\316\267
Ln
circles of Qx associated
between Q% and
be the
to
by the correspondence
respectively,
10.16.
Lemma
is surrounded
If
the
L\302\260,
Qx.
a unique point
\317\207
\302\243KC \320\233\320\263\302\260,
is
there
all
by
ET\302\260
and
that
G \320\233\320\263
\316\276
in Qx.
circles
Proof. Let \316\232\317\207,

above.
...,
K2,
Kn, ... be the circlesof Qx defined
to
an increasing
construct, by induction,
Apply Lemma 10.15
such that the diameter of each \320\232\320\237\320\272
is less than
If
sequence
(nk)keN
\317\210.
we pick an arbitrary point \316\276*,
the
surrounded
of
convergence
by \320\232\320\237\320\272,
l.he series
the sequence
that
implies
Y^L-\317\207\317\210
has
(\302\243fc)fcew
finite
length
= R2
of \320\241
C, and
converges to some \316\276
by completeness
\320\272
that
for every
(Theorem
large
enough
6.8). Every Kn surrounds \316\276\316\271^
surrounds \316\276
to the limit.
n-k > n, and therefore
by passing
therefore
in
By Lemma 10.15,the diameter

It easily follows that
of
Kn
tends
only point that is
is the
\316\276
to 0 as \316\267
tends
to
surrounded by all
oo.
the
\316\233'\316\267-
is surrounded
proves that \316\276
by every
is rational
we have to worry
about
the remaining
circle of Gx. When
\317\207
circles Ln. However,in this case, note that the Kn all surround the
to the
of the
vertex
crooked
that
Farey tessellation \316\244
corresponds
vertex \317\207
7\302\260.
is
of the standard
tessellation
Therefore,
\316\276 equal
Farey
l.o this vertex of T, which
to all the Ln. As a consequence,
also
belongs
is surrounded
\317\207
is rational
as well.
\302\243
by all circles of Gx when
\317\207
is
When
this
irrational,
To concludethe proof,
G X be an arbitrary
we
Let
\316\233\317\201.
PQ
be the
\316\240\316\267
lot
hyperbolic
of the
l.he tiles
to show that
need
base
point.
plane that is
tessellation
of
H3
by
the limit set

circle Kn G Qx
is in
\316\276
For every
bounded by
images
of X
Kn
and,
among
under elements
The
euclidean
tile that is just below
\320\237\342\200\236.
bounded
by the euclidean diameter of Kn,
;md consequently
tends
to +oo by Lemma 10.15.
converges to 0 as \316\267
=
is
in
\342\226\241
the
limit
set \316\233\317\201\302\267
Therefore,
\316\276 limn_\302\273oo \316\212\316\267(\316\241\316\277)
let
\320\223,
distance
Define
7nP0
R \342\200\224*
\316\273:
\320\233\320\263
by the
image X(x)
l
hat
this
be the
is
\316\254\316\265\316\2670(\316\276,
jn{Po))
of
\317\207
G R
is consistent
is the
with
property
that
that the
10.16. Note
and
oo
\316\273(\316\277\316\277)
point \316\276
provided
by Lemma
when
our
earlier
definition
is rational.
\317\207
10. Kleinian
274
Lemma 10.17. The

We
Proof.
For
there existsal.
circle
take
\317\212\302\243\316\232
irrational,
(and
an arbitrary
in fact infinitely
diameter
6.,. has
Kn
otie
least
<
correspondingcircleK\302\260G
that every
The
by K]).
of
found an
0, we
\316\265
>
<
dvuci-r-'V)
that
so
\316\273,
deut:(\\(x),X(y))
A\"\342\200\236
by
for
every
\316\265
whenever
at x.
is continuous
\316\273
The argument is very similar

to also use the circles Ln. For
provides an n such that Kn and
by
\316\265.
Therefore,
deuc(X(x).\\(y)) <
that
0 such
>
\316\267
\316\240Namely,
<
surrounded
surrounded
is
\321\203
exists
there
^lso
V is
the
(hat
it does not
C\302\260.
Therefore,
a point
proof.
\316\267
such
irrational,
(ijiicf1, v) <
with
of such
X(y)
image
construction
G R
\321\203
its
of
By Lemma 10.15,
many)
\317\207
is
an
such
\316\265
> 0.
\316\265.
Since
belong to the
> 0
\316\267
10.16and
of Lemma
notation
the
use
will
continuous.
R \342\200\224*
is
\316\273:
Ay
map
groups
for
\317\207
rational,
every
we have
10.15 again
that
except
0, Lemma
\316\265
>
Ln both have diameter < \316\265.

Now,
there
is an \316\267
thai, every \321\203
such
G R with rfeuc(î y) < V is surrounded
In both
and
cases this guarantees that
^ \317\207
^ a\302\267.
by L^ if \321\203
by K^ if \321\203
This
the
< \316\265.
proves
continuity at every rational x.
^\320\265\320\270\321\201(\320\220(\320\260;),\320\220(\320\263/))
the
For
= oo.
\317\207
at
continuity
it
\316\277 \302\260 \302\260

translation r = \317\2104
<Pi G
<\317\2012
\316\250\316\254
\317\2040
G
and
to r
\316\2230.We
\316\266
-f 6.
\317\204\302\260(\316\266)
that
and
in
r\302\260,
If a; G R is
lines
very
through
passing
the
sense
to
close
1, it is
that
Note
that
the
and
\316\223,
that
computed
already
corresponding
+ eS3 +
= \316\266
+ 2
\317\204{\316\266)
is
\316\273
=
oc, then,
for the
2eS3+Sl
with respect
for every a; G R:
behaved
well
r(A(a;))
\316\273(\317\204\302\260(.\317\204))
outside of the
the
element
to consider
convenient
be
will
euclidean line
vertical
strip
delimited
C\302\260
G
G\302\260
by the
and
that
for n > 0 very large; it follows
(\321\202\302\260)~\320\277(\320\241?)
and
of the strip delimited
the
lines
by
rn(Ci)
\321\202~\320\277{\320\241\\)
is consequently
this
with the
and
close to oo. Formalizing
reasoning
to oo = A(oc) as \317\207
tends
appropriate quantifiers proves that
\\(x)
(r\302\260)n(C10)
X(x) is outside
to oc.
tends
We
which
Lemma
Proof.
inverse
are
is continuous
\316\273
Namely,
now
ready
to complete
we restate
here as:
10.18.
The map
We have to
show
\316\273-1:\320\233
R is
\320\263
1 \342\200\224>
at oc.
the proof
of
Proposition
10.14{
\\
\316\273:
R \342\200\224>
is a
\320\233\320\263
that
is
\316\273
continuous.
injective,
homeomorphism.
surjective,
and that
itsj
,1
!
More
10.5.
\317\207
G
\321\203
\317\206
If
not
but
This
\317\207
oo.
\317\206
that
proves
set
tessellation T. Then
''<4ic(7(-Po);0
vertices
of T~
surrounds
<?.\302\260
which
\317\207
\316\273
is injective.
To prove that \316\273

is surjecl.ive,
Pick
a base point Pq in
\320\233\320\263.
<
C'J G
circle
find
275
groups
by construction, the correspondingcircleC'eE

not X(y), so that \316\273(\317\207)
\321\201\320\276
Also,
\317\206
X(y).
X(x) \317\206
but
X(x)
when
we can
R,
Then,
y.
surrounds
of kleinian
examples
for
a point
consider
the triangle
oo
\316\276
\317\206
of
T\"-
limit
in the
crooked
the
Farey
exists a 7 \316\265
\316\223
such
that
the image of at least one of the
euclidean
distance < \316\265
from
Indeed,
\316\276.
\316\265
>
every
0 there
that
\316\265\302\267
We
claim
is at
under \316\267
of H3 that lies outsideof the euclidean
I he part
ball \320\224/\342\200\236,^
is a
(\316\276,
\316\265)
hyperbolic
half-space bounded by a hyperbolicplane, and is therefore
convex in (he hyperbolic sense. It follows
that
if the three vertices
of \316\262^\316\220\316\223(\316\276,\316\265),
of an ideal triangle
outside
are
the
whole
is
triangle
outside of that ball. In our case, since the ideal triangle j(T+) meets
m
one of its vertices must
be in \316\222,\316\271.\342\200\236,,(\316\276,\316
at least
'îru,-(\302\243j\302\243) \320\224)!
Farey tessellation
that
\316\273
shows
6.13;
where
to the
converging
1 he
hy
every
in
as
\342\200\224
G \316\233
\316\276
{oo},
R.
from
is the
If the
\316\276\316\275.
sequence
by
we can always
00, which
the
a subsequence
(xn)neN
to some x~^
to
of
vertex
subsequence
Therefore,
G R.
find
Then,
is equal to
found an
we consequently
note
that
is
\316\276
A(a;oo)
such
G \316\233\317\201\302\260
\317\207x
oo. This
\316\273(\316\277\316\277)
the inverse map
In particular,
\316\233
is surjective.
of the map
\316\273.
\342\200\224
=
For
\316\276 00,
\316\276\302\267
\316\273(^\316\277\316\277)
hat
extract
\320\272
tends
\316\276\342\200\236\316\221.
X(xnh)
of
continuity
For
of
limit
a converging
which converges
{xn,,)keN
.subsequence
to
\316\244
corresponding
oo
point
U {00}
G Q
:r\342\200\236
admits
one can
otherwise,
of the
\316\276\342\200\236
^.
\316\276\316\267
X(xn),
*s
(\342\200\242''iJneN
Theorem
crooked
a vertex
<
The definition
\316\254\316\262{]0(\316\276\316\267,\316\276)
\316\244
with
Farey tessellation
bounded
in R, it
standard
n. tlieie is
for every
a consequence,
As
proves that
\342\200\224>
R is
\316\273-1:\316\233\316\223
now
well defined.
To show that
that
.Suppose
means that there

exists
.
\316\273-1
is
is
\316\273\"\"1
this
converges
\342\200\242
\316\265
from
to
but.
\316\276
continuous,
continuous
exists an
such
G \320\233\320\263
\316\276'
Applying
not
that
a proof by contradiction.
that
=
\317\207
in R.
\316\247~1{\316\276)
\316\267
from
different
G \320\233\320\263
\316\276
0 such
that
for every
but
< \316\267
\316\254\316\262\316\2670(\316\276,\316\276')
deuc(X
to each
such
\316\265
>
we use
at
provides
00. This
0, there
>
1(\316\276),\316\273~1(\316\257'))
a sequence
the points xn =
As above, extract
77 >
which
(\316\276\316\227)\316\267\316\265\316\235
\316\273-1
at
stay
(\316\276\316\267)
distance
a subsequence(xnk)keN
which
to some
converges
dexic(x,Xqo) ^
but
X(x)
Therefore,
\316\273-1is
continuity
of
G R.
\321\205\320\266
\316\273-1at
\321\201\321\216
is proved
Nondifferentiability
justifies
closed
also
fact that
\316\273
is
\316\273
is a
curves in
that the
noted
differentiable. We
now
points
line
the
-Bdeuc(\302\243i\302\243)>
that
the
an
makes
\316\276\316\276'
Under
10.19.
Proposition
the
X: R
homeomorphism
<
angle
Remember that
can
be made
\342\200\224>
is well
\320\233\320\263
10.14, so
suppose in
defined,
See
rationals.
many
a tangent
real, it
Exercise
line at each
X(x)
point
with
R, arid consequently
very strong sense!)
it
is everywhere
tangent
a sense
instance,
does
\320\233\320\263
\317\207
\342\202\254
Q rational.
set
limit
for
only countably
proof that
that the
from definitions
is immediate
but
numbers
10.12 for a
irrational
every
line at X(x).
mathematical ways;
irrational
many
G \316\233
\316\24
\316\276'
are irrational, in
numbers
precise in many
are uncountably
there
real
\"most\"
G \316\233
if
\316\276
of Proposition
hypotheses
sj is not real. Then,

parameter
for
\342\200\224the
\317\207
R
\320\233
no
limit
set
admits
G
\320\263
Q,
tangent
point
which
do
indeed the
L.
with
\316\267
the
that
addition
the
the hypotheses
under
least
10.1
in
10.1
Section
this is
that
prove
10.14
of Section
sets
limit
of Proposition 10.14.
A
subset
has
line L at the point
\320\233
of \320\241
a tangent
such that for every
>
0
there
exists
an
0
\316\265
>
every \316\267
case, at
The
\321\201\321\216.
homeomorphism.
no self-intersection
with
\316\276
injective.
from
G \320\233
different
\320\263
\316\276
many of the
curve
\320\241
We
sphere
not appear very
A(a;00)
continuity,
of the limit set. Proposition
that
continuous
groups
an almost identical argument.
by
the proof that
our observation
Riemann
by
the
at every
10.5.3.
form a
Then,
\316\265,
contradicting
continuous
concludes
This
for
Kleinian
10.
276
to the
admit
si is
When
to
is equal
\320\233\320\263
real line R
(in
Proof. As in the proof of Proposition 10.14, let K\\, K^, ..., Kn,
... be the circlesof \320\241
surround
that
X(x), with each Kn surrounding
the next circle Kn+\\.
\317\207
is
Because
irrational,
X(x) belongs to no
circleKn.
We
first
will
\316\240\316\271,
\316\2672,
...,
definition of
jk(X)\302\267
G, the
In
consider
\316\267*,,
...,
two circles
other
the simpler
the circle
words,
case where, for
is disjoint
\320\232\320\237\320\272+\320\263
+ \\ bound
and
K\342\200\236k
\320\232\320\237\320\272
there exists
7fc
\320\223
such
from
two
that
many
infinitely
By
\320\232\320\237\320\272.
faces of
some tile
7^\"1(^nfc)
and
examples of kleiniangroups
10.5. More
of the n^
some
away
original circles C\\, C2, C3, C\\. By throwing

we can
of them).
many
(but keeping infinitely
the
same
two
that
there
circles, namely,
get
of the
are two
(\320\232\320\237\320\272)
7^\"
assume that
we
277
always
=
=
and
such that ^1{\320\232\320\237\320\272)
i, j
\320\241,Cj
^1{\320\232\320\237\320\272)
for every \320\272
G N. Note that C{ and Cj are disjoint,
and
consequently
in the Riemann sphere \320\241(One
bound two disjoint disks Di and
Dj
of the two circles is actually
in which case the diskit bounds
a line,
exists
is
\342\202\254
{1,2,3,4}
a euclidean
half-plane).
Suppose that the limit
line L at \\{x). Then,

that \320\233\320\263
\320\237
-Bdeuc(A(:r),\302\243)
is located
between the lines Lv and L.v that make an angle of \302\261\316\267
with
L at X(x), or more preciselyit is contained
in the two disk
of
\316\265
two
sectors angle 2\316\267
and
radius
delimited
lines L\302\261n. By
by these
are
in the ball
Lemma
and
contained
10.15, the circles \320\232\320\237\320\272
\320\232\320\237\320\272+\\
for
has
a
\320\233\320\263
set
exists an
0, there
>
\316\267
every
\316\265
>
We
for \320\272
large
enough.
.\320\222^\320\265\321\206\321\201(\320\220(:\320\263),\302\243)
to
are
the
over
\"zoom\"
in
contained
C. These two
7*,
corresponding
and
jk{Dj)
7(C
\342\200\224
Di)
Bdeac(X(x),\316\265).
two circles
the
Consider
the
use
will
Note that
near x.
region
tangent
0 such
7^1(L7))and
the following
have
circles
J+ =
J~
7^\"1(L_7))
in
properties:
(1) They crosseachother in one point 7^ (\316\273(a;)) & Dj and one

each
with
point 7^\"1(oo)e D{,and make an angle of 2\316\267
other at these points. (Remember from
2.18
Proposition
and Corollary 2.17 that linear fractional
send
circles
maps
to circles and respect angles).
(2)
The
part
limit set
of the
J+
between
in the two
circlesJ^
J~.
and
\"moons\"
whose
and
that
\320\233\320\263
is outside
More precisely,
that
delimited
are
angles
at their
of D{ is
\342\200\224is
Di
\320\233\320\263
by the
located
contained
intersecting
vertices are equal to
2\316\267.
We
now
converging
is
Take
\316\267.
0.
For each
determined
completely
intersects
the
subsequence
Ci and Cj
a sequence
(jjm)meN of positive numbers
of these \321\206\321\202,
circle J%m
the
corresponding
in which it
by the four distinct
points
circles d and Cj. Replacing
by a
(r7m)meN
vary
to
two
disjoint
if necessary,
that
these
we can assumeby
intersection
points
compactness
of the
circles
converge to four points in
Kleinian
10.
278
groups
Figure 10.13
to a circle
a consequence, the circle J,+ converges
Jq\"
to
the
to oo; this limit
be
circle
circle
tangent
may
Jq
intersection
or Cj, which will happen exactly when the two
Ci
points
to
of J7~n with
tin's circle converge to a single point. Further
passing
in addition,
that
a subsequence if necessary, we can similarly
assume
the circle 3\320\237\321\202
to a circle J0~~ .
converges
Ci U
as
As
Cj.
tends
The
circles
Jq
and Jq have one
another one in Dj. Indeed,

the same property would
if Jq\" \316\240
Jq
hold
for J+
the fact that
in
point
or
\316\240-Dj
\316\240
,/,\"
in Di
common
JqC\\JqC\\Dj
\316\240
or
\320\224
J^
and
was empty,
\320\237
J~
meet at
\316\240
Dj
by
7^\"1(oo)G
J^
intersection
and ijT^-Mz))
G Dj. Similarly, because
Di
angles vary
the circles
continuously,
Jq make an angle of hmm_\302\273oo r\\m = 0 at
that the
these two intersection points. Thesetwo properties
imply
=
it
that
is
crucial
circles actually coincide,namely,
J0~
Jq. (Here
and
otherwise
that the circles C, and Cj be disjoint,
since
Jq
J0~
and
could be two distinct
circles
passing through the point d \316\240
Cj
to each other.)
tangent
In particular,
the
two moons
delimited by the circles J* and
\342\200\224
to
the
circle
limit
Di
\320\233\320\263
containing
Jq , so that the part of the limit
that
in the circle Jq .
set
is outsideDi is completely
contained
continuity,
contradicting
JJ\"
and
10.5. More examplesof kleinian

the
we saw that
However,
(he crookedFarey
all the
contains
\320\233\320\263
set
limit
so this is clearly
T, and
tessellation
279
groups
vertices of
impossible if
s\\
\342\200\224is
= \342\200\224
not real. For instance, the circleJq must
then
sj
(and S3
S5)
\320\2335
of
contain the vertices 0, 1, 00 and e
must be
T, and consequently
R. However,
the
and </?i(\302\260o) are all outside
of
vertices
\317\210{(0). ^,(1)
I),. and cannot

maps
all real
be
of the
by inspection
for
formulas
the
gluing
\317\206\316\271,
\317\2062,
\317\210\316\257\302\267
<\302\243\320\267>
for
meet
A'\342\200\236+i
\316\277
\316\231
look
I.
the
rational
of n, and
Kn
point.
the point
would
eventually
of n.
0. Therefore,
Namely, we can find
is to
the left of
converges to
\317\207
and
side
the
of this is that
consequence
stop
\320\237
K^k
AT\302\260
\316\223
cannot
\316\232\302\260^
the
(rifc)fceN
,.2
is to
its
is
values
\320\237
fl
K\302\260k AT\302\260fc
or
from
disjoint
many
*bat
right,
now
\320\232\320\237\320\272
\316\267
be independent
its diameter
since
surrounding \317\207
for
changes
infinitely
sucn
for
right
then
\316\223
K\302\260
would
K\302\260+1
a sequence
K^k+1
Farey tessellation.
point i\302\243l and touch

This
\316\240
intersection
point A'\302\260
\316\221\316\244\302\260+1
so it will be either to the
irrational,
A'\302\260+1
indeed
convenient
the
surround
equal
large;
sufficiently
it is
Here
to \317\207
\317\204
since
is
or
to
the
left
of
The
intersectionpoint
x.
light
be systematically
to the left or systematically to
be
disjoint for
the circles
where
case
enough.
for the standard
data
corresponding
other at
cannot
the
G Gx are
A',1+i
remaining
\316\267
large
every
and
Therethe circlesAT\302\260
each
Kr,
the
proof is very similar in
The
and
A'\342\200\236
and
n.
many
infinitely
the circles
that
assumption
Proposition 10.19under
proof of
the
concludes
This
additional
conversely.
for every
\320\232\320\237\320\272+2
AgN.
Now, the
tiles of
with
\317\206\316\271,
(X)
t
here
are
circles \320\232\320\237\320\272
and
2 bound
\320\232\320\237\320\272,
of H3,
tessellation
the
7it G
\316\223
and
only finitely
(hat there
and
(\342\226\240i
{1,2,3,4}.
the
replacing
the
circles
subsequence
and
7^1(AT\342\200\236lj)
(ATnA.)fceN
we can assumewithout
loss
and
I
such
that
G {1,2,3,4}
\320\263,
j
if necessary,
exists fixed
=
7\321\2141(\320\232\320\237\320\272+2)
4>i{Cj)
then identical to
everywhere.
G
\316\266*.
of two adjacent
\320\276
form jk(X) and \320\273/,
This again means that
faces
of the
arc
many possibilities for
Therefore,
1(\320\232\320\237\320\272+2).
\321\203\320\272
subsiibsequence
which
that
used
for every
in the
\320\272
G
first case,
N.
The
by
of generality
\342\200\224
7jT1(A'\342\200\236/,)
argument
replacing Cj
by
is
<pi(Cj)
10. Kleinian
280
10.5.4. The
Farey
the beginning of
this
(Remember
that
eSi.
if and
ez
on three
depends
si + S3 +
that
such
space.
parameter
tessellation
these
chapter,
by
definition
\342\200\224
\316\266
\316\2661
is an
if
only
s5 = 0. Actually,
integer
groups
and bending of the

Our shearing
complex parameters sj, S3, S5 G \320\241
of the formulas at
by inspection
on
the exponentials
depend only
of the complex exponential,e* =
multiple of 2\316\271\317\204\\.)
the tiling group

for some values of these parameters,
and
discrooked
tessellation
acts
freely
corresponding
Farey
on
We
be
\320\2303.
interested
the
might
continuously
hyperbolic space
in plotting all the values
of the
this
for which
parameters
happens.
\342\200\224
=
the fact that s\302\247
even if we take into account
-.si
S3,
However,
and
eAl
this leaves us with
two
free complex
that
so
\320\265\320\257\320\267,
parameters
a crooked Farey tessellation is determinedby the point
G
(cSl,e*3)
=
R4. Most of us are not very comfortable with 4-dimensional
C2
the dimension by imposing an
We can try to decrease
pictures.
additional
such condition is that s5 = 0, so
condition.
The
simplest
=
that
The
set of crooked Farey tessellation
S3
\342\200\224si.
corresponding
slice
in
is known
as the
Earle
the set of all crooked Farey
determined
element
of the Earle slice is completely
tessellations. An
by the
that
saw
We
\316\223
of
the
complex number
is
tiling group
group
\320\223
of
change a
variables
since
the
which
complex plane C, the lighter

Figure 10.14is the set of values
2v~ 1 _ 2eSl - 1
~
\316\223
acts
from
large
circle
in Figure
encloses
10.14,
the
which
set D
of Proposition 10.13are satisfied.

The horizontal line segment
corresponds
the
tiling
+ 1
u.
freely on H3.
picture was drawn
and
discontinuously
recovered
\317\205
uses
of
hypotheses
the
precisely,
shaded
group
is easily
centeredat the origin,
which
More
it
This
software OPTi.
using the
The
tiling
= eSl
\316\275
which
\317\205
for
G \320\241
Farey tessellation associated to
2e\"i
\320\252\320\223+\316\212
for
1.
in the
U~
Note that
of
values
e\"5
area of
and,
cauliflower-shaped
and
u_1
the space of
crooked
the
e\"3
acting freely on H3.
a kleinian
and
G C,
10.14 represents
Figure
the
= eSl
\317\205
tiling
groups
group
\320\223
is fuchsian.
associated
to the
These
is
the
circle
of values of
See
\320\270
for
Exercise
of radius
which
the
10.13.
to real values of u, for

fuchsian groups are exactly
complete hyperbolic tori
that
we
More
10.5.
of
examples
in
of that
also
have
We
standard
2H1
slice
to the case
a=
G (1,
+oc)
section).
the values
and it 2 =
indicated
of Figure 10.8. Chapter
to
^ corresponding
-1\342\200\2241.205 0.714i
associated
u^
be devoted
will
11
to the point
corresponding
group
groups
(corresponding
tessellation,
Fare.y
the example
G.7.2
Section
notation
the
an
The Earlo
10.14.
Figure
considered in
\320\272
lei ni
\342\200\224
\\ x
\321\211
the boundary of (he lighter

shaded
area.
boundary but not quite on it.
In the general case,let \316\251
\320\2412
be the
\320\241
parameters (e,Sl .e''3)
for which the tiling
group
Farey tessellationacts discontinuously
and
-7=1,
The
set of
of the
freely
located
point
u2
to the
to
tiling
exactly
is near
the
on
the
values of the
associated crooked
on the hyperbolic
the properties of the limit set \320\233\320\263

that
hold
for all
we proved under the hypotheses of Proposition10.13
of \316\251.
for
More
parameters
precisely,
(ea,-,e*3) located in the interior
these parameters, the limit
set \320\233\320\263
is homeomorphic
to the circle, and
has no well-defined
line at most points unlessthe parameters
tangent
space
all
\320\2303. It
(eSl,cS3) on
points
tiling
still a
its
be shown that
real.
For
the
can
group
kleinian
geometry
\320\223
of
group
is much
the
the
boundary
corresponding
acting
freely
of the parameter
set \316\251,
crooked Farcy tessellation is
more complex. \320\22311

particular,
the
HI3,
limit
but
set is
10. Kleinian groups
282
not
group
in
of
Yair
will
such a
investigate
is
implies that the space \316\251
[Minskyx]
sense that any two points can bejoinedto each
Minsky
in the
path-connected,
other by
We
11.
Chapter
A result
circle any more.
to the
homcomorphic
contained
curve
a continuous
in
\316\251,
However.
10.14
Figure
intricate near its boundary. It is

what
on that picture.
is visible
Ken Brombergrecently
in [Bromberg]
showed
that there are points
at such a point
where \316\251
is not even locally connected. \316\223\316\267
particular,
\316\241
\316\251
which
are
G \316\251,
we can
find a radius \316\265
> 0 and points Q, R \342\202\254
and
such that any continuous
curve from Q to
close to \316\241
arbitrarily
= R4.
leave the euclklean ball \316\222,\316\271^{\316\241.\316\265)
\320\2412
R in \316\251
must
\320\241
suggests
that
actually
much
its
is quite
geometry
more
than
intricate
10.15
Figure
This is illustrated in Figure

which represents a different 210.15,
dimensional cross-sectionof \316\251.Each of the three squares is obtained
in on a piece of the squareimmediately
to the
left. The
by
zooming
little
that
\"islands\"
square can
cross-section
but
dimensions),
not
by a
curve which
10.15were
pictures
software Bear [Dumas].
we
general phenomenon.
family
to
of kleinian
a certain
topology of
groups
domain
the
quotient
fuchsian
Any
the
right-hand
curve in
continuous
within
remains
created
for crooked
observed
\316\241
of
and using the additional
represented
of Figure
What
the center
be connectedto each other by
the
(leaving
toward
converge
by
David
\316\265
of
Dumas,
Farey tessellations is part

group
\316\223\302\260
can
be
\316\251
two
The
P.
using his
of a
more
to a
deformed
depending on complex parametersbelonging
\316\251
in C\342\204\242,
where
space
the
dimension
For
any
\316\2272/\316\223\302\260.
\316\267
depends
such kleinian
on the
group
\320\223
10.6.
correspondingto an interior
283
Klein
and
Puchs
Poincare,
point
of
circle, and admits no tangent
set
limit
the
\316\251,
is homeomor\320\233\320\263
points unless the

and
in \320\241If the
the
limit
set
a
is
circle
group
\320\223\302\260
for instance for the tiling
is compact,
quotient
space \320\2352/\320\223\302\260
group
we constructed
of the
tessellation
of H2 by hyperbolic octagons that
in Section 6.5.2, the limit
kleinian group \320\223
set of the deformed
even
admits
no tangent line at any point,
at all. The kleinian groups
to points
on the boundary of \316\251
are much
more complex: it is
corresponding
only very recently that a reasonable understanding of their
geometry
has been reached [Minsky2, Brock & Canary & Minsky].
phic to the
fuchsian
\320\223
is essentially
10.6.
The
Poincare,
of
terminology
Poincare
Fuchs
and
kleinian
and
one of
(1854-1912),
Klein
fuchsian groups is
the mathematical giants
Poincare was led to hyperbolic geometry

He was studying the linear
differential
(10.1)
unknown,
the
function
Compared
complex-valued.
or
in
a differential
equations
where the
all
setup
course, the
be somewhat surprising,but
the
Henri
time.
route.
= 0,
importantly,
to the
his
of
an unexpected
through
p(t) is given,
and where, more
due to
equation
x\"(t)+p(t)x(t)
the
where
at most
line
basic
quantities
taught
usually
fact
function
that
definitions
x(t)
is the
x, p, t are
in calculus
t is
complex
may
and properties of
context.
When
a specific family of examples, where p(t) was
investigating
a rational
that
function
with real coefficients, Poincare found
the
of
to a certain group \316\223
rise
space of local solutions to (10.1)gave
linear
fractional
maps with real coefficients.
Using (and proving) the
Poincare Polygon
Theorem
acts
discon6.25, he then showed that \316\223
\320\2302.
In
on
the
construction
the
tinuously
upper half-space
addition,
from
the domain
provided a preferred homeomorphism
f:X\342\200\224+\316\2272/\316\223
X of the given
The
function
groups
p(t) to the quotient space \320\2352/\320\223.
\320\223
in
are
related
considered
Poincare
these
examples
closely
by
very
to the tiling
to complete punctured tori that
we
associated
groups
in Sections 5.5, 6.6 and 6.7.2.
investigated
differential
equations
immediately
extend
to this complex
In a subsequent work
equation 10.1 by allowing
to
close
real
tessellations that we
10.5. In particular, it yields a group
crooked Farey
coefficients,
complex
space
hyperbolic
Polyhedron Theorem
then
discontinuous.He
\320\2303
and,
proving)
action of
used
this technique
subset
of the
subset
\316\251
is
again,
the upper
complement
on \320\241
discontinuously
with
the
H3
is
homcomor-
and
p(t)
the action
\316\251
is
of \320\223.
This
the limit
Rather,
one of two pieces of
more.
\316\251
is
a proof that
\316\223
acts
makes
quotient space \316\251/\316\223
10.4 for
Exercise
so that
\320\233\320\263,
of
the Poincare
\316\223
on
under
half-plane \320\2302any
to the circle, and
\342\200\224 See
\320\241
\316\233\317\201.
maps
isometries
to producea natural
X is the domain of
Riemann sphere\320\241
invariant
not
is homeomorphic
\316\233\317\201
the
(and
showed
f-.X\342\200\224+\316\251/\316\223
where,
fractional
linear
the
10.1 and
the Riemann sphereC. Poincare
that the
using
10.9,
phism
\316\223
of
to
tessellation
in Sections
investigated
maps extendto
linear fractional
these
that
proved
now acting on
perturbing
rational fraction p(t)

numbers. This process is very
of the
standard Farey
of the
deformations
to the
similar
coefficients
groups
started
Poincare
[Poincare5],
the
to be complex,although
set
Kleinian
10.
284
the
sense.
In the
and
its
functions
the
real coefficientcase, the homeomorphism

/: X \342\200\224\342\231\246
\316\231\316\2572/\316\223
are essentially equivalent to the data of certain
In
which are well behaved with
to the action of \316\223.
respect
derivatives
papers
[Poincarei,
call these functions
Poincare
\320\240\320\276\321\202\321\201\320\260\320\263\321\221\320\267,
Poincare4],
fuchsian
functions
in honor
decided
to
of Lazarus Fuchs,
He also gave the
him.
whose articles [Fuchsi,Fuchs2]had inspired
name
of fuchsian
to
the
of
isometries
of H2 occurring
groups
groups
in this way. Felix Klein then complained that he had already
considereda notion
to these fuchsian functions
and
equivalent
groups
acting
on IE2, and consequently deservedmorecredit than
discontinuously
Fuchs.
did not change his terminology but, when
Poincare
moving
to the case with
coefficients
complex
(which Klein had never
considered at that
the
name
time, although he did later on), Poincare
gave
of kleinian
of H3
groups to the discontinuous groupsof isometries
See the note added by Klein, acting as
occurring in this context.
editor of the journal, to Poincare's announcement [Poincarei] and
Poincare'sresponsein [Poincare2].The upshot
fuchsian groups have

had little to do with
almost
kleinian
no connection
groups.
of
the
to Fuchs,
story
and
that
is that
Klein
10.6.
a period
as
that
\"real
summarizeshis
this. The late nineteenth

as the
mathematics,
century
endeavor to
set
would sometimes lead to rather

the emergence of pathological examples,
are continuous but nowhere differentiable.

feelings about this trend, and clearly thought
life\" mathematical
The
objects should be well behaved.
had
following
included
285
which
functions
Poincare
in
foundation
This
unintuitive results.
such
of turmoil
a solid
on
mathematics
Klein
story about
is another
There
was
Puchs and
Poincare,
mixed
quote from
the author)
by
(translated
[\320\240\320\276\321\202\321\201\320\260\320\263\321\221\320\261]
rather
thinking
well.
Logic sometimesgeneratesmonsters.The past half

has seen the emergence of a multitude
of
century
bizarre functions which
to
resemble
as
little
try
as possiblethe honest
functions
applications. No more continuity,
but
continuity
no
derivatives,
have
which
or
else
Even more,
etc...
some
a
from
functions
point of view, it is these strange
logical
are the most general, and those that
which
one
for them only appear as a
encounters
without
looking
specialcase In the old days, when one invented
a new function,
it was with the goal of some
practical application;
today,
they are invented for the
flaws in the reasonings
single purposeof exhibiting
and
one
of our fathers,
this is the only thing
that
will ever extract out of them.
in a
that these \"monsters\"
already
appeared
work.
For
the
article
instance,
way
[Poincare5] contains
to
ones
which are similar
the
that
we considered in
examples
many
was aware that in these examples,the partial
Poincare
this
chapter.
of the Riemann
sphere that he was constructing would
tiling
and
accumulate
on a continuous
that this curve was
curve \320\233\321\200,
thought
to
be
it
seems
that
the worst
However,
unlikely
very differentiable.
he envisioned was that this curve might not have second derivatives;
Little
did
see
he realize
in his
natural
[Poincarei,
available
to him
page
which
closed curve was nowhere
559]. It is only
prevented
differentiable,
the
Poincare
limited
from
namely,
computing
observing
it would
power
that this
produce one
10. Kleinian groups
286
these
of
for
mann sphere
group of H3 generated
that
\316\223
is a
b. Determinethe
10.2. Show that
if and only
subset
closed
does not
\320\232
of \320\241
which
limit
the
contain
set
is
\320\233\320\263.
(Compare
limit
the
set of
a kleinian
group
\320\223
which
is nonempty
\320\223
group
\320\223
is infinite.
if
10.3. Consider a kleinian
Exercise
a.
\316\223.
10.3.)
Proposition
Exercise
\317\206.
a nonempty
which
but
\320\223
by
group.
set of
limit
under
invariant
kleinian
there exists
that
Show
extension
to the Rieisometry of H3 who.se
=
\316\271\342\200\224\342\226\272
\320\223
\320\263
and
let
be the
2\320\263.
G
homothety
{\317\206\316\267\\\316\267
\316\226}
the
be
\317\206
\320\241
is the
transformation
Show
10
Chapter
Exercise 10.1. Let
c.
in a
occur
never
would
thought
way.
Exercises
a.
that he
curves
pathological
natural
fixes the
\320\241
point oo \342\202\254
that every element of \320\223

extension of a linear
is the isometric
fractional map of the form ipa,b(z) = az + b or ipa,b(z)
Show
antilinear
az +
b.
b, with
or
\316\261
0.
\316\246
Show that
an clement 70 of the form

or va.b with
\317\206\316\261\316\233
of \320\241
to 00. Hint:
it also fixes a point
in addition
For
consider
the elements 7_1 \320\276
with
and
\320\265\320\223
7 G \320\223,
\\n\\ large,
70 \"07070
remember that \320\223
acts
on \316\210.3.
discontinuously
1,
\316\246
\\a\\
\316\223
contains
if
then
either
that
Conclude
\321\201
of euclidean
\320\223
consists
(K3,deuc) respecting
H3
or
entirely
it respects a
isometries of
complete
unique
geodesic
ofH3.
Exercise 10.4 (Discontinuity

by
(X, d), not necessarily
If a group \320\223
acts on a metric space
the action is discontinuous atPeX
which
if there
exists a ball \316\222\316\261(\316\241,\316\265)
meeth its images y(Bd(P,s)) for only
When
the action is by isometries,
one readily checks
finitely
many 7 G \316\223.
that
in Section
this
definition
is equivalent to the one given
7.2.
We
the
to
want
at
discontinuous
every
euclidean
ball
euclidean
domain).
isometries,
show
that the
point
of the
\316\266
action of a kleinian
metric deuc. Since the

Ddeuc(z,2s) which is
of a contradiction,
meets
\"fn(Bdi.nv(z,\316\265))
there
that
Bdû(z,e)
from
disjoint
an
exists
is closed,
set
limit
infinite
on the
rn
be
the
euclidean
for every
radius of
euclidean spheredelimiting
this
limit set \320\233\320\263,

for
there exists a small
\320\233\320\263.
Suppose,
sequence
sphere.
(7n)neN
in search
such that
By Proposition 9.10,
sphere centered on
Pick a base point
Pq G H3
\316\267
G
N.
each 7\342\200\236(\320\222\320\271\320\265\320\270\321\201(\320\263,\320\265))
is delimited
in K3 by a euclidean
C; let
\316\223
on \320\241
is
group
\342\200\224 the
\320\241
of
\320\233\320\263
complement
Bde\342\200\236c(z,\316\265).
for
Exercises
a. Suppose,in
zx
(7,,,.
\316\265.
other extreme,
Al the
h.
)fc
& \320\233\320\263\302\267.
Show
that
choice of
= 0. Show that there exists a

Km\342\200\236.,sr\342\200\236
that
v such
{lnk(Po))kes convergesto some point
which
the
contradicts
\316\265,
necessarily dt.uc(z,zx) \316\266
that
addition,
subsequence
supposethat
exists
there
that
namely,
287
10
Chapter
from below.
are bounded
r\342\200\236
the
that
0 such
>
r(1
rn
for even\316\271\316\267
\316\267
N.
\302\243
r> \302\243
\320\241
that there exists a constant
> 0 such that for every
N,
with
C.
Show
there exists a point
\302\243
s?
P\342\200\236
-\302\267\342\226\240\342\200\236
))
(\320\224/.,\320\2461.
dhYi,(Pa, Pn)
(\320\263.=
thai
there exists a subsequence (~\302\253\320\264
for which (\"\316\271\316\2317,1(^\316\257\316\271))\316\221.\3
.
)Ar-
Show
point ;v
to some
converges
I'se this
\316\266
\316\233\317\201.
contradicts
which
\316\265,
necessarily
(1,,,\317\210,:\317\207)^
distances
the euclidean and hyperbolic

BH
from
to
7,7L(Po)
\302\243
7\342\200\236
l{Pn)
\316\265).
.(\320\263.
Combine
c.
\316\277
show
thai
property \316\271
the choice \316\277\316\257\316\265.
Hint:
Compare
that
d. Show
of
for
that
reach a contradiction in
a and b to
parts
action
the
\320\223
at
every
every
all
Conclude
eases,
\342\200\224
\320\241
\302\243
is discontinuous.
\320\233\320\263
\320\237
the
\302\243
\320\241,
\320\2337
action
of
is
\320\223
not
discontinuous
at z.
shows that for
argument
of \320\223
at
is discontinuous
similar
action
the
the limit set

discontinuity
Let p: H3
kleinian
\320\223.
group
the orthogonal
\342\200\224\342\226\272
H2 be
projection constructed
10.3.
Section
a. Let
domain of the
10.5.
Exercise
in
For this
\320\233\320\263\302\267.
the
extension of definitions,
obvious
the point
00 if and only if 00 is not in
\342\200\224
the
is called
reason, the complement \320\241 \320\233\320\263
\320\271
be
a vector
of
differential
based
at
\316\241
\302\243
E\\
its image
that
Show
that
is such
\317\201
under
the
and
^
||\302\243>pp(v)||hyP
||Dpp(?)||euc
to p(P).
where d is the hyperbolic distance from \316\241
b. Let 7 be a piecewise
at distance
differentiable
curve in H3 which
stays
that 4yP(p(7))
at least D > 0 from \320\250\320\2232.
Show
^ thyP(7)cosh D.
coshd,
||v||hyP
In
\316\266
||v||eUc-
when
particular,
projection p:
H3
projection
orthogonal
from
projecting
\342\200\224\342\226\272
H2 decreases
X3
far
lengths
away,
the
orthogonal
hyperbolic
much more
that
the
euclidean
\342\200\224\342\226\272
K2.
-\302\273
-> \320\2302
IK be
10.6. Let \317\201:
Exercise
\320\2303
and
the orthogonal
q : \320\2503
function introduced for Lemma
10.5.
projection and the signed distance
\317\207
Endow the product \316\2272
\316\232
with
the product dhyp x dcuc of the hyperbolic
metric dhyp of \316\2112and of the euclidean metric deuc of \320\226,as defined in
Exercise 1.6.
a.
Show
the
that
\317\207
\317\201
q(P)
product
(p(P)- q(P))
function
\317\207
\317\201
q:
for
\316\241
\316\2273,
is
\302\243
every
\342\200\224\302\273
\317\207
\316\2272
defined
\320\2303
\316\232,
a homeomorphisrn.
by
10. Kleinian
288
b.
groups
extended
to a fuchgroup of isometries of \320\2302,
denote by \316\223.
Endow
the quotient spaces \320\2302/\320\223
and \320\2353/\320\223
with
the quotient metrics dhyp defined
by the hyperbolic
metrics dhyp
of H2 and H3 (and denoted by the same symbols).
Finally,
the product \316\2272/\316\223
\317\207\317\213
the product metric dhyP x deuc- Show
endow
with
that there is a homeomorphism
be
\316\223
Let
sian
a discontinuous
we also
which
group
px
by the property
defined
q:
\342\200\224
\321\205
R
\320\2353/\320\223
\320\2302/\320\223
that
\317\207
\317\201
q(P)
= (p(P),
q(P))
for
\316\241
G H3.
every
Let \316\223
be a fuchsian
10.7 (Twisted fuchsian
group,
groups).
\342\200\224\342\231\246such
\316\223
acting on H3, and supposethat we are given a map \317\201:
{\342\200\2241,
+1}
=
that /0(7 \320\276
is a group
(namely, if you know what this is, \317\201
7')
p(l)p(l')
to the group Z2 = {\342\200\2241,
where the group law
homomorphism from \316\223
+1},
we define a new isometry \316\267\317\201
is defined
by multiplication). For every 7 G \316\223,
=
=
\316\277
of H3 as follows: If /0(7) = 1, then
then
\342\200\2241,
\316\267\317\201
7; if \317\201{\316\267)
7P = \317\204
7,
where r: H3 \342\200\224\342\226\272
H3 is the euclidean reflection across the vertical half-plane
H2
\316\2273.
Then
consider
the set
\320\241
Exercise
\320\263\321\200={/\320\273\320\265\320\263}
7P obtained
of all
a. Show
b.
in
way.
group of isometries of (H3,dhyp).

action of \320\223\321\200
on H3 is discontinuous.
is a
\320\223\321\200
that
Show that the

Lemma
10.6.
this
kleinian
in this
obtained
\320\223\321\200
group
a twisted
is called
way
Hint:
Compare
fuchsian
group.
the limit set of
that
\321\201
Show
fuchsian
twisted
is contained
group
in
\320\232
\320\241.
\321\201
d.
Let
at least
has
isometry
group whose limit

three points. Show
twisted fuchsian group
a kleinian
be
\320\223'
circleand
and
\317\210
set
in a euclidean
exists a hyperbolic
\316\223\317\201
as above
such that
is contained
that
there
=
\316\244'
\316\277\316\212\317\201\316\277\317\206\302\267\316\267\317\201
{\317\206-\317\207
\302\243TP}.
Hint:
Exercise
Choose
10.8.
so
\317\206
Let X
that
it sends the
Consider X as a hyperbolic
=
\316\241
and
(0,0,1),
\320\232
\320\241
\321\201
be the hyperbolic half-space
X = {(x,y,u)
one vertex
circle \320\241
to
\302\243
> 0,ii
\320\2503;\321\203
polyhedron
> 0}.
its
by decomposing
boundary
two edges
El = {(x,y, u)
E2 = {(x,y,u)
= 0, \321\203
= 0, \320\270
\317\207
G \316\2323;
> 1}
= 0,0
\320\265\320\2323;\320\266=
0,y
<
it
<
1},
into
and
10
for Chapter
Exercises
289
faces
two
F, =
{(x, y,
u)
=
\317\207
\302\243
> 0}
> \320\236,
\316\2323;
\321\2030, \320\270
and F2 =
{(x, y,
u)
= 0, \320\270
\317\207
\342\202\254
> 0}.
< 0, \321\203
\316\2323;
Glue the faces Fl and F2 together

F2 of the
Fi \342\200\224*
by the restriction \317\206\316\271:
\342\200\224\342\226\272
\316\2273
\316\2273
the antilinear
fractional map
hyperbolic isometry \317\206\316\271:
extending
\316\266
a.
b.
Show that hypotheses (1-3) of Theorem10.11are

hypothesis (4) does not hold.
For any \320\263
> 0, endow the sphere
S = 5*yp(A>.r)
{Pe
but
satisfied,
that
= r}
X;dhyp(P,P0)
metric ds, where ds(P,Q) is defined as the infimum

path
to Q in S.
of all curves joining \316\241
Let
hyperbolic lengths
be
the
metric
the
factor
obtained
ds
ds
by
by
multiplying
ainh r
Bi^h r
Exercise 9.4, and the proof of Lemma 10.10). Show
that
(compare
the
is
isometric
to
projective
plane
(KP2,dsph)
^^ds)
(Sjhyp(Po,r),
of Section 5.3.
the
with
of the
c.
the
that
Show
(H3,dhyp). It
Exercise10.9.Let
parameterssi,
S3 and
be
convenient
\316\244
be
a crooked
S5 with
.S5
si+s3\342\200\224
group. Consider the hyperbolic

map
a.
p(z)
Farey tessellation associated to

be the corresponding
0, and let \316\223
tiling
defined
isometry
by the linear fractional
=
\342\200\224
e~S5^.
Show that
b. Show
locally isometric to
to use the results of Exercise 5.11.
is not
(\316\247,\316\254\317\207)
space
quotient
may
two ideal triangles
the
\317\201
exchanges
\316\223\"1
and
T~.
l
=:
=:
\316\277
\316\277 \316\277
\316\277 \317\201
\316\277 =
\302\260
\317\201
\317\206\316\273
\317\206~* \317\201,
\317\201
\317\206~\316\271
\317\206\316\271
\317\201, \317\206\316\271
\317\206% p and
that
\316\277
\316\277 = \317\2102
\316\241\316\241
\316\250\316\220'
that
\321\201
Conclude
d.
Let r
translation
crooked
the
\317\201
respects
when the tiling

group
limit set \320\233\320\263-
acts
\316\223
on
r is a horizontal
Show
that
\317\201\316\277\317\2063\316\277\317\206\\.
is equal
vector
to
half
\316\244
and
also
\316\210?,
\317\201
respects
that
the
whose
translation,
of the
vector
translation
the
tessellation
Farey
discontinuously
translation
\320\276
\302\260\317\2102
'-\320\240\320\267
\302\260\317\206\316\271\302\267
\317\206\316\271
e.
that
Show
\316\223
acts
crooked
discontinuously,
10.10
Exercise
and,
Farey tessellation \316\244
that r respects the limit
parameters).
(Shear-bend
\320\241
\302\243
parameters s\302\273
defining
the long definitions intimidate
We want
7. Do not
let
and
\316\212\\
E. Orient
\316\225
to
two
adjacent
left as
seen from
be
\320\2232
the
to
a crooked
of the
interpretation
Let
the
\317\204
respects
tiling group
when
set
the
\320\233\320\263-
give a geometric
Farey tessellation
you.
triangles of T,
\316\244\316\212.
Namely,
meeting
first
orient,
an edge
in the Farey
along
10. Kleinian groups
290
the
T\302\260,
edge
face T\\ corresponding
the
of E.
orientation
to
the
left as
this
orientation
\320\232
to
transport
this because
from
to
3 the
dimension
in
seen
an
notion
we arc standing on the

triangle
on \316\225
determined
by the standard
8.4. The shear
horocircles of T\\ and Ti, respectively, as defined in Lemma
is
the
the
and
of
\316\244
between
T\\
Ti
parameter
triangles
signed distance
the shear
from P\\ to Pi in this oriented edge E. Compare
of
parameters
of
left
and
right
depends
Let Pi and
T\\.)
on
then
and
T\\,
to do
need
(We
to
E\302\260
corresponding
tessellation
Pi be the
which
base
way
points
Section 8.4.
\316\270
G [0,2\317\200)be
Let
one needs to rotate
the angle by which
Ti
\316\225
in
along
but on the side of \316\225

\316\244\316\257,
hyperbolic plane containing
as one looks in
here
we measure the angles counterclockwise,
opposite
\316\244\316\212;
the direction of the orientation
of E. This angle \316\270
is the external
dihedral
to bring
order
angle
\316\270
between
and
\316\212\\
that
Suppose
\320\263
G {1,3,
is
equal
to Re(si)
\316\2232.
\320\232
is
5}, under an
parameter
equal
in the
it
up
case where 7 is the
to
the
image of
element 7 of
one of
the
tiling
standard
the
group
\320\223.
Show
to Im(s,), and that

the external
an integer multiple of 2\317\200.Hint:
with
\316\225\317\207,
edges
that
dihedral
First
the shear
angle
consider
\316\270
is
the
map.
identity
10.11 (Schottky groups). Let B\\, B2, B3 and B4 be four euballs in K3, centered on the xy-pla&e
and far apart enough from
\320\241,
each other that the corresponding
closed balls are disjoint. Let X be the
X is a hyperbolic
H3 \342\200\224
In
U B3 U IhBi U \320\2572
complement
particular,
in E3 delimited
\316\240.2,
planes \316\240\316\271,
\320\237\320\267,
polyhedron
by four disjoint
hyperbolic
and
with
no vertex at infinity.
of
Choose
isometries
\320\223\320\246,
\317\206\316\271,
\317\206\316\271,
\317\206$
\317\206^
to \316\2402,
and
sends X
holds:
sends
\316\240\316\271
(\320\2303,
\317\206\316\271
cihyp) such that the following
Exercise
clidean
to
side
the
sends
of
that
\316\2402
X to the
group generated
a.
Show
Polyhedron
b. Show
that
by
and
\317\206\316\271,
\317\206\302\2672,
\317\206\\.
\317\206\316\271,
\316\223
acts
Theorem
that
=
sends
to \320\2374,
is opposite \316\247;
and
\320\237\320\267
\317\206\316\271
\317\2063
\317\206~\316\231\317\207\\
Let
\316\223
be the
is opposite X; and 1^4 = \316\250\316\2201
\342\226\240
side of \320\2374
that
every
discontinuously
10.9.
element
7=
\316\223
can
\302\243
on H3.
Hint:
be written
Use
in a
Poincare's
unique
way
as
\317\206\317\212\316\273
\316\277\317\206\316\2572
\316\277\302\267-\302\267\316\277\317\2061\316\267,
for each j, ij is an element of {1,2,3,4} and

the set {ij,ij+i}
is different
of saying
that
from
is a fancy way
{1, 2} and {3,4} (which
n=
0 when 7 is the
there is no obvious simplification); by convention,
Hint:
To prove the uniqueness, look at the tiles \"/'(X)
map.
identity
are crossed
that
of X to a
by an arbitrary
geodesic
going from a point
where,
point
of \"f(X).
c.
Let
a sequence valued in {1,2,3,4},

from
{1,2} and {3,4} for
be
(in)nifi
291
10
for Chapter
Exercises
d.
Show
point
\316\266
of the
Show
that
the
that
for every
this proves that

of the limit set
e.
Exercise
10.12.
Let
Section
associated
a unique sequence (\320\263\320\277)\320\237\302\2

In particular,
setup of part \321\201
be
\320\223
to a
one
as
draw
planes
sketch the
all the limit
b. Show
set
limit
\316\273(|),
element
such
that
G \320\223
such
that
\321\201
Conclude
D2
in
tessellation
point ?
is contained
\320\233\320\263
that
in
parallel lines, which
exists two
circles
tangent
\320\241
admits
\316\233\317\201
parameters
\342\200\224\342\226\272
\316\273:
\316\232
be
\320\233\320\263
10.14.
there
Q,
Di U D2.
7(00) = ?, and
the limit set
3,4}
of course).
by two
delimited
\316\244
whose
10.13. Let
by two
strip in C, delimited
set \320\233\320\263
oo,
(minus
C,
\320\263
G {1,2,
\320\233\320\263-
kleinian groups considered in
of the
crooked Farey
rational
for every
that
Dl and
disks
at
is a
there
that
contains
(euclidean circles
of the
many
and
w'th
G \316\223
\317\206
\316\271^(\316\240\316\257),
the hypotheses
of Proposition
si, S3, S5 satisfy
the homeomorphism
constructed in Proposition
a. Show
10.16.
one-to-one correspondence betweenpoints

(in)neN as in part \321\201
example and
Similarly
10.5,
is a
hyperbolic
can.
you
to some
exists
\316\266
G \320\233\320\263,
there
there
the)
delimiting
as
Adapt
and
\320\233\320\263
sequences
a specific
Choose
converges in (M3,deuc)
the proof of Lemma
(^/n(Po))nen
Hint.
\320\233\320\263.
Set
= \316\231\316\257\316\267\316\220\316\267-,\316\277\316\277
\316\266
the
with
7\316\267(\302\267\316\241\316\277),
that
such
sequence
limit set
\316\267
G N.
every
the set
that
such
{in,in+i} is different
use part
a tangent
Hint:
open
disjoint
to
other
each
Consider
an
a.
line at each \316\273(2)with
f eQ.
10.13. Let \316\244

be
a crooked Farey tessellation associated to

be the
\316\223
ss such that
s6 = 0 and si + s3 = 0. Let
in the Earle slice of
is contained
tiling group, which
corresponding
Section 10.5.4.
Show that these parameters satisfy
the conditions
of
Proposition
in the sense that
< -1\302\267
> 0, if and only if fifrr
10.13,
cos(Tm(s!))
the
with
in
circle
represented Figure 10.14.)
(Compare
Exercise
parameters
si,
Exercise
S3 and
10.14 (Domino diagrams

Let \316\244
be the crooked
8.7.
Bxercise
with
parameters
si +
\316\262\316\271,
s2, S3 G \320\241
associated
to
the
T,
Farey triangle
(if
where
82 +
s3 = 0. Let
T\302\260
in
want to give an explicit formula

our attention to the case where
all its vertices are nonnegative.
J\302\260.We
restrict
This
revisited).
Farey tessellation
the
for
T\302\260
is
is a
of
continuation
determined
by
the
\320\223
be an ideal triangle
standard Farey tessellation
the vertices of T. We will
to the right of 0oo, namely,
10.
292
Let S1S2\302\267
\302\267
\302\267
Sn, with
the Farey triangle
describing
Kleinian
each Sk equal to L of R, be the

T\302\260
as in Exercise
8.5, and
groups
sequence
symbol
consider the
is associated
to one
domino
By construction, each domino
diagram.
of the edges \316\225
of the Farey tessellation T\302\260
that
are traversed as one travels
from
the triangle
is
Oloo to the triangle
as in Exercise 8.5. The edge\316\225
T\302\260,
of the form 'y(Ei), where 7 is an element of the tiling
and where
\320\223\320\276,
group
= Ooo. For
=
Ei is one of the standard edges\316\225\316\212
E3 = loo and \320\225\321\212
(\342\200\224l)oo,
such a domino
bullet by
associated
to an edge ~t{Ei), label its upper
right
eSi/2 and its lower right bullet by e~s*/2. In particular, the two leftmost
bullets
of the domino diagram receiveno labels.
associated
For
instance,
the domino
of Exercise
(8.1)
diagram
8.7 is labelled
as
follows.
e\302\2733/2
e.-3/2
efi/2
es3/2
e\302\273i/2
gi.j/2
\302\267
\342\200\224+
\302\267\342\200\224\302\273\302\267\342\200\224>\302\267\342\200\224>\302\267\342\200\224>\302\267\342\200\224\302\273\302
\\
\\
\\
\\
2\302\267\342\200\224+\302\267\342\200\224+\302\267\342\200\224+\302\267\342\200\224+\302\267\342\200\224+\302\267\342\200\224+\302\2672
e-\302\2733/2
For
each
path
domino
in the
\317\201
W(p) =
be
the
Finally,
e\302\261sH/2e\302\261s*2/2...e\302\261^/2
product of the labels thus

for every i, j G {1, 2}, let
!XL
S21 '
b.
\"11+\320\2372
'
S21+S22
Devise
triangle
\316\244
of the
triangle
gj^J
a similar
T\302\260
which
bullets traversed
to the
associated
\317\201
goes
Show that the
\320\265-\"\320\267/2
\320\265~\320\237/2
diagram, let
Sij =
a.
e-al/2
e-33/2
e-\316\212/2
by
W(P)\302\267
\316\243
from \320\263
to j
crooked Farey tessellation
\316\244
has
vertices
\302\24312.
'
\302\25322
formula
is on
when
the
left
\316\244
is
of
associated
Ooo, namely,
to a standard Farey
with all vertices non-
positive.
We are
into
not
a more
with the idea

any hint,
challenging research project.
giving
p.
that
this
problem
can be
turned
11
Chapter
The
knot
figure-eight
complement
This
crooked Farcy
We
will sec
its
with the
connection
are
features
in Chapter
more
one
example
tiling group is a kleinian

quite different from those
whose
tessellation
that
encountered
detailed analysis of
to the
is devoted
chapter
of a
10. This
examplealso has
figure-eight knot
one
that
an
can tie
group.
we
that
unexpected
a
in
of
piece
string:.
crooked Farey tessellation
Another
11.1.
crooked
the
Consider
bend parameters
si
tessellation
crooked
In this
Tg,
case, the
corresponding to the shear\342\200\224and

= 0. Let ns call this
=
.95
'^fi, S3
4î
for reasons that we just hinted
at.
tessellation
Farey
=
Tg is
group
tiling
generated
2+1
Z+\\
1+ e
2 +
by
1'
\316\266
+ uj
and
\320\263-1
\320\263-1
-\316\266
+
if we
set
and 1 +
=
\317\211
e^'.
\317\211~2=
Note
that
u;3
1 + \321\201~~\"
=
+
-\316\266
\342\200\2241.
so that
\317\211
\342\200\224
\317\2112
\317\211
+ 1
\321\2103+1
= \342\200\224\317\2112
= \317\211~\316\271.
1 \342\200\224
\317\211
293
11.
294
tessellation
crooked
This
this
is necessarily
picture
limited by the
tessellation
skills
of the
of the
approximation
finite
many
finitely
of the
limit
author).
crooked Farey
set
of \320\223,
\320\233\320\263
namely,
because
unimportant
geometric object that

this case, however,
will
sphere
\320\241
In
albeit
correct
the
can
11.2
exhibits
imperfections
of the
figures
were sufficiently close to the actual

they
was essentially undetectable. In
difference
the
differences
are very noticeable. Indeed, we
set
whole Riemann
11.3 that the limit
is the
\320\233\320\263
a
11.2
should
be
just
particular,
Figure
(mathematically
less pleasing) solid black rectangle.
aesthetically
11.2. Enlarging the

One
11.2.
it includes
Section
in
see
Figure
of
points.
examples of Section10.1,the
In the
were
print
is further
number
the footprints of the crookedtessellation,is representedin

since
accurate,
Again, the picture cannot be completely
only
However,
7g
an approximation
Similarly,
becausethis
poor programming
Figure 11.1. An
knot complement
figure-eight
is illustrated
in Figure 11.1.
imperfect, because one can only
of triangles (and
number
finite
The
observe
some
that
group
although
interesting
\320\2238
mathematically
symmetries
incomplete, Figure
under translation.
11.2. Enlarging the
Figure
One of (.hem,
so as
rotated
1
which
to
2\317\211
with,
the
An approximation of the
is
to make this
clement
as before
295
\320\223\320\271
an
limit
sot of Fs
symmetry of the picture, is by

remember that the figure has been
actual
You should
translation.
horizontal
corresponds
11.2.
group
symmetry
horizontal:
\316\277
\316\277 \316\277 which
\317\206^ \317\206~ \317\206^ \317\2063
- \320\265\320\2671.
\317\211
Since
this
in
reality,
is a
translation
it
translation by
is an element
in H2,
the crooked tessellationT\302\253
tiling
group
and consequently respects its \"footprints\".
As in lOxercise
10.9, there
actually is a translation
symmetry
by half this distance, namely, by
of the
V$, it respects
\342\200\224
\316\212
\317\211.
also discern in the figure an imperfect symmetry

The incompleteness of the computer
by
this
from being completely accurate on the
output prevents
symmetry
the same incompleteness has the advantage
of
picture,
although
the
When
rotated
back
to
its
actual
somewhat
visible.
symmetry
making
this
to
the
\317\204
translation
defined
position,
corresponds
by
symmetry
= \316\266
+ \317\211.
r(z)
However,
vertical
we can
translation.
The
11.
296
translation
new
this
transformation
be the
\316\223\316\262
Let
r. We
figure-eight
knot complement
j
j
*
and
group generated by \317\210\317\207,
\317\206-s
by
\316\223
consider
8 as a group of isometries
will
ofH3.
It
\\
Tg. Indeed, we
fundamental
domain
than
for
\316\223\316\262
simple
no
domain
fundamental
case of
is easier to show for the action

exhibit
in the next section a relatively
out that discontinuity
turns
will
theorem
j
j
for \316\223\302\273.
It can be proven that \316\223
8 admits
with finitely
faces.
This is a special
many
Marden [Mardeni], but the proof

is
far
the
property
beyond
scope of this book.
and
on
Another
direct
\316\2238
proof that the actions of \316\223\302\273
discontinuous is provided by Exercise 11.2.
a
for
of Al
of
this
j
:
H3
are
1
j
i
i
\342\226\240j
11.2.1.
A fundamental
domain for the
be the tetrahedron
perbolic space H3, let \320\220\320\263
action of
In the
\320\223\302\273.
hy-
with vertices at infinity

= \320\265%\\
with vertices
oo
\317\211
let
be
tetrahedron
and
and
the
0, 1,
\316\2242
= 1 \342\200\224
\316\224
The
union
of the
two ideal
at infinity
0. 1. 00 and \317\211~\316\273
\317\211.
with five ideal vertices, nine
tetrahedra
and
is a polyhedron
\316\224\316\271
\316\2242
\316\224
is a fundamental
domain
and six faces. We want
to show that
edges
that
for the action of \316\223
8 on H3. In particular, this will
rs acts
prove
,
;
;
j
\317\212
on H3.
discontinuously
describes
and
the
\316\2242,
namely,
Figure
top view of \316\224\316\271
H3
to
vertical
of these objects from
the
space
hyperbolic
projection
an ideal tetrahedron with
one
vertex
the
\320\241
In this
plane
projection,
to 00 appears as a euclideantriangle
in the plane.
equal
Similarly, an
to
lino
ideal
with
a
vertex
at
oc
a
whereas
segment,
triangle
projects
other
ideal triangle projects to a euclideantriangle.
any
11.3
offers a
\">\342\226\240
\316\257
j
j
\\
ideal triangle T~ of the \316\257

crooked
tessellation
time an element \317\206
\342\202\254
:;
7\321\206.Consequently,
every
vertex
T4 to an ideal triangle with
one
I?8 sends
equal to do. I he j
at oc. Since the
ideal
tetrahedra
one
and
vertex
^(\316\224^) 1\321\202\320\273_\320\265
\317\206(\316\221\\)
j
controlled
combinatorics
of the crooked tessellation T\302\253
is
by that of i
the
standard
we can
find many examples of j
T\302\260,
Farey tessellation
To save space. I
11.3.
such
Some
of these are illustrated in Figure
\317\206.
we have
a
omitted
the symbol \320\276
when
composition of maps; j
writing
'
=
=
should
also
that
and
remember
\317\206\302\261
yon
\317\2062 \317\210^1
\317\206$\316\273\342\226\240
Note
that
and
meet
\316\224\316\271
\316\2242
along
the
11.2.
the
Enlarging
\342\200\224
\317\211
2
group
\342\200\224
\317\211
1
\\
\\
\317\211
\\
297
\316\223\302\273
\317\211
+
/\316\264\316\233
\316\2752(\316\224\316\271)
\\0/
\\1/
/
\\\302\267\302\267\316\2413(\316\2242)
\316\224-
\\
\\
2\342\200\224\317\211
\342\200\224\317\211 \316\231\342\200\224\317\211
11.3.
Figure
for
domain
fundamental
3 \342\200\224
\317\211
\316\223
\316\262
elements
\317\206
analysis enables us to find several
\316\224
for
which
and
meet
Tg
along a
group
along
\317\206(\316\221)
=
=
face of \316\224.More precisely,
consider the elements \321\204\\
\317\204,
\321\204\320\267
\317\210\316\257\316\270\317\20
=
\316\277 of \316\223$.
and
If [\316\261,
the ideal triangle with
ideal
\317\2105 \317\204
b, c] denotes
\317\2063
\317\211.
of \316\224
vertices
sends
the face [0,1 \342\200\224
e C, we see that \317\206\317\207
a, b. \321\201
\316\277\316\277]
\342\200\224
to the face [\317\211,
sends
to
1
and
that
that
1, \320\276\321\201.,
u>,
\321\204\320\267 j0,1,
u>]
[oc,
1],
In
sends
V'r,
\342\200\224
\317\211;
to
[0,1,1
the
of
Fi
t',-,.
1 \342\200\224
\317\211,
[\321\201\320\276,
1]
Let
discontinuously
A is
polyhedron
and freely on
a fundamental
isometries
More
glue
\317\210\316\257.
precisely,
=
=
to
to F2
\317\211,
1, \321\201\320\276]
F3
by \317\210\316\271,
\321\201\320\276]
[\317\211,
[0,1,\317\211]
\342\200\224
and
to Fe = [0,\317\211,\321\201\320\276]
F5 = [0,1,1
by \321\204\320\267
by
\317\211]
\316\224
by
polyhedron
As usual,
ideal
Poincare's Polyhedron Theorem 10.9.Gluethe
face Fi = [0,1-
the
\316\223
8 acts
the
action.
this
We will apply
Proof.
faces
H3, and
space
hyperbolic
domain for
[0.u>,oc].
77ie group
11.1.
Proposition
the
this
particular,
extended
the
of
set
(\316\224,
rfhyp)
the
and
%'\321\207 \320\263''\320\267
\317\2102 \320\244^1\302\267
\321\211
be
the quotient
The edges[0,1],[oc,
\321\204^1.
space so obtained.
to
1; and [0, u>] are glued together
form an edge of \316\224,
as are the edges [0, \321\201\320\276],
and
[\317\211,
\321\201\320\276],
[1,1 \342\200\224\317\211]
[\317\211,
1].
from
Also, if we orient each of the above
edges [a, b] by the direction
a to b, we see by inspection that these orientations are respectedby
the
the Edge Orientation
Condition (2)
gluing
maps \317\210^.Therefore,
of
Theorem
10.9
holds.
The consideration
dihedral
angles
of
1 \342\200\224
[oc,
\317\211],
\316\224
along
of Figure 11.3immediately
the
edges
[0,
shows
that
the
and
[1, \321\201\320\276],
[\317\211,
\321\201\320\276]
\321\201\320\276],
\321\201\320\276]
[1\342\200\224\317\211,
The
11.
298
are
at 0
defines an
each
of 1,
that
that
follows
of
considerations,
sends
\317\201
the
\316\224
along
=
^ + \\
to [0, oo] add up to \317\210+ |

the
Dihedral
Angle Condition
(1) in
is
satisfied.
Theorem
10.9
Polyhedron
are
the
For
=
\320\270
Condition
Horosphere
at 0,
centered
horosphere
Si, Sc are tangent

[a1, b', c'} by a
other.
each
to
euclidean
elementary
such
three
an
sends
\317\206
horosphere Sa to Svâ).
the
ideal vertex
Poincare's
of Poincare's
So, Si,
and
5\317\211
\342\200\224
\317\211,
respectively,
plane of
three
the
\316\224,
if [a,b, c] is
and
\316\261
of \316\224
to
10.11 shows that
to show that
T's
of
\302\260 it can
\317\204
\316\250\316\254-,
\321\204\321\212
ipf1-
terms
be expressed
equation
Sa,
',
Sa,
to
to
glued
other. By
8.4), there are only
if the
Therefore,
also
it
sends
the
\317\206(\316\261),
5^.
the action of
of T's is
can be
\316\250\316\261\302\260
\317\2102\\
\317\204,\317\206^
compositionof
manipulate the above
of F's
Since
ip\\
\317\206\316\263\317\207.
as a
is free.
\320\2238
element
\320\223\302\273.
Every
element
every
Therefore,
we can
Conversely,
terms
can
\320\2238
also an element of
find that
and
equations
be
written
an element
as a
of \316\2238.This
composition of
proves
that
'
rpml,
\320\276
\320\276
\317\210\316\271,
1\321\200\320\267
\317\206\316\271
\317\210^1\316\277\317\2105,
\321\204^\320\263
\317\210^1 \321\2041. Therefore,
consequently
\316\271
expressedas a composition
of
have
Sb and Sc
to each
and tangent
SV
be
\321\210
horospheres
sends
\317\206
map
Si
that
domain.
It remains
element
\\
shows
This
Theorem
Similarly,
r =
'.
2\317\200.Therefore,
that the Horosphere Condition (3) \\

j
Polyhedron Theorem 10.9is satisfied,
the
Theorem
10.9 then asserts that
Polyhedron
group
\\
acts
on H3 and admits \316\224\\
by \317\210\\,
\321\207\321\200\320\267,
\317\2105
discontinuously
Tg generated
as a fundamental
IV
\320\251-
of Poincare's
hypotheses
ipf1 and
of
namely, Sa',
horospheres,
map
gluing
to
equal
hypotheses
(compare Lemma
geometry
dihedral '
of the
horizontal
the
\316\224
along
[\321\201\321\216,
a].
Therefore,
and
b'
fixes
,:
this
\317\206,
map
gluing
horospheres centeredat a',
of
the sum
(3), let
1. Note
face
and
1,
angle
\302\247 \317\210
the
\317\211
and
diameter 1, and let Soo be

that for any face [a, b, c]
euclidean
in
glued
the
and
angles along the edgesthat
dihedral
the
along
itself
glued to [0,1]is
that, are
edges
2\317\200.
Similarly,
dihedral
that
follows
it
\316\224
to
1 centered
radius
0 and oo, and
exchanges
a =
for each
these
From
\\ +
\342\200\224
\317\211.
It
dihedral
other
sphereof
or 1 \342\200\224
the
1, \317\211
\317\211,
is
to
the
dihedral
equal
angle
[0, a]
edge
angles
H3
of
\317\201
isometry
\317\211
and
that
consequently
the
across the
the inversion
that
observe
the
\316\216\316\277
determine
respectively.
\302\247,
\317\210,\317\210,f,
angles,
knot complement
figure-eight
terms
=
every
and
\317\210^1,
\320\2238 \320\223\302\273.
is
'
\320\236
11.2.
Proposition
the
to
isometric
299
sets
Limit
11.3.
The
is
space
quotient
locally
(\320\250.3/\320\223\302\273,\320\260^\321\203\321\200)
space H3.
hyperbolic
Proof. ThisisanimmediatcconseqiienceofTheoremlO.il.
Since
Tg
statement.
following
11.3.
Corollary
acts
immediate consequenceis the
in Tg, an
is contained
The
tiling
on
the
discontinuously
Fg
group
hyperbolic
kleinian group, namely,

H3.
D
space
is a
11.3. Limit sets

the limit
determine
now
We
Lemma
11.4.
The limit
Riemann
sphere
\320\241
The
Proof.
property is
that
in
introduced
by
set.
with
set of
the
the
of
Tg is
group
is
\321\210)
the
\320\223\302\247-
whole
The key
10.7.
Lemma
11.1 and
U Bx.
\320\222\321\210
-(BqUBiU
T& and
groups
of \316\224,
is the
\316\276
5\316\276
of Proposition
proof
kleinian
enlarged
proof is identical to that

if, for each ideal vertex
X
then
5\316\276,
sets of the
\316\222
is the
\316\266
horosphere
ball bounded
in H3.
bounded
It turns out that the two groups

T% and Tg have the
This
follows from a relatively simplealgebraicfact.
a definition.
same limit
We
begin
is a
transformation group \320\223
that
such
for
and
group
every 7 G \320\223
\316\277
\316\277
the
Normal
composition
7' e \320\223',
7 \316\267'7-1 is also an element of \320\223.
are
well
subgroups
play an important role in algebra becausethey
behaved with respect to quotient
Exercise
11.1.
see
spaces;
In our case,we are more interested in the following
property.
sets
Proof.
in
if the limit
//\320\223'
is
\320\223
and
a normal
set of V has
at
least
subgroup of the kleinian group

two elements,
then the limit
and
coincide.
\320\233\320\263'
\320\233\321\200
The key point in
action of
base
of a
11.5.
Proposition
\320\223
and
subgroup
\320\223'
contained
normal
transformation
\320\223.To
point Pq e
prove
the proof is that
this,
consider
H3, and considerits
orbit
under
is invariant
\320\233\320\263<
and
\302\243
\320\233\320\263'
\316\276
T'(Pq)
under
\320\223.Fix
the
a
the action
11. The figure-eightknot
300
complement
\316\223\"
such
sequence of elementsy'n \342\202\254
in
for
R3
U
the
euclidean
metric.
\320\235\320\263\320\277\320\277-\320\273\321\215\320\276
Now,
j'n(Po)
{oo}
of
is a
there
\316\223\".
Then
= j(Pq) and
set Pq
independent
that
in
7(\316\276)is
limit set
=
Since
G \316\223'.
\316\277\316\267'\316\267
\316\267'\316\267
\316\267
\316\277\316\267~\316\273
of base point
choice
the
of
\316\276
Urn
\316\231\317\212\317\204\316\261\316\212\316\277\316\212'\316\267(\316\2410)=
\316\267'\316\267(\316\241\302\243)
\316\267\342\200\224*\316\277\316\277\316\267\342\200\224*\316\277\316\277
7(0=
if we
that
for every
\320\233\320\263'
and
G \320\233\320\263'
\316\276
7
normal
of the
\320\233\320\263'
subgroup
conclude
the
the action
other
\320\223.
In
words,
under
\320\223\"
is invariant
set is
limit
the
(Lemma 10.1), we
ofT.
Proposition
is clearly
\320\233\320\263'
now
We
from
follow
Lemma
under
10.2, it is invariant
at least two points by hypothesis. By
contains
On the other
\320\233\320\263hand,
10.3, it follows that \320\233\320\263'
in \320\233\320\263
is contained
contained
since
\320\223'
in \320\223.
\320\237
of
action
the
in
is closed
\320\233\320\223'
Now,
has
it
and
\320\223,
\320\241
by
prove that
the following
is a
\316\223\302\273
normal
This
of IV
subgroup
will
computation.
Lemma 11.6.
(11.1)
=
\316\277 \316\277
\317\204'1
\317\204
\317\206\316\271
\317\206'3\316\233.
(11.2)
=
\316\277
\320\276\321\202
\317\204-1
\316\277\317\2063
\317\206\316\220
\316\277\317\206\316\273
\317\2063)
(11.3)
=
\316\277 \316\277
\317\204-1
\317\204\316\277\317\2061\316\277
\317\210\\\317\2063 \317\206\317\207,
(11.4)
\317\204\316\277\317\2063\316\277\317\204~1
\317\206\317\2121.
We
Proof.
should
The
gluing
which
is sent
1],
[\317\211,
which
[0,oo]
by
free
\316\240
[0,
these
sends
\317\210\316\271
map
=
\316\246\316\262
by
is sent by
to
\316\246^1
were discovered.
the
[0,00] of
[1,1
\342\200\224which
\317\211],
\316\2502 \317\206^1to
[0,1
\316\224
to
is sent
by
edge
[\317\211,
oo],
edge [0,00]
oo] provided
by Proposition
!
to
\316\2464 \317\2063\316\271
is sent
back to
j
j
element
the
\\
\\
the
\342\200\224
which
\317\211],
\\
in addition
which
relations
edge
fractional
linear
of
\321\204\321\212.
Therefore,
oriented
So
force computations
more conceptual argument,
use brute
could
we prefer a
hint at the way
but
maps
to
itself,
\320\276
\316\277
\316\277
\316\277 \302\243\316\2238
sends
\321\204\321\214
\317\206~\316\273
\317\2063\316\273
\317\210^1 \317\206\316\273
and
in
particular
by the horosphere Sq.

11.1, this proves that
must
fix
the
Sincethe action of
=\320\230\320\275\320\267.
\320\244\321\212\302\260\320\244\320\242\320\245
\302\260^51 \302\260\316\250\316\271
\302\260\320\244'\320\267\320\245
the
point
is j
\316\223\302\273
j
j
1
301
sets
Limit
11.3.
\316\273
1
=
=
= \317\204
\302\260 this
\316\277 =
\316\277
and \321\204\321\212
\317\204,
\321\204\320\267
\317\206\316\271
\317\206$\317\2062 \317\2063 \317\210\316\263
\302\245>\320\267,
Substituting
gives
= \320\253\321\211\320\267,
\320\276 \320\276 \320\276
\320\276\321\202
\320\276\321\202-1
<\321\200!<\321\200\320\267
(\321\200^-1
\316\277 or-1
\317\204
\317\2063
and
=
\321\202~\320\276
\320\276\321\202
\317\206\316\273
\317\206^1
after
This
simplification.
proves (111).
Considering a similar edge cycle

the same argument
the
provides
the edge
with
beginning
[0,1],
relation
*
\302\260
\302\260 \302\260 = \320\230\320\2753
^\320\267
\320\244\321\2141
^\320\267 \316\250\316\271
and
or-1
o<p!
\317\206^1
which
*
\316\277 \320\276\321\202
\320\276
\302\260
\317\210\316\206<\321\200\320\267
î\"1
\320\230\321\206\321\200>
to
simplifies
=
\316\277 \316\277
\320\276 \320\276
\321\202~\320\276
\317\204
\317\206$
\317\206\316\271
\317\206\316\266
\317\206%.
<pj
Using
we just
(which
(11.1)
and
equation
proved) on the left-hand
side
of the
gives
simplifying
=
\316\277
\317\204
\317\204'1\316\277
<\317\2013
v?3\302\260\302\245>i
\302\260<A3,
which
(11.2).
proves
An algebraic
manipulation of
gives
(11.2)
=
\316\277 \316\277
\320\276 \316\277
\316\277 \316\277 \320\276\321\202-1)
\316\277 \316\277\317\204~\317\207)
\316\2503 {\317\204
\320\276\321\202~\320\263)
or-1)
\317\206\316\266
(\317\204\317\2063
(\317\204\317\206\316\271
(\317\204\317\2063
\316\277
\316\277 \316\277 \316\277
\317\204'1) \317\206~\316\233,
(\317\204\317\206\316\273
\317\206\317\2122
(11.4)
Finally,
11.7.
Lemma
group
is
(11.3) easily follows.

an immediate consequenceof
The group
\316\223
8 is
a normal
\316\240
(111).
subgroup
of
the
enlarged
\316\2238.
We
Proof.
the
from which
(11.1),
using
element
need
to show that for every
707\316\2147\"1
\302\243
Tg
belongs
to the
and
\316\223\302\247
every
subgroup
7' e
\320\223\321\217,
\320\223\302\273.
=
for 7 = <p,
and
these elements
, since
7
\317\206^
and
for 7 = \321\202\302\261\320\263
11.6 since Tg is generated
belong to \316\223\316\262,
by Lemma
result then follows, since every
and
The
general
by
7 G Tg can
\317\210\\
\317\210ôr\317\204\316\257\316\271.
be written as a compositionof terms of the form \317\206^1,\317\206\316\206\317\207
D
This
is immediate
The
11.
302
The combination
11.7
Lemma
of
Corollary 11.8.
\316\223
8 is
to
equal
tessellation 7$ is very
the tiling group \320\223&
of the crooked
from the tiling groups \320\223
of the crooked
tessellations that we
As
such,
different
analyzed in Section10.5.Indeed,we
those tiling
were
groups
and Bill Thurston

& Thurston].
in [Cannon
property
kleinian
the
For
the limit set

determined
of \320\223.By
\320\233\320\263
that for
property
to a vertex
of the
the
by
corresponding
\\(x)
the
is
\320\241
=
\320\250
the map
continuity,
\316\273
is
ieQU
Farey
{oo}
its
7\302\260,
tessellation
the crookedFarey
vertex of
corresponding
and
Ru{oo}
uniquely
every rational point
standard
amazing
10.5, we
Section
\342\200\224+ between
\316\273:
\320\250
\320\233\320\263
a homeomorphism
constructed
a truly
proved
in
\320\223
considered
groups
of
circle \320\250.
to the
homeomorphic
the limit sets
that
seen
had
Cannon
Jim
Actually,
7.
tessellation
case of the
In the
defined
the
Lemma
sphere C.
the whole Riemann
image
kleinian group
of the
set
limit
The
11.5, and
11.4, Proposition
result.
the following
provides
knot complement
figure-eight
crookedtessellation
map
vertex of
corresponding
and
Cannon
7^\302\267
11.9 (Cannon-Thurston).The
Theorem
extension
X:
= \320\241
\342\200\224\302\273
\320\250
which
\320\233\320\2638
vertex of
Thurston
above
is both
have a
still
we
7s,
to each
\342\200\224\302\273
which
\320\233\320\2638,
\316\273:
Qu{oo}
map
well-
7\302\260
associates
prove:
\316\273
has
continuous
a unique
and surjective.
In
this
particular,
which
passes
would
undoubtedly
through
theory of kleinian
natural
map
groups
would
lead
Riemann
\320\241
Poincare
sphere
to find
surprised
to such
curve
a continuous
\316\273
provides
every point of the

have been again very
out that his
mathematical
\"monster\".
In
contrast
far from
The
text,
and
to what
happened in Section 10.5,the map
\316\273
is very
being injective.
proof
of
Theorem
11.9 is widely
can be found in [Cannon
beyond the
& Thurston].
scope of
this
11.4.The
The
11.4.
The
unexpected
rock
previous sectionhas an
knot familiar to sailorsand
of a long
represented in Figure 11.4. Here,instead
V$ of the
the figure-eight
group
with
connection
and
climbers,
should think
to oo in R3.
rope, we
Figure
If,
in
knot
figure-eight
kleinian
enlarged
303
knot
figure-eight
\320\2503
U
{oo},
of
11.4.
the
as an
knot
knot
The figure-eight
we move
curve
infinite
the knot away
and
oo
from
esthetically more pleasing,we obtain

in Figure
11.5. We are particularly
- \320\232
=
in the complement
X = \320\2313
in \320\2313
of this
curve \320\232
This is why
the
knot
is drawn here as a \"hollow\"
curve,
knot
is not
really
\"proof
by
11.10
Theorem
pictures\". This type of
ogists, although
sometimes
knot
figure-eight
Theorem 11.10. The complement

knot is homeomorphicto the quotient
The proof of
deform
it
the
closed
interested
U
\320\2503
to
{oo}.
indicate
there.
Figure 11.5. The
Proof.
oo
R3 U {oo}
in
to make the picture

curve \320\232
represented
that the
from
going
regarded
in R3
\342\200\224
\320\2503 \320\232
of
the
figure-eight
space H3/IV
will be
argument
with
a typical
is standard
a certain
exampleof
fare for topol-
level of
perplexity
11.
304
(or worse)
knot complement
figure-eight
from other
mathematicians
by
such
justification
for
The
fields. The general
a proof is that it would be too

it with all the details rigorously
time
to write
consuming
expounded. The sheer

(and read)
of
even
bulk
these
details would
obscure the key ideasunderlying
the
of the
the basic principle of the exposition
arguments.
Consequently,
proof is to explainthese geometricideasin such a way that, at each
step, you should be able to convince yourself that you could rigorously
write down the complete details if absolutely
Of course,
necessary.
takes
some experience
to
it
(and it can be a matter of appreciation)
to skip
decide which details are legitimate
and which ones must
be included.
of
However, with practice, one reachesa level
absolutely
makes
this
of
as
that
valid
proof mathematically
as,
proficiency
type
say, a long algebraic computation.
Our proof of Theorem
11.10 will be a good introduction
to this
type of mathematical reasoning. As a warm-up,
you can begin by
to figure
out a way to make rigorous the statement \"let \320\232
be
trying
in Figure 11.5\". Next, you should
the closed curve in R3 represented
the
convince
existence
of a homeomoryourself that one can prove
phism
sending
process of
physical
define
\320\232'
R3
\321\201
the
\320\232
to
string
K'
consider
first
then
in R3;
that this process
property
11.5 to
of Figure
\320\232
R3
\321\201
11.4. For this,
of Figure
moving
by the
\342\200\224>
R3
R3
\317\210:
curve
the closed
\342\200\224\342\226\272
R3
R3
\317\210:
the closedcurve
the
mentally
sends each
of the universe to the particle \317\206{\316\241)

and finally,
\342\202\254
R3;
a
yourself that this homeomorphism can be mimicked
by
of
defined
composition
homeomorphisms rigorously
by explicit
this exposition
would be extraordinarily cumbersome.
equations, although
\316\241
I3
\342\202\254
particle
convince
We
the
by
now
begin
the proof
complement X =
two
gluing
R3
of Theorem 11.10.We
\342\200\224
\320\232
is
to the
homeomorphic
X+ and
polyhedra
a
homeomorphism
by
X~
along
their
first
will
show that
space obtained
For this, we
faces.
of R3 that most of the knot \320\232

lies
near
the
w
here
one
strand
xy-plane, except
crossings,
slightly
rises above the plane while
the
strand
other
slightly dips under it.
X+ will consist of the part of X that
lies above
speaking,
Roughly
the xy-plaiic, while X~ will include those points which
are below
the
first
arrange
in the
plane.
At
least,
this
will be
true
away
from
the
crossings.
More
faces,
we
precisely,
which we
just coincidewith
X along
cut
the
xy-pl&ne.
\316\225
in
point
its
(curved)
Figure 11.6
thought.
a crossing.
an edge
along
meeting
strand to a point
belong to the knot
EF, joining a
lower strand. The

K.
F
In particular,
they are not,
not
the
and
are
of
edge EF.
part
X,
consequently
the
complement
in the
upper
and
endpoints\316\225
in
faces
more
a little
such
near
of
number
from
Away
the faces near a crossingrequires
describesthe situation
We have here four
a certain
the crossings, these faces

the arrangement of
Understanding
describe.
now
305
knot
The figure-eight
11.4.
in the
the first face
Near the rectanglePQRS drawn
a;i/-plane,
coincides
with a warped pentagon AEFBQ, where
the
edges AE and
X nor the
BF follow the knot and consequently are part of neither
face. Similarly, the secondface is a warped pentagon BFECR with
minus the
BF and EC removed, the third face is CEFDS
the
edges
A.
\316\225
DF
and \316\225
and
and the last face is DFEAP minus
edges \320\241
FD,
SCR
described these four
Having
l.hey decompose the knot

X+
The upper polyhedron
along
and
two
the
the knot
11.\316\262.Splitting
Figure
complement
faces, we now
need
near
complement
of the
decomposition
a crossing
to understand
how
the rectangle
PQRS.
touches the edge EF
one delimited by AEFBQ

dihedra,
delimited
by CEFDS and DFEAP.
opposite
other
near
and BFECR,
If
we
separate
the edge EF, this edge splits into two edges EF' and EF\",
X+
lies above the
and
can now be deformed to the part of R3 that
of Figure
side
11.7, namely, in the picture,
diagram on the left-hand
the part that lies in front of the sheet of paper.
X+ along
remaining
and
DFEAP,
touchesthe edgealong
delimitedby AEFBQ
dihedra,
the other one delimited by BFECR and CEFDS.
the lower
Symmetrically,
the
two
and
polyhedron X~
namely, the one
11.
306
F'
figure-eight
knot complement I
\320\241
The
F\"
\320\222
\316\225
\316\241
Separating
Then
sheet of
side
right-hand
11.7
X~ along the edge EF yields

two
X+ can be deformedto the part of
diagram on the
Bottom polyhedron
Figure
E\"F.
\316\241
Top polyhedron
of Figure
new
R3
that
edges E'F and

lies below the
11.7, namely,
\\
behind the?
\316\257
paper.
the decomposition be defined

in such
a way that ]
they coincide with the xy-pl&ne away from the crossings, and that]
of the type described above near the crossings.If we split j
are
they
X = R3 \342\200\224
\320\232
these
faces, we then obtain two pieces Xf and:
along
the
Let
faces of
x-
Before
we describe
these two pieces,
it
to introduce!
is convenient
some notation. Let R+ = R2 \317\207

consist of those points of R3;
[0, +oo)
and
let R-l = R2 \317\207
that
lie on or above the xy-plane R2,
(\342\200\224\316\277\316\277,\316
consist
of those points that are located on or below R2. Then define
= R3 U
as a subset of R3 = R3 U {oo}.
!
R3
considered
{\321\201\320\276},
As in
Figure 11.7, the
consequently homeomorphic)
of
\320\251_
R3,
of the four
upper pieceX+
to
the
arcs that are
can
complement,
deformed
be
in the
indicatedas hollow
(and is;
upper part
curves
on the,
side of Figure 11.8.Thesefour arcs correspond

to the trace1
of the knot \320\232on the boundary of X+. In this picture, we also use:
of those points of R3 which
the standard convention that R3^ consists
lie in front of the sheet of paper.
The boundary
of X+ is decomposed
six
and eight edges as indicatedon the left-hand
into
faces
of
side
to
each
with
two
associated
of
the
Figure 11.8,
edges
picture
crossing
in Figure 11.5.
left-hand
11.4. The figure-eightknot
Figure
figure-eight
11.8. The top pieceX+

knot complement.
each of the
By shrinking
deformed to R+
are
should probably note that

since it crushes each
E^ ,
therefore
so
is
that
far
from
it is
points
of the
the
\320\250+
on the
Figure
arcs
four
being injective).
minus
not
does
can
X+
on the
of its
decomposition
picture. To clarify
injective outside of
between
homeomorphism
four
it
the
of the
decomposition
indicated
points
edges of
in that
indicated
as
l-hen
of the
missingarcsto a point,
four
the
minus
11.8. The
of Figure
side
307
this
right-hand
boundary
deformation
11.\316\230.The
bottom
However, it can indeed be chosen
these
arcs,
four arcs
piece X
complement.
we
provide a homeomorphism of
to a single point (and
and induces
on the
left
and
a
R+
minus
right.
the figure-eight knot
also be
of the
decomposition
of
the
The
11.
308
knot complement
figure-eight
be deformed
to the lower half
of
on the left-hand
side
Figure 11.9,
or minus the four points indicated on the right-hand
side.
X~ now lies behind the sheet of paper
in Figure
In particular,
11.9.
into six faces and eight
Again, the boundary of X~ is decomposed
as drawn in these pictures.
edges,
sides
of Figures
the
The right-hand
11.8 and 11.9 begin to make
their
X*
look like ideal polyhedra, namely,
like
with
polyhedra
vertices
X+ and X~ each have
two
faces which are
deleted.
However,
faces with only two edges and two
vertices
\"digons\",
namely,
(at
in
This
is
not
for
ideal
the
possible
polyhedra
hyperbolic
infinity).
clearly
with the same endpoints
space H3, since two hyperbolic
geodesies
we
a last
at infinity
must
coincide.
need to perform
Consequently,
on the X*.
modification
the
minus
R3
piece X~ can
four arcs drawn
lower
the
Similarly,
R3 of
Before
11.10.
Figure
The
After
Collapsing a digon
two digons of X+ and

give two digons in the
the
two
to
one
edge
of X~
digons
this decomposition by
decomposition
collapsing each of these two
singleedge.Under
following
to
together
This
the cross
the
into two
transformed
with
collapse,
the
two
and
collapse of
\320\241
X~,
will modify
digons
of X
to a
X\302\261are
polyhedra
a plane
by Figure
to
\316\240
clarify
11.10.
We
the
the
first
digon
have
indicated
the picture.
corresponding to
<i
\342\200\224*\342\200\224
and
marked
edges
Fx
to form a single edge\342\200\224*\342\200\224
in the
new decomposition.
In the
X+
are glued
We
X.
other polyhedra Y\302\261.
is illustrated
process
section
of
the faces Fjf

get
\320\241
combined
Similarly, in
11.4. The figure-eightknot

the
second
to F%
corresponding
digon
by a
\302\253\316\271
are replaced
309
single edge
Figure
the
\321\201
X^,
and
edges
\302\273 .
11.11. The tetrahedra
\320\243\302\261
X+ gets replacedby another

to
minus
the four points indicated
K3, homeomorphic \320\251_
region
on the left-hand
11.11. In addition, Y+ inherits
side
of Figure
from
of its
the nondigon
faces of X+ a decomposition
into four
boundary
on
faces and six edges,as indicated
the left half of Figure 11.11.
and
11.8
and
remember
lies in front
that
Figures
Compare
11.11,
K+
of the sheet of paper in these figures.
After
collapsing
these
two digons,
Y+ of
oo
oo
Figure 11.12.Unfolding
Similarly, after
X~ is
replacedby
points,
and
an
ideal tetrahedron
collapsingthe digonsand
a
region
with four faces
Y~
the
flipping
homeomorphic
and six edgesas indicated
hand side of Figure 11.11.The flip is

since X~ was in the back of the sheet
used
on
to exchange
of paper in
picture
to K3
front
minus
the
and
Figure 11.9.
over,
four
righthalf,
11. The
310
With
a little
more thought,
knot
figure-eight
can
we
complement
ourselves
convince
that Y+
are eachhomeomorphic
to an ideal
to
morphism sendingedges edgesand faces
to go backward
to see this,
and start with
and Y~
tetrahedron, by a homeoto faces. It may be easier

an
ideal
in
tetrahedron
H3 with ideal vertices a, b, c, oo\342\202\254l2. Unfolding
its faces onto the
to the upper part R+ of K3
ideal
tetrahedron
the
xy-plane deforms
minus
are as indicated in the
faces
then
{a,b, c, oo}, and the four
side
of
11.12.
That
right-hand
picture is then easily deformed
Figure
=
in K2
K2 U {\321\201\321\216}
to those
of Figure 11.11, after moving
the
fourth
away from
vertex
\321\201\321\216.
of this discussion is that

the
up to homeomorphism,
\342\200\224
Y~
knot
K3
\320\232
obtained
from
Y+
and
is
complement
figure-eight
face
of Y~,
each
face F4+ of Y+ to the corresponding
by gluing
F/
in a manner compatiblewith
the
edge identifications
represented on
The
upshot
Figure 11.11.
Let us now return to the fundamental domain \316\224

for Tg that
we
considered in Section 11.2.1.This \316\224
was
the union of the two tetra=
hedra \316\221\317\207
[0,1,\317\211,
and
\316\2242
\321\201\321\216]
common face [0,1, \321\201\321\216].

Namely,
obtained
from the tetrahedra
of
face
to the
\316\224\316\271
[0,1,
we can
consider that
and
\316\224
\316\224\316\271
2 by
the
of \316\2242
by
\321\201\321\216]
gluing
identity
representedon Figure11.13,where
right, and both tetrahedra are in
of the
left, \316\2242is
sheet of paper.
[0,1
gluing
data
of the
glued
on
the
Figure 11.13.Gluing
\342\200\224
is
of \316\224-2
\317\211,
\321\201\321\216]
abstractly
obtain the tetrahedra
00
The
\316\224
is
the face [0,1, \321\201\321\216]

map. If we unfold
is on the
\316\224\316\271
front
their
along
\342\200\224\317\211,
meeting
\321\201\321\216],
Figure 11.12, we then
as in
tetrahedra
these
[0,1,1
tetrahedra
the
faces of
to the
\316\224
is
and \316\2242.
\316\224\316\271
such
face F2 =
that
the face
Fj =
of \316\224\316\271
by the
[\316\231,\317\211,
\321\201\321\216]
The
11.4.
311
knot
figure-eight
= [0,1, \317\211]
of Ax is glued to the face
= [0,1,1 \342\200\224\317\211]
of
face
of \316\2242
is glued
the
FA = [1,1 \342\200\224\317\211,
\316\2242
F5
\317\2063,
\321\201\321\216] by
=
to the face F$ = [\342\200\224,
of
and
face
of
the
\316\224\316\271
F7
\317\211,
by \317\2065,
[0,1, \321\201\321\216]
\321\201\321\216]
=
In
of
is
to
face
the
\316\224\316\271
\316\2242
map.
Fg
glued
by the identity
[0,1,\317\211]
face
the
\317\206\317\207,
map
gluing
F3
1 \342\200\224
are
addition, the edges[0,1],[\321\201\321\216,
glued
together,
\317\211],
[\321\201\321\216,
1], [0, \317\211]
and marked on Figure 11.13as \342\200\224\302\273\302\273\342\200\224
the edges
; similarly,
[0, \321\201\321\216],
\342\200\224
.
are
as
and
and
marked
\342\200\224\302\253\342\200\22
glued together
[\317\211,
\320\276\321\201],
[1,1
\317\211]
1]
[\317\211,
11.13, it
that the
immediate
is now
the same.
are
data
gluing
11.11 and
Figures
Comparing
is homeThis showsthat the figure-eight

knot complement \320\2323\342\200\224\320\232
to the quotient space\316\224
obtained
omorphic
by gluing the ideal tetrahedra \316\224\316\271
to the gluing maps described in
and
\316\2242
according
Figure
11.11.
10.9 shows that
Theorem
Therefore, the
the proof
concludes
can
We
equivalent, or induce
\342\200\224
K,
which
different
slightly
sequence
if the identity
if
map
This is equivalent
in
(Pn)ngN
metric
We
way.
are topologically
set X
same
homeomorphism.
d'\\ see
metric
\316\240
topology,
for the
\316\241\317\207
point
in
the
same
the
for every
that
on
dl
is a
: {X, d) \342\200\224>
\316\231\316\254\317\207
(X, d')
property
11.10
Theorem
rephrase
converges to the
for to Poo for the
to K3
of Theorem 11.10.
say that two metrics d and
the
to H3/IV
homeomorphic
is homeomorphic
\316\2273/\316\223\316\262
space
quotient
\316\224
is
and
the
X,
to
sequence
if it converges
only
Exercise 1.9.
In our case,the euclidean

metric
deuc of K3 does not quite
give a
= \321\201\321\216.
X = K3 \342\200\224
is
undefined
when
because
Q
K,
dcnc{P, Q)
Wc will say that a metric d is topologically
to, or induces
equivalent
in X
the same topology as, the metric deut. if a sequence (P\342\200\236)\342\200\236gN
metric on
to the
converges
if
and
only
Poo
knot admits
a metric d
metric
and
which
which
is complete;
(2) (X, d)
is
locally
is
satisfies
(1) (X, d)
Poo =
possibly
(with
to Poo for
the
isometric
metric
X =
The complement
11.11.
Theorem
euclidean
point
if it converges
K3
for
deuc\302\267
\342\200\224
\320\232
of
the
topologically
equivalent
the
two
following
metric
the
\321\201\321\216)
to the hyperbolic
figure-eight
to the
properties:
plane H3.
11. The
312
Let
Proof.
\342\200\224>
be
the
\316\2273/\316\223\316\262
\317\210:X
If dhyp
11.10.
Theorem
by the
metric
is
\317\206
dhyp
hold
[Rileyi]. This property originally

showed that
is actually
this
Let
11.1.
a normal
and the image of 7

For every
represented
of 7
b. Show
years
later, Bill
revolutionized :
completely
chapter
in the
\320\223
results.
to these
as
the
of
the quotient
of
quotient
7\316\214
7
space
the
on
acting
denote
\316\247/\316\223'
be the
\320\223/\320\223'
quotient
group
and
\316\241
G \316\247/\316\223,
consider
G \320\223/\320\223'
X.
Show
G
that
by y{P)
f(P)
7 and
that
let
Namely, 7'(7)
of X
\320\262\321\200\320\260\320\273\320\
the
\320\223
under
for every
is 7
\320\223/\320\223'
7'
set X, and
action of
7 G I\\
and
G \320\223'
~ {7'
\320\276
7; 7'
\320\223'}.
element 7(F) G \316\247/\316\223'

is independent of the choice
the
\316\241
G P.
7 ranges
\316\275-*
\316\241
form
(\316\241)
\321\203
maps
by Bob Riley in
set the figure-eight
is devoted
a transformation
Let
subgroup of \316\223.
left composition.
\320\223'
by
a.
\316\223
be
and
action of \320\223',
under the
(H3/f8,dhyp)
for Chapter 11
Exercises
\316\223'
be
locally
->
to
a few
Theorem
3-dimensionaltopology. The next
Exercise
proved
appeared
until,
Geometrization
Thurston's
result.
over all the elements of \316\223/\316\223',

the corresponding
\316\270
of
group
X/y'.
a transformation
associates
the
7 G \316\223/\316\223'
and
that when X = \316\223
when the action of
is by left multiplication, the above map
the group
on the set X = \316\223
\316\223
\342\200\224\342\231\246
so that \316\270
a natural
\316\270
is a bijection,
has
identification with
\316\223/\316\223'
\321\201
Consider
\342\200\224\342\226\272
which
\316\270
to
\320\223/\320\223'
map
f-\302\273
\316\241
j(P).
transformation
Show
\316\223/\316\223'.
Exercise
=
11.2.
\316\226[\317\211]
{m +
Show
that
as usual in this chapter,

consider the subset
and let PSL2(Z[o;]) be the set of linear
\316\271\342\200\224>
\316\266
with
Extend
each of these
a, b, c, d G \316\226[\317\211].
^\320\271
For
= e^'
\317\211
of C,
G \320\251
\316\267\317\211;\317\200\316\271,\316\267
fractional maps
linear fractional
a.
'
Thurston .'
a manifestation of a more general
knots
the other
from
apart
first
\316\271
(\316\2273/\316\2238,
dhyp)\302\267
d.
for
Theorem 11.10 was discoveredand

knot
by
determined
uniquely
from (X,
10.11. Since \317\210:

(X,d)
isometry, the same properties
is an
d is
Namely,
an isometry
by Theorem
(H3,dhyp)
provided
homeomorphism
d) to
is complete by Theorem 10.9,and
propertythat
The
to
isometric
complement
quotient metric inducedon \316\2273/\316\2238

by the
define a metric d on X by the property
is the
metric dhyp of H3,

hyperbolic
that d{P,Q) = d~hyp{<p{P),<p{Q))\302\267
let
knot
figure-eight
maps
to an
isometry of (H3, dhyp)\302\267
that PSL2(Z[<j]) is
= \317\211
\317\2112
+ 1.
a group
of isometries
of HI3. Hint:
Remember
Our
goal
in search
some
at
many
show that PSLi2(Z[a;])

on H3. Assume,
acts discontinuously
does not act discontinuously
contradiction, that PSL2(Z[a/|)
Po G H3. Namely assume that for every e > 0, there are infinitely
such that y{P0) G Bdtlyp{P0,e).
G PSL2(Z[o;])
is to
of a
b. Show
there
that
such
PSL2(Z[a;])
c.
313
11
for Chapter
Exercises
Show
there
that
is a
sequence
that
elements of the
in
7\342\200\236(P0) Po
(E3,dhyp).
of distinct
(\321\203\320\277)\320\277\320\265\320\243
lim,,-,,\302\273
exists a
such
subsequence (\321\203\320\237\320\272
)
N
that
Zoo G C,
Show
Consider
respectively,
the limits
that
the
complete
the point
for
the
geodesic
Pi =
from
e.
f.
As a
deuc\302\267
pairwise distinct. Hint:

from
0 to oo, and the geodesic h
to the point 1 G C; then observe
at bounded hyperbolic distance
going
Po.
=
of fnk{z)
the coefficients ank, bnk, Cnk, dnk G \316\226[\317\211]
\342\200\224>
can
as \320\272
be chosen so that
each converge in \320\241
oo.
they
c\"ftz7d\"'1
If f(z) =
ad \342\200\224
be = 1, express o, b, c, d in terms
Hint:
with
^f^j
of 7(0), 7(1) and 7(00), and note that these coefficientsare uniquely
determined
up to multiplication by \342\200\2241.
Show that for every R > 0, there
such
are only finitely many a G \316\226[\317\211]
Show that
that
g.
\302\253,,
zu
Zoo are
(0,0,1) G H3
that the images fnk{Pi) must remain
joining
metric
euclidean
z\\ and
\320\263\320\276,
the sequences
to points
>
\302\267
converge
\320\253\320\233\302\260))\320\272\320\265\320\232
(7\302\273*(l))fceN
(7nfc(\302\260\302\260))fceN
d.
group
R.
\\a\\ \316\266
Conclude
that we have reached the contradiction we were looking
consequence, PSL2(Z[o;]) acts discontinuously
so do the
groups
\320\241
\320\223\320\262
Tg \320\241
PSL2(Z[o;])
considered
on
H3.
earlier
for.
In particular,
in this
chapter.
12
Chapter
Geometrization
in dimension
theorems
wider framework the hyperbolicmetric

that we encountered in
complement
Chapter 11.
The goal is to show the dramatic
of techniques
of
impact
on very classical problems in 3-dimensional
hyperbolic
geometry
first half of the discussionis focused on knot theory,
where
topology. The
are easier to state. After
results
the
material, we
developing
necessary
This
generalizes
chapter
on the figure-eight
to a
knot
then considerthe generalGeometrization

Theorem
for 3-dimensional
manifolds, whose proof was completedvery recently.
The proofs of many results in this chapterrequirea mathematical
is much higher than what we have neededso far. We
which
expertise
will not even attempt to explainthe ideas behind
these
arguments.
be
We will
content
with providing the background necessaryto
understand
12.1.
the
statements
and illustrate
these
with
a few
applications.
Knots
different
knot
aims at analyzing the many
theory
ways
a
can
be
a
in which
tied into
knot. As for the figurepiece of string
eight knot that we already encounteredin Section11.4,it is more
to consider strings where the two ends have been joined
convenient
together.
Mathematical
315
12. Geometrizationtheoremsin dimension3
316
simple closed
regular
in
curve \320\232
a knot in K3
point of view,
a mathematical
from
Therefore,
We need
K3.
is
to make all these terms
precise.
that
A\" can
be
the curve is regular means
\342\200\224*
function
\320\232
\320\2323
that
for each
such
7:
by
of the parameter,
the derivative Y(t) is different
from
value t e \320\232
the
zero vector. Recall from
that this hypothesis
multivariable
calculus
guarantees that the curve \320\232has a well-defined tangent line at each
fact that
The
a differentiable
parametrized
point.
The
that
fact
can
rametrization
that
there exists
if j(t)
namely,
curve
be
chosen
a T > 0 such
and mathematicians
deform
we
way,
in
K'
\320\232
to
itself throughout
the
following
K'
is a
continuously
at
holds:
family
on a
the beginning,
itself,
to sailors
interest
it
the
knot
of
i\302\243i.
every
t'.
\317\206
whether
To express this
if there
for
so
namely,
itself,
does not cross
if it
simple
with
t
t, t' G [0.\316\223)
in K3, a problem of
deformation.
\342\200\224*
\320\2323
\320\2323,depending
that the
\320\232
is
above pa-
that the
means
alike is to determine
K3 in such a way
that
know
to
want
\320\232
and
closed
so that it wraps onto

= j(t)
that
j(t + T)
for every
\316\246
j(t')
two knots
Given
\320\232
is
curve
closed
the
Finally,
the
in
is possible
never crosses
a mathematical
homeomorphisms
parameter
when
to
0,
\317\210\316\257:
[0,1]
is just
\317\210\316\277
such
the
to the
sends
the first knot \320\232
identity map; at the end, when
\317\210\317\207
second one K'. To see how this is a reasonable model for the physical
processthat we are trying to analyze, think about what happens to
each molecule of our world as one moves the string \320\232
to the string
\342\200\224>
for each
K3 by the
value of the time parameter t, define
K'\\
y>t: K3
was
at the point \316\241
at the beginning
property that the moleculethat
is now at the point <pt(P) at time t.
I = 1,
there
When
the knots
that
homeomorphisms</?t
is
an
is such
\320\232
and
isotopy
a family of homeomorphisms <pt,

are isotopic.
of
The family
from \320\232
to K'.
we
will
say
K'
of
theory is essentially concernedwith the problem
like
to have a
knots up to isotopy. Ideally, one would
knot
of
knots
so
that
is
isotopic to
complete catalogue
every possible
one and only one entry of the catalogue. Seethe classic[Ashley]
for
Knot
all
classifying
possible
317
Knots
12.1.
a nonmathematical
this
of
version
additional
about
care
also
practitioners
note that knot

catalogue;
properties, such as friction,
severaltimes in that book,

isotopic
have
different
that
physical characteristics.
knots appear
The figure-eight
of
knot
11
Chapter
under
be
would
so
that
configurations
one
in the
entry
Another famous knot

is the
unknot,
represented by a
in the plane \320\2322
\320\2323.See
Exercise
\320\241
12.5 for a proof that
the
knot and the unknot
distinct
entries
represent
really
figure-eight
in the
in
with
our
own
namely that,
agreement
catalogue,
experience
a string tied
to unknot
handling strings and ropes, it is not possible
catalogue.
circle
round
as a figure-eight
12.1.1.
knot.
can
we
which
sends
of
homeomorphism
two knots
just
to
\320\232
K3
= K3
send
oc to
sends
\320\232
to
knots
are also
to a
\317\210\317\207
there
say that
a
is
homeomorphism
we do
not necessarily
isomorphic. However,
isomorphic appears
we only have to worry
about
finding
family.
if
\320\232'
(but
much
whole
\342\200\224>
\320\2323
\320\2323,
\317\210\317\207:
require
\321\201\321\216).
of being
to a
are
K'
and
\320\232
\321\201\321\216.
will
We
\317\210\\
(\321\201\321\216)
are isomorphic
isotopic
Clearly,
by setting
{\321\201\321\216}
K'
\320\232
and
\342\200\224>
\320\2323
\320\2323
which
\317\206:
to
\317\210
versus isomorphism.
When
focus on the final
homeomorphism
we can extend
\320\232'.Note
that
Isotopy
isotopic,
In
property
than
as weak,
it is only half
fact,
the
being isotopic, since

one homeomorphism,
as opposed
weaker
as we
will
now
explain.
A homeomorphism
of
\317\206
K3 can
for general
define
is
differentiable
of \317\210
are
functions
M3), the jacobian
to
are difficult
are
but
when
homeomorphisms,
easily explained
\317\210
at some point \316\241
G M3. Recall
that if the coordinate
\317\2062,
\317\206\316\271,
<\302\243\320\267
(so that
of
at \316\241
is the
\317\210
Jacp(</?)
of the
then
differential
be, either
properties
These
or
orientation-reversing.
map
'~p(Q)
{ipi(Q),ip-2(Q),
G
<\302\243\320\267(<2))
determinant
&(P)
%?(P)
&(P)
ifr(P)
*ft(P)
*&(P)
&(P)
%?(P)
&(P)
\342\200\224>
\316\2343
\316\2343.
If,
\316\214\317\201\317\210:
is orientation-preserving
\317\210
if Jacp(tp)
additionally,
> 0 and
Jacp(</?)
is
\317\210
orientation-
\320\236,
\321\204
Compare the 2-dimensional case that

2.5.2. Using the branch of mathematalgebraic topology, it can be shown that this property is
if
reversing
encountered
ics
called
the
no such
when
that
with the identity map
final
is
k
\316\257
< 1,
is
l-
map
topology tech- j
\320\232
and
homeomorphism
that
\342\200\224>
\320\2323
\320\2503
such
\317\210:
\317\210{\316\232)=\316\232>.
j
\\
out that by
turns
It
<
\320\267
property show that j

As a con- j
>
K' are isotopic, they are alsoisomorhomeomorphism. Namely, there ex- j
an orientation-preserving
ists
same algebraic
.:
r\\
is also
\317\210\\
two knots
if the
by an
phic
[Hatcher 1;
where the
'
the orientation-preserving
define
to
homeomorphism
sequence,
textbook
The
\320\230\321\206\320\267.
\317\210\316\277
identity
The
niques
for instance
any other
or
\302\2472],
a homeomorphism
continuous map is defined;
when
it
has
exactly
degree +1.
we are given an isotopy i/?t: M3 \342\200\224>
M3, 0 <
used
See
\316\241
exists.
it can
and
chosen,
of a
of degree
clearly
0
\317\206
Jacp(</?)
VIII,
Chap.
[Massey,
the
\316\241
with
point
Sect.2.2],
beginning
\342\226\240,;
in Section
independentof
even be defined
Suppose
0.
<
Jacp(</?)
we
notion
in dimension
theorems
Geometrization
12.
318
a deep result of
the
topology,
converse
is also
true.
j
The knots
12.1.
Theorem
are isomorphic
by
an
\320\232
and
K'are
if and
isotopic
only
homeomorphism
if they
o/K3.
D
prove this result. The key to its traditional

proof
simple construction of J. W. Alexander
[Alexander],
as \"Alexander's
trick\". However, this proof is somewhat
unsatbecause
the isotopy that it provides
is very badly behaved
least one point. This would
be considered
very unrealistic by
We
is
known
isfactory,
at
will
not
a relatively
at
most nonmathematicians, who

differentiable.
context
Fortunately,
but its
proof is much
is due to JeanCerf
[Hatcher
[Cerf],
would
the
more
and
require
result
all maps
still holds
difficult.
was later
in
the
involved to
by
':
>.
;
\302\267
i
be
differentiable
This differentiable
extended
Allen
result
Hatcher
i].
In spite of Theorem 12.1,there is a difference

between
isotopy
and isomorphism. For instance,
the two trefoil knots represented in
12.1 are isomorphic,
since one can send oneto the other by
Figure
a reflection across a plane. However,
it can
be shown that there is
12.2. Geometrizationof knot complements

no
the
to
knot
quite subtle, and
is mathematically
the framework
within
proved
left-handed trefoil
moving the
isotopy
trefoil. This fact
319
of this book; see for
right-handed
cannot be easily
instance
[Rolfsen,
\302\2478.E.14].
trefoil
Left-handed
trefoil
Right-handed
Figure 12.1. The
knots
trefoil
two
Note that the jacobian of a reflection

at every
is equal to \342\200\2241
that
the
trefoils
orientationso
reflection
the
two
is
point,
exchanging
reversing.
Theorem for knot
The Geometrization
12.2.
complements
for
Theorem
the
two
to the statement of Thurston'sGeometrization

We first begin with a discussion
complements.
of this result, torus and satelliteknots.
is devoted
section
This
knot
exceptions
12.2.1. Torusknots.
all
Among
q G
the
\316\226
coprime,
contained
in
the
standard
around the hole of the

core C. Moreprecisely,
of
\320\241
on the
torus
\316\244
bounding
by the
parametrized
=
7(\302\243)
((R
torus
in
\316\244
and
times
\317\201
torus
for
R centered
radius
is the
R >
at the
this
map 7:
r >
origin
knot
M3,
0, thicken
(R
q times
its
which turns
the
a tube
to
\342\200\224>
\320\232
\316\234.3
defined
+ r cos pi) cosqt,
and
around
counterclockwise
the 2-torus
tube,
knots are among the

p,
^ G Q with
\320\232
a
formed
curve
by
number
rational
knot
R-torus
torus
knots,
simplestonesto describe.Given
of
of
knot
circle
horizontal
2r.
width
\320\232
is
the
by
r cos pt) sin qt, r
sin pt).
Then,
curve
12. Geometrizationtheoremsin
320
our parametrization
of the torus
\320\232
to
is
up
isotopy,
independent
Compare
that
immediate
of the
It is
5.1.
Section
in
dimension
choice of the radii
R and r.
the
Figure12.2describes
have
We
is
relatively
left-handed
It can
to the
is isotopic
be shown that
the ^-torus knot

to the ^-torus
instance
not
is
if
knot
[Rolfsen,
when
and
for
\302\2477D.10]
Supposethat
\320\232
in
M3.
xy-pl&ne.
knot
we
The second
are
as is
knot,
\\q'\\ are
\\p'\\,
\\q\\,
to the
unknot,
the
\342\200\224-torus
knot.
all greater than 1,

and
it is isotopic
2 or to 2. Seefor
^ is equal to
proof, and compare Exercise 12.1.
if
knot
satellite
is a
construction
ones.
two objects. The
method
from simpler
knots
complex
\\p\\,
only
The
building
trivial
isomorphic
12.2.2. Satelliteknots.
for
\320\250.3.
knots. Indeed,
already encountered the |- and
^-torus
immediate
that they are respectively isotopicto the
trefoil knots of Figure 12.1. Also,
and
the
right-handed
knot
-j?j-torus
The -jp-torus
12.2.
Figure
it
of this knot to the
the projection
it represents
Namely,
above in
as seen from
knot
^-torus
given
one is a
L in
knot
nontrivial
one
first
is a
the standard
knot
solid
torus V. This requiressomeexplanation.
The standard solidtorusV

in
given,
\320\250.3.Namely,
consists
((R
two radii
supposing
of those
R and
points of the
+ pcosi;)cosii,
inside
is the
(R +
of the
with
standard torus
> r > 0 are
form
cos
\317\201
v) sin
u,
sin
\317\201
v)
of knot
Geometrization
12.2.
321
complements
In other words, V consists

of those
at most r from
of
the
horizontal
circle \320\241
radius
R centered at the origin. A nontrivial
knot
in V is a regular
simpleclosedcurve L in the interior of V such that
0
with
points
<
r and
<
\317\201
are
which
(1) L is not
\316\275
G R.
u,
at distance
in the solid torus V;

isotopic to the central circle\320\241
in V to a knot U which
from one
is disjoint
isotopic
(2) L is not
of the cross-sectiondiskswhere
(namely, L is really spread around
The
companion
\320\232
Figure12.3.The
solid
in R3
Given a knot \320\232
torus V, we can then
the
image
V
\317\210:
in
tie
a nontrivial
V around
\320\270
is constant
The satellite
of a satellite
construction
and
coordinate
V).
torus
solid
The
the
K'
knot
knot L in
the knot K,
the
standard
and consider
from
More precisely, choose an injective

continuous
map
to the knot
K. Assume
sends the central circle \320\241
is differentiable
and that its jacobian is everywhere
\317\210
a new knot in
is now
0, so that the image K' = <p(L)
knot
K' obtained
of L.
\342\200\224*
R3 which
that
addition
different
R3.
Any
knot
K.
Conversely,
in
this
way
\320\232
is a companion
Figure 12.3offers an example.

admits a unique factorization
A knot
ia
analogous
numbers.
is said
to be a
into
companion
to the factorization
of an integer
This factorization of knots was initiated
[Schuberti,
\316\272\316\277\316\267
[Johannson],
Schubert2]
Bus
in
Jaco
the
1950s,
and Peter
satellite
of
the
of K'.
knots,
as a product
by Horst
of
which
prime
Schubert
generalized
by Klaus JohannShalen [Jaco & Shalen],and
12.
322
finally
improved
in
\302\2472]
the
knots
The
12.2.3.
now
are
We
knot
Siebcnmann [Bonahon & Siebenmann,

This unique factorization essentially reducesthe
to studying knots that are not satellites.1
by Larry
1970s.
of
analysis
Geometrization
ready to state
for knot complements.
Theorem
Thurston's
Theorem
Geometrization
for
complements.
Theorem
Let \320\232be
12.2
(Geometrization
in M3.
a knot
(1)
\320\232
is
(2)
\320\232
is
a satellite
\302\243-torus
(i)
Theorem
for
one
of the
Then exactly
K3
q >
with
knot
of a
the complement
(3)
nontrivial
knot complements).
following holds.
2;
knot;
\342\200\224
\320\232
admits
a metric
which
is:
complete;
(ii) topologically equivalent to the euclidean metric;

to the hyperbolic metric dhyp
of
(iii) locally isometric
hyperbolic
space H3.
A
to
in dimension
theorems
Geometrization
knot
which
\320\232
satisfies
conclusion
(3) of
Theorem 12.2is
the
said
be hyperbolic.
late 1970s. It
3-dimensional
completely
theory (and
topology),for reasons we hope to make apparent in the next sections.
This astounding breakthrough was one of the main reasons for which
was awarded
the Fields Medal (the mathematical
Thurston
Theorem 12.2 was proved
the
revolutionized
equivalentof
a Nobel
Prize)
in
1983.
Bill
by
world
Thurston
in the
of knot
A key
step
in
Thurston's
proof
was
subsequently simplified by Curt McMullen [McMullen]. This

part
of McMullen's
work was, again, one of the major contributions
cited
when he himself received the FieldsMedal
in 1998.
In addition to the announcement
Thurston
gave,
[Thurstom],
numerous lectures detailing key steps of the proof of his
Geometrization
Theorem.
he never wrote a completeexpositionbeyond
However,
which never made it to final publication
several
influential
preprints
To be completely accurate, one needs to study nonsatellite links, consisting of
many disjoint knots in R3. The analysis of links in K3 ia not much more complex
than that of knots.
finitely
12.2.
Gcometrization
(with
the
323
complements
Details are
for instance.
of [Thurstone]).
exception
Kapovich],
Otal2,
[Otal1?
of knot
in
available
now
precise mathematical statement is not

a knot
randomly
completely
clear,
experimental fact that
in
drawn in R3 is neither a torus knot nor a satelliteknot. Therefore,
\"most\" cases, the Geometrization Theorem 12.2provides
a complete
as in its
metric on the knot complement X = R3 \342\200\224
K,
hyperbolic
conclusion (3).
as a
this
stating
Although
it is an
Theorem 12.2is an
not
provide
existence
abstract
for
method
a convenient
is asserted. The remarkable
Pea,
Jeff
written
by
Weeks
the
finding
whose existence
[Weeksi]
collaborators, usually succeedsin
metric.
given
\320\223
acting
that
such
metric
dhyp
N'amely,
it
dra, and
then
\342\200\224
\320\232
by
we
a homeomorphism
defined on
satisfies
<f(Q))
for the
X into finitely
by
conclusion
uses
\320\223,
SnapPea
employed
decomposes
to
years
a
a group
find
the hyperbolic
with
dhyp
the
of
H3,
is
X \342\200\224\342\226\272
\317\206:
\316\2273/\316\223.
the
property
that
(3) of Theorem 12.2.

method very similar
11.
figure-eight knot in Chapter
ideal
tetrahemany topological
in
to identify them with
ideal tetrahedra
geometric
the
that the corresponding gluing
data
satisfies
Poincare's
Theorem 10.9. This often
requires
Polyhedron
tries
a way
such
in
R3
a group
such
to the one that
the hyperbolic metric
the metric d
JhyP(v3(-P)>
To find
endowed
space \320\2353/\320\223,
Snap-
the
such
describing
attempts
SnapPea
R3,
quotient
induced
by
it succeeds,
When
d(P, Q) =
E3
the
to X
homeomorphic
\320\232
in
freely
isometrically,
spaceH3,
quotient
a knot
of software
and improved over
does
metric
hyperbolic
piece
with various
Namely,
whose proof
theorem,
hypotheses
of
changing
the original
the program
decomposition of X
does by (educated)trial
and
into
ideal
tetrahedra,
See [Weeks4]
error.
which
for a
more detaileddescription.
In practiceand
one does not
SnapPea
always
as
encounter
finds
the
long
as the knot
issues
hyperbolic
\320\232
is
not
of computational
metric on X
(so that
complexity),
too intricate
R3
\342\200\224
\320\232
that
it
is
metric
hyperbolic
looking for, unless there is no such
complete
is a torus knot or a satelliteknot. Thereis a curious
the
knot
mathematical
situation
here. The Geometrization Theorem 12.2has
been
but its abstract proof doesnot provide
any
proved,
rigorously
because
for
method
is usually
finding the hyperbolic metric whose existence

Conversely, SnapPea almost
by this statement.
at this
but
metric,
point in time there
hyperbolic
explicitly
asserted
this
finds
always
is no rigorous proof that

Since it
wonderful
used
We
Theorem
and
toy,
explore
became
first
widely
tool,
the
used
algorithm
by SnapPea
will
always
so.
in doing
succeed
in dimension 3
theorems
Geometrization
12.
324
its many
features.
conclude
this
section
has been a
SnapPea
available,
by researchers in
you are strongly
topology.
encouraged to play
with a complement, which
wonderful
an equally
is also
It
and
it
with
sharpens
12.2.
Let
be a
(X,d)
metric spacewhich
to (H3, dhyp).
isometric
is locally
every point of X belongsto a ball Bd(P,

r) which is
in
isometric
to a ball
will
that
H3.
We
say
(f,
r)
(X, d) has finite
Bdhyp
volume if there exists a sequence of such balls
each
In
particular,
{Bd{Pn,Tn)}n
eN,
to a
isometric
(1) the
set X
\316\241
&
(2)
if
ball Bdhyp(Pn,fn)
X
the
is
in
of all balls
union
volhyp(Bdhyp(Pn!rin))
hyperbolic volume
of
9.14), the
Exercise
Bd(Pn,
every
Namely,
fn)\302\267
ball Bd{Pn^n)'i
to some
belongs
that
such
H3,
7rsinh2r-\342\200\236
ball Bdbyp{Pn,
the
denotes
2nrn
rn)
H3
in
the
(compare
series
oo
$>olhyp(Bdhyp(P>n))
n=l
converges.
is somewhat
This definition
poses.
of
(X,
See Exercise12.6
for
12.3.
hyperbolicmetric
has
hyperbolic metric
What
provides
will
but
precise
for our pur-.
suffice
definition
of the
volume
d).
Complement
12.3.
ad hoc,
a more
on
finite
Mostow's
makes
the
Whenever
the
complement
\342\200\224
\320\232
of
\320\232
is
isotopic
provides
a knot
K,
a complete
this
to the unknot.
Theorem
is that when it
to
the
metric locally isometric
hyperbolicspace,
Geometrization
a complete
M3
volume unless
Rigidity
12.2
Theorem
Theorem so powerful
12.3.Mostow's
actually unique. This is a consequenceof a

about 10 years earlier, had been proved
which,
and later improved
Prasad
by
Gopal
[Mostow!]
metric is
this
fundamental
result
Mostow
[Mostow2, Benedetti & Petronio]for
(see also
Theorem
be
325
Theorem
Rigidity
two
which
12.4 (Mostow's Rigidity

metric spaces which
have finite volume. If there
are
(X,d) and (X,d'),
(X', d')
\316\257\316\277
\316\2273
and
a homeomorphism
an isometry \317\210:
(X,d)
between
exists
exists
there
then
d) and
isometric
locally
George
[Prasad]
a proof).
Let (X,
Theorem).
complete
by
\342\200\224>
(X',d').
\316\240
In
is
the
X = R3
is currently of interest to us, where
of a knot \320\232which
a torus knot
is neither
case that
the
complement
a satellite, the Geometrization

provide a completefinite volume
to the hyperbolicmetric of the
12.5.
Theorem
knot nor a satellite knot,

on the knot complement
X =
Geometrization Theorem
12.2.
metric
spaces
Proof.
(X,d)
The
to thesetwo
hyperbolic
\320\232
and
knots
K',
are
euclidean metric.
Then
are isometric.
It then suffices
to apply Theorem 12.4

D
if we
succeed
Let
in
proving
that
by Theorem
two
the
12.2
hyperbolic
corresponding
then we are guaranteed that the

Here is a typical application.
isometric,
not isomorphic.
Corollary 12.6.
provides
locally
have finite
complete,
spaces.
hyperbolic metrics are not

l.wo
(3) of the
are
two metrics
these
In other words, the hyperbolic metric

d provided
is unique up to isometry. As a consequence,given
knots
metrics
conclusion
in
to the
a torus
neither
is
Idx defines a homeomorphism between

d and d' are both topologically
metric.
euclidean
Namely,
equivalent
because
(X,d')
the
\342\200\224
\320\232
as
R3
d) and (X, d')

map
identity
and
equivalentto
(X,
in R3 which
and d' be two
metric of \320\2503,are
volume, and are topologically

the
hyperbolic
let d
and
the hyperbolic
to
isometric
metric
a knot
\320\232
be
Let
nor
Complement 12.3
d which is locally isometric
space H3. We can then
and
12.2
Theorem
follows.
12.4 as
Theorem
rephrase
\342\200\224
\320\232
\320\232
and
K'
be two
knots for
complete hyperbolic metrics d and d'
on
Theorem
which
R3
12.2
\342\200\224
\320\232
and
12.
326
X' =
\342\200\224
R3
K',
volumes
hyperbolic
defined
(as
and (X, d') have
If (X, d)
in Exercise
respectively.
12.6),
in dimension
theorems
Geometrization
different
are
knots
two
the
then
not isomorphic.
In
this simple
practice,
Mostow's
framework
Rigidity
the
than
\320\236
by
a somewhat
H2 and H3.
holds
Theorem
one stated
dimension n, one
test is remarkably effective.

in
can define
straightforward
Mostow's Rigidity
an
more
a much
in
\321\202\320\265-dimensional
for any
12.5
\320\250\320\277
space
hyperbolic
extension of the
Theorem
general
In particular,
12.5.
Theorem
we
formulas
for
used
to all
extends
replacing H3 by H\342\204\242
everywhere.
= 2.
the
same
statement
is
for \316\267
false
Surprisingly
enough,
we
have already
encountered this phenomenon in Section 8.4.2,
Actually,
when
we associated
to each triple of shear parameters
s\\, S3, s$ G \320\232
with
metric
on the once
s\\ + S3 + S5 = 0 a completehyperbolic
The area of such a metric is twice
the
area of
punctured torus.
hyperbolic
it is
an ideal triangle in H2, namely, it is equal to 2\317\200;in particular,
finite. It can be shown
if we slightly change the shearparameters
that
a hyperbolic
metric d, the metric d' associatedto the new
defining
is not isometric to d.
shear
parameters
dimensions \316\267
>
3 by
systematically
12.4. Ford domains

A
Ford
encountered in
domain
Section
is a
variation of the
7.4. We
first
domains
Dirichlet
introduce
some
that
preparatory
we
material.
Hyperbolic metrics and kleiniangroups.In Section

we saw that if \316\223
acts
freely and discontinuously on
by isometries,
is locally
hyperbolic
space H3, then the quotient space\316\2273/\316\223
isometric
In addition, Exercise 7.6 shows that
to H3.
is complete,
\320\2353/\320\223
that \320\2353/\320\223
manifold.
is a complete
3-dimensional
hyperbolic
12.4.1.
Conversely,
every
connected
complete
hyperbolic
7.2,
the
so
3-dimensional
manifold can be obtained

in this
way, as a quotient of the hyperbolic
This is a general fact
acting
space H3 by a kleinian group \320\223
freely.
in the case we are interested in, we prefer
to state
this as a
but,
to
a few
Theorem
which
will
enable
to
include
us
complement
12.2,
will
on.
be needed later
properties that
12.4. Ford domains
H3
A point
provide
complementX
group
the
of
\320\223
of
(1)
\316\223.
and
Theorem 12.2
12.3
Complement
\320\223
acts
freely
isometric
to
set
on
and discontinuously
the
space
quotient
7 G
\316\223,\317\207,
of those
\320\2503,and
is
(X,d)
(\320\2353/\320\223,4\320\243\320\240);
\316\223
with
7(00)
\321\201\321\216
is generated
translations 71 and 72 along two

independent horizontal vectors \321\211and \321\211,respectively;
00 is a parabolicpoint;
particular,
by two horizontal
(3)
existsa euclidean
its
images
to (4), note
isometry
that
0, which
is disjoint
from
all
\342\200\224
\320\223
\320\223^.
every 7(00) e
(2)
implies
\320\241
with
that
the hypotheses of Complement

the conclusions
Then
of this statement.
such
that
(H3,dhyP)
of
\317\210
\342\200\224
\316\223\"
7 G
\320\223
is
7(^00) = #oo
one can
addition,
This
Theorem.
isometry
with
arrange
that
there
\320\223
exists an
= \321\201\321\216.
\317\210{\316\277\317\214)
relatively simple consequenceof

in Theorem
Indeed, the version given
is a
->
between
\321\204:
\320\2303/\320\223 \320\2303/\320\223'
an arbitrary
let
12.7,
G \316\223}.
\317\206~\316\271;\316\212
{^070
Start
some
\320\270
> u0},
Under
12.8.
\320\223\"
satisfy
Proof.
for
7(00)
form
in
7\320\265\320\223\320\266.
Proposition
In
H3;
>
\321\211
with 7
that conversely,
In contrast
every
G
\320\243,
\317\211)
constant
some
7(600)
observe
(3),
parabolic.
and
by
the
linearly
half-space
Boo = {(x,
defined
is of
of 7
point
parabolic
every
(4) there
for
of
that
the
(2)
For
at
sphere
isometries
a finite volume complete hyperbolic

metric
d on the
= R3 \342\200\224
\320\223
\320\232
of isometries
of a knot K, there exists a group
such
ofM3
for a
H3 is
space
hyperbolic
exactly one point
parabolic 7
Whenever
12.7.
Complement
the
of
is parabolic
G \320\241
\316\276
by some
is fixed
\316\276
if
isometry
it fixes
definition,
by
if,
C.
infinity
9.10, an
Exercise
in
As
parabolic
327
P0 G H3.
Mostow's
Rigidity
12.5 provides
an
and
(\320\2303/\320\223',4\321\203\320\240)\302\26
(\320\2303/\320\223,4\320\243\320\240)
Considerits
image
Q0
\317\200(\316\2410)
under the
\316\2273/\316\223\" this
of
Pq G
n':
to
useful
\321\202\320\263'(\320\240^)
Q'0.
\316\233
\320\2303
the
By
in
isometry;
As a
isometry.
the restriction
\320\233
\320\2303/\320\223
Q'o
it is
Similarly, we can
bijective.
(\"\"^\342\200\236(pg,\302\273))-10
map
->
\316\2273
\317\206:
-\342\226\272
\302\260
^\316\227\316\252\316\241(^\316\277,\316\265)
Bdhyp{Pê).
\316\267\316\262^\317\201(\316\241\316\277,\316\265):
balls
Consider
H3.
of
an arbitrary
\320\276=
\342\200\224>
\317\200:
\317\200
\316\2273
7
\316\2273/\316\223,
\316\241
G
by
5dhyp(-Poj\302\243)
this
every
takes the quotient

an element 7' G
that
Since
\316\241
G
the
that
restriction
=
of
we
</?,
7'
= -\316\271\317\204'
\316\277
\316\277
\317\210\317\200(\316\241)
\316\257/?(\316\241)
case where
particular
\320\266\320\265
glued
\321\203>(\320\233\320\267)
action
that
conclude
of
when
together
that
\320\223\",
namely,
=
\316\241
there
Pq,
one
exists
\342\200\224
\316\277
\316\277
\317\210
\317\206(\316\241\316\277)
j(Po).
Bdhyp(P0,\316\265),
7(P)
\302\260
\317\206\302\260
j(Po)
\320\276
\316\277
\317\210
(\320\243)-1
7(\316\241)
the
the
quotient map
=
\320\276
\320\276
\317\200'
for
every
\317\210\321\202\320\263(\320\240)
<\321\200(\320\240)
=
\320\276
7(\320\240)
In
under
\320\223\"
such
for every
(7')_1
of
of the
definition
\316\223.
By
\316\277
and
\317\2067(\316\241\316\277)
\320\276
\342\226\240\320\272'
oipo
(\342\226\240y')~1
Note that
on
\321\204
Bdhyp(Po,\302\243).
implies that
Now,
7G
\321\202\321\202.
Since
construction
=
\316\277\316\277
\317\200'
\317\2067(-\316\241)
for
Therefore,
9.9.
Lemma
\316\2273
by
between
isometry
it extends to an isometry
\342\200\224>
is an
\320\222\320\262,\320\252\321\203\321\200{\320\240\320\276,\302\243)
\317\206:Bdhyv,(Po,z)
two hyperbolic
by
the composition
Consider
assume that
an isometry,
is also
^\321\214\321\203\321\200\320\241-\320\240\320\276'.\320\265)
#dhyp(<2c\302\273e)
enough.
map
sufficiently
small,
consequence,
->
is
an
\316\222\316\254^\317\201(\316\241\316\277,\316\265)
\316\265
> 0
Bahyp(Qo,e)
\321\211\320\262\320\233\321\212\321\203\321\200{\320\240\321\214^)'\302\267
particular,
\"tahypCO.*)1
small
taking \316\265
This
\320\2353/\320\223'
for
->
\317\206
7.8 and Corollary 7.9,the quotient
of Theorem
proof
a local
points.
H3
e
\316\241,;
-I
Qo G
these maps and
of all
track
keep
P0 G
\317\200
is
Q'0
that,
such
namely,
\320\2303/\320\223',
diagram may be
= <p(Qo) G
a point
finally
quotient
map
The following
image
and
Qo under the isometry -\317\206,
of the preimage of Q'0 under
the
point
G H3
\317\200'_1(<5\317\214)
->
\320\2303
\342\200\224>
\317\200:
\316\2273
the
\316\2273/\316\223,
map
quotient
in dimension
theorems
Geometrization
12.
328
and
\320\266'
to
ir'o
<p(P).
of 7' so
by construction
in the ball Bdhyp(PO,\302\243).
^0
\317\210(\316\241\316\277)
<p(P)
this
{\316\212')-\316\271\316\277\317\210\316\277\316\212{\316\241)
\317\210{\316\241).
=
-\316\272'
\316\277\317\206\316\277
7(\316\241)
are both
ball is
injective, we concludethat
329
domains
Ford
12.4.
This proves that
them with
=
\316\277
conclude that \317\206
j \316\277
\317\206_1
both of
This
that
proves
7' =
equivalently,
are
sets
to prove
the
For
the
\316\223\",
same
7 G
\316\223
such
we just
in
contained
\316\223'.
but replacing
argument
\316\277 \316\277 =
\317\210-1 7'
\317\210
that
that
\316\223'
is
\317\206
or,
\321\203
in
contained
proved the reverse inclusion, these
so
isometry \317\210
we have
that
\317\210
isometry
element
of
which
fixes
\317\206\"1^).
Therefore,
since
\316\223\"
fixing
there exists an
=
\316\277
\317\206' \317\206
jQ.
oc,
is
\317\206'
Indeed,
that
\316\223
such
an
isometry
12.8, namely
\302\260\302\260\302\267
so far, we only know

if 7' is a parabolic
element of \316\223
parabolic
(3) of
conclusion
G
70
that
V.
f^C00)
\320\276 \316\277
is
\317\210~\316\273
\321\203'\317\206
\316\223
satisfies
element
Note
then
that
constructed
point of
is a parabolic
\317\210\316\233{\316\277\317\214)
of Proposition
statement
last
the
choose the
we can
that
Composing
other side, we
equal.
We need
that
9.9.
the
\316\223'.
This
proves
\316\271\317\201\316\277\316\263\316\277\317\201\"1.
\316\277
\316\277
7 G \316\223}.Since
{\317\2107
\317\206~\316\273;
two
7'
7' G
element
an
provides
\317\206~\316\271
Consequently,
dhyp)
coincide
they
\320\276\316\277
G \316\223}
is
{\317\210\321\203\317\206-1;\316\267
given
Conversely,
by
and
of (H3,
\317\210
{^')~\316\273\316\277\317\210\316\277\316\267
uniqueness statement in Lemma

on one side and \317\206-1on
7'
by the
H3
on
everywhere
isometries
two
the
the ball Bdhyp(Po,^)\302\267
coincide on
Complement 12.7,
=
70(00)
(/'\"'(\321\201\321\216).Set
and sends\321\201\321\216
to 00.
of H3
In
addition
=
\320\276 \320\276
7 \316\277
\316\277\317\206~1;\316\212\302\243\316\223}
\320\223} {\321\203?70
7\316\277-1
{\302\245>'o7o(\302\245>')-1;7G
\342\200\224
\342\200\224\316\277
\316\277
G \316\223} \316\223'
{\317\210 \316\261\317\206~\316\271;\316\261
as
(To justify the

to the group \316\223
for
required.
belongs
q G \316\223
can
12.4.2.
variation
be written
the
a group
70
\320\276
7 \320\276
y^1
\316\223
and
for
that
some
70 \302\260
7 \302\260
7\316\277-1
conversely,
every
7 G \320\223.)
As indicated before, Ford domains are a

it
domains of Section 7.4. For this reason,
the
definition
of
Dirichlet
domains.
Let
repeat
Dirichlet
to
may be useful
\320\223
be
7 G
every
Q =
that
note
domains.
Ford
of
as q
second equality,
first
of the metric space(X, d)

of \320\223
The Dirichlet domain
at \316\241
G X
of isometries
discontinuous.
=
{QeX;
\316\224\316\223(\316\241)
d(P, Q)
sj
whose
action
is the
subset
for every
Q)
\316\254(\316\212(\316\241),
\342\202\254
\316\223},
is
those
of
consisting
to any
In
of its orbit
7.4, we
Section
Q GX
points
other point
least
at
are
which
in dimension
theorems
Geometrization
12.
330
as close
to
as
\316\241
\316\223(\316\241).
case where
considered the
is the
hyperbolic
plane H2 (as well as the euclidean plane, but this is irrelevant here).
in this case the Dirichlet
that
In particular, Theorem 7.13 showed
is a locally
finite polygon in H2 and that, as 7 ranges
domain
\316\224\317\201(\316\241)
of 7, the polygons 7(\316\224\316\223(\316\241))
form
a tessellation
of
all elements
over
if
and
are
distinct
H2. In addition, the two tiles 7(\316\224\316\223(\316\241))
\316\224\316\223(\316\241)
and only if 7(P)
The
natural
P.
\317\206
of these
generalization
hyperbolic space H3. Namely,
results holds
when
is the
a locally finite
is then
\316\224\316\223(\316\241)
one just needsto replaceLemma

7.14
by
are
at
the statement that for any P, Q G H3, the set of points R that
\316\241
and
a
is
the same hyperbolic distance from
hyperbolic plane \316\240,
Q
the set of R with
while
R) < dhyp(Q, R) is a hyperbolichalfd^yp{P,
bisector plane \316\240.The proof
\316\227
delimited
space
by this perpendicular
to show that \316\224\317\201(\316\241)
of Theorem 7.13 then immediately
generalizes
polyhedron in
is
a locally
7 G
To prove this,
H3.
\316\223
form
finite polyhedron and

of H3.
a tessellation
unless
\316\224\316\223(\316\241)
For
the
that
with
polyhedra
7(\316\224\316\263(\316\241))
from
distinct
7(\316\224\316\263(\316\241))
is
Again,
P.
\317\206
7(P)
a hyperbolic
knot
\320\232
in
R3,
the conclusionsof Complement

we now
domain \316\224\316\263(\316\241),
replace
let
\320\223
be
a kleinian
group satisfying
of the Dirichlet
by the point 00.
of
want
to
the
set
those
we
consider
Q G H3
Namely,
\316\224\316\263(\316\277\316\277)points
other
with 7 G \316\223.
at least as close to 00 as to any
which
are
7(00)
is of course a problem here, becausea point
There
Q G H3 is at
from 00, and from
infinite
distance
However,
any
hyperbolic
7(00)!
are
it
turns
out
we can
than
and
that
some infinities
larger
others,
12.7.
In the definition
the point
really make senseof this statement.

For this, let us pursue the sameformal
isometry, the distance from Q
hyperbolic
as the distancefrom
that we are
talking
closerto 00
00
is closer
j~1(Q)
to
infinite
about
should
distances,
than
than to 7~1(Q). If we
the Busemann function
7(00)
in
Section
remember
6.8 (see
if
should be
we
neglect
7 G
\316\223
is a
the same
the fact
the statement that
be equivalent
to Q
Since
reasoning.
to 7(00)
00. Therefore,
to
H3
\316\241
G
to the statement
our
discussion
Q is
that
of
also Exercises 6.10-6.11),
331
12.4. Forddomains
and Q2 =
sense of this property. Indeed,if

U2) are two points of H3,
make
now
can
we
i/2;
(z2>
lim
dhyp(P,
P\342\200\224>oo
is taken
the limit
where
than
higher
in R3
{00}.
is closer
Q\\
(xi,yi,u-[)
To avoid any ambiguity, we
and say
this
in
that
Qi is at least as high
to define the Ford domain of
us
= R3 U
> ^2\317\211\316\271
if
Ui)
U2
Q2. Similarly,
leads
This
decidethat
(x2, i/2,1^2)
euclidean
terminology
Q2
the
use
will
we can
a consequence,
As
to 00 than
(xi, j/i,
log\342\200\224,
metric
euclidean
the
for
dhyp(P, Q2) =
Qi)
Qi
case,
Q2 if
as
^ \320\270\320\263\320\270\320\263
kleinian
the
is
Q\\
group
\320\223\320\260\320\267
e H3;
{Q
\316\224\316\223(\316\277\316\277)
will
We
that
show
least as high
Q is at
as
is a
\316\224\316\263(\316\277\316\277)
locally
-y~1(Q)
for every
7 G \316\223}.
finite hyperbolic
polyhedron.
Let 7 be an isometry of \320\2503such

that 7(00)
\317\203\316\277.
\317\206
those Qei3 which
as 7\"\316\273
is
are
at least as high
(Q)
bounded
a
hyperbolic half-space \316\227\316\212,
hyperbolic plane 1I7.
by
12.9.
Lemma
the
Then
set of
Proof. For \320\270

> 0,
point (0,0, \317\211).In
00.
By
let Su
that
horizontal
its
e
7(00)
passing
plane
through
the
horosphere centeredat
is
therefore a horosphere
image j(Su)
euclidean
a
C, namely,
spheretouching
terms,
9.11,
Proposition
centeredat the point

\320\241
at
be the
hyperbolic
S(u) is a
point.
<7\"1(Q)
s\320\233\320\260\320\264
p-\320\237)
/f'Q
\316\240\317\215/
\\y(Su0)
\320\236
Figure
When
and the
\320\270
is near
+00,
7(\320\276\320\276)
12.4.
The proof of
the euclidean
horospherej(Su)
is
disjoint
Lemma 12.9
radius
from
Su.
of
j(Su)
On the
is very
small
other hand,
12. Geometrization theoremsin dimension3
332
close to
0, the
and Su is near the rcj/-plane,
so
\320\270
is very
when
meeteachother. (To check

the point 7(0,0, \317\211),which
7(0,0,0) to 7(00).)Therefore,
SUa
the
be
Let
\316\2407
is on
orthogonal
Uq
0 for
>
which
Pq.
P0 and is
plane that passes through

joining 7(00) to 00. Namely,
is
\316\2407
of the euclideansphere centeredat
the
and
7(00)
Pq.
through
passing
a value
exists
there
geodesic
with H3
intersection
of j(Su)
is very large
horospheres y(Su) and Su
two facts, note that y(Su) contains
the hyperbolic geodesic g joining
the two
tangent to each other, at a point
hyperbolic
the
to
that
these
7(<SUo) are exactly
and
euclideanradius
reflection across \316\2407,which

Let \317\201
be the
is also the
hyperbolic
across the euclidean sphere centered
restriction to H3 of the inversion
at 7(00)and
In particular,
Pq.
containing
and fixesthe point Pq. It follows

SUo
and
that
exchanges
00 to 00, and respectsthe horosphereSUo.

a respects every horospherecenteredat 00, and
of H3 to a point which is at the same height.
sends
If Q is a point
the
at
same height
of
as
then
y~i(Q)
\320\2377,
by the above
7(00),
the horospheres
the hyperbolic isometry
In particular,
y(SUo).
00 and
\317\201
exchanges
also
\317\201
=
\316\261
\316\277
\317\2017
As a consequence,
it sends each point
\316\261-1\316\277
p~1(Q)
is
a_1(Q)
observation on a.
delimited
point of the open hyperbolic
half-space
by \320\2377
and
to 00, namely, if Q e H3 is located outside of the closed
adjacent
euclidean
ball centered at 7(00) and containing
Pq in its boundary,
then p(Q) is lower than Q by elementary geometry. Noting
that
=
=
\316\277
of
a
shows
that
\316\261-1
the
same
property
p~l
p,
y~1(Q)
p~1(Q)
is lower than Q. In other words,Q is higher
than
y~1(Q).
If
Q is a
if Q
Similarly,
by \320\2377,the
This
By
same
completes
definition,
of all thesehalf-spaces
7(00)
oo.
\317\206
is in
the
argument
open hyperbolic half-space delimited

shows that Q is lower than
y~1(Q).
other
the proof
the Ford
ff7
of Lemma
domain
as 7
12.9.
\316\240
to the
is equal
\316\224\316\223(\316\277\316\277)
ranges over all elementsof
Namely,
\316\224\316\223(\316\277\316\277)=
f|
7er-r00
tf7
intersection
\316\223
such
that
To
this is a
that
show
the stabilizer
notation
the
in
using
333
domains
12.4. Ford
{7
\320\223^
locally finite
the
we need
polyhedron,
00} of
\320\223;
7(00)
\321\201\321\216.
following
fact.
The family of hyperbolic

Lemma 12.9 is locallyfinite.
12.10.
Lemma
defined
by
Proof.
We
Note that we
that
\316\223
such
are not
meets
\316\2407
the sameheight. It then
are
there
particular,
there
that
saying
the stabilizer \316\223,^(namely,

Complement 12.7 shows that
In
\342\200\224
G \320\223
\320\223^}
thereexists
\316\265
> 0
an
many
\316\2407.Actually,
will do.
\316\265
> 0
7 G
{\320\2377;7
need to show that for every Pel3,

the ball Bdhyp(P,\316\265) meets only finitely
such that
any
planes
are only
many
finitely
if \316\261
is an element
of
Indeed,
\316\265).
Bdhyp (\316\241,
=
and
if \316\261
conclusion
G \316\223
\316\261(\316\277\316\277)
\321\201\321\216),
(2) of
every point of H3
our definitions that
\316\261
sends
from
follows
7 G
many
infinitely
\316\223
with
to a point at
=
\320\23770(1
\316\2407.
same associated
the
plane IT7.
these
After
Lemma
12.10.
many
distinct
with
\316\2407\316\267,
the proof
let us begin
comments,
preliminary
Suppose
that
the ball
\316\267
G
N.
Bdhyp(P,\316\265)
meets
each n, pick
For
of
infinitely
a point Qn
Bdhyp(P,e)nUyri.
12.7, the stabilizer \316\223ôf 00 is generated by two

and
with respective translation vectors \321\211
\321\211.
translations,
an arbitrary
parallelogram 7 in the plane with sides
to v\\ and V2 is a fundamental domain for the
parallel
Complement
By
horizontal
In
particular,
respectively
of
action
exists an
\316\212\316\267
1(Qn)
horizontal
\316\225
such
\320\242\320\266
that
are
located
\320\243\320\277,
\320\270\320\277)
(xn,
that
Note
the
last coordinate of
of Qn since Qn G
the
usual
Lemma
coordinate
It
box 7
of
there
plane R2. As a consequence,
a~x
two
of
the first
coordinates (xn, \320\243\320\277) \320\276
on
the
\316\223\316\267
last coordinate
7f^1(Qn)i
which
in
\320\243.
of
un
t,o
the
last
coordinate
a consequence,
since dhyp(-P,
As
Qn)
between
euclidean
and
comparison
hyperbolicmetrics
where
\320\270
is the third
2.5) shows that ue~\302\243< un < \317\211\316\262\316\265,
\320\2377\342\200\236.
the
is also
\316\277
\316\261\"1
j~1(Qn)
is equal
<
\316\265,
(see
=
\316\241
\321\203,
(\317\207,
\320\270).
follows
\317\207
that
[ue~e,uee]
all points
a\"1 \302\260~/n1(Qn)
R3.
\316\2273\320\241
\321\201
explicit comparisonbetween
hyperbolic
By
in the
parallelepipedic
or by another
compactness,
and euclidean
metrics, there
are
12. Geometrization theoremsin dimension3
334
is
\321\205
box \320\243
[ue
R such that this
radius
a large
the ball
in
is contained
\316\265,
\317\211\316\262\316\265]
Bdhyp(P,R). Then,
Qn) +
\320\276
< dhyp(P,
dhyp{P,\316\212\316\267 \320\260\320\277{\320\240))
<
dbyp(P,Qn)
\302\260
\302\253\302\253(-P))
dhyp(Qn,7\302\253
\302\260In^Qn),P)
\302\253W^1
+ R.
\316\266\316\265
Since the action of \320\223

is discontinuous,
Lemma
7.15 shows that
the ball Bdhyp (\316\241,
\316\265
contains
of the
+ R)
many
points
only finitely
orbit. In particular, there existstwo indices
that
such
\316\267\317\207\317\206\317\204\317\205\317\207
ynL \320\276
=
am
(\316\241)
\302\260
7\317\2002 an2
the
of
beginning
the
\316\223
is free,
made at
proof,
the
planes
hyperbolic
\316\2407\316\267
all distinct.
are
12.11.
Proposition
in
polyhedron
the
We
Proof.
already
rangesover
space
saw that
of
ball
of a
center
is a
\316\224\316\263(\316\277\316\277)
locally finite
\320\2503.
by definition,
result of Lemma
of all sets
12.9, as
Lemma
that
every
only
Let
us
\316\227\316\212.
e \316\224\316\263(\316\277\316\27
\316\241
finitely many of
write these planes
the intersection of the ball

intersection of Bdltyp(P,\316\265) with
the boundary
of \316\224\316\263(\316\277\316\277)
is the union
\316\223
\320\237
with
\316\223^.
7
\320\2377 \316\224\316\223(\316\277\316\277)
construction,
By
the
is also
\316\224\316\263(\316\277\316\277)
12.10,
meets
which
Bdhyp(P,\316\265)
Bdhyp(P,\316\265)
\302\267
\302\267
\302\267
\316\240
It follows
\316\240
\316\2407\316\267.
\316\24071
in
to the
\342\200\224
\316\223
\316\223^.
the hyperbolicplanes
the
bounding
\316\2407
as \316\24071,\316\24072,..., \316\2407\316\267.
As a consequence,
with
is equal
\316\224\316\263(\316\277\316\277)
defined
half-spaces\316\227\316\212,
elements
local finiteness
the
By
the
all
domain
Ford
The
hyperbolic
intersection of all the
is
of
that we
by the observation
our original assumptionthat
contradicting
the action
because
(\316\241)\302\267
Additionally,
=
\316\277
\316\277
However,
7\316\267\316\271
\316\261\316\267\316\271
-\316\263\342\200\2362
\316\261\316\267!.
the set
F7 =
intersection
\316\240
is the
\316\2407 \316\224\316\263(\316\277\316\277)
of
all half-spaces
the hyperbolic plane \320\223\320\246
with
with
\320\235\321\203 7'
these half-spaces
Since
the family of the planes \320\237\321\203
is locally
bounding
finite (Lemma 12.10),F7 is either the empty
a single point, a
set,
geodesic of H3, or a locally finite polygon in H3.
\342\200\224
\302\243
\320\223
\316\223\316\277\316\277\3
When
Prom
the
polygon, we will
local picture of the Ford
F7
is a
say
domain
that
it is
a face of
\320\224\320\263(\320\276\321\201
near
each
\316\224\316\263(\316\277\316\277)
of its
12.4. Ford
it is
P,
points
domains
335
immediate that
meet along one
can only
faces
such
two
edgeor onevertex.
the
concludes
This
that the
proof
Ford domain
is a
\316\224\316\263(\316\277\316\277)
locally
finite polyhedron.
Remark 12.12. Here,let

domain
Ford
The
(1)
a few
collect
us
of
intersection
For
the
the
half-space
is invariant
\316\224\316\223(\316\277\316\277)
\316\241
e
and
\316\227\316\212
of
consequence
are
\316\224\317\201
polygons
(\321\201\321\216)
Figures 12.6 and
\316\261
G
under
Too,
belongs
a(P)
it
above
\321\203,
\320\270')
(\320\266,
to
projects
\316\224\316\223(\316\277\316\277)
manipulation shows that

A
in
is
\321\203,
\320\270)
(\317\207,
projection of R3 to the rcy-plane,

a euclidean polygon in
vertical
(3) The Ford domain

Too. Indeed, if
(4)
the
line is a half-
vertical
with
a
\316\224\316\263(\316\277\316\277)
=
\316\241
Lemma
12.9, every point P' =
with u' > u) is alsoin #7.
of
of
\316\224\316\223(\316\277\316\277).
line. Indeed, if
(2)
simple properties
of
\316\227\316\212
(namely,
face
every
R2.
the stabilizer
a simple
to Haay.
(2) and (3) above is that

with finitely many edges.
the
algebraic
faces
of
a few examples of the top

their projectionsto the xy-plane.
Note
the symmetry
of these pictures under the action of the stabilizer
This
stabilizer
acts by translations on the plane,and its action is
Too.
is a fundamental
represented here by indicating a parallelogram which
domain for the action; in particular, \320\223îs generated
by the two
translations along the sidesof the parallelogram.
\342\226\240
These pictures were drawn using the software
SnapPea
[\\Veeks2]
once
we
are
the
of
the
the
kleinian
definition
Indeed,
given
group \320\223,
Ford domain \316\224\317\201(\316\277\316\277)
makes
its computation
quite amenable to
of
view
computer
Ford
below
provide
namely, of
implementation.
These
examples
provide (often
by
12.8
domains,
euclidean
the action
quite
polygons
are
fairly
intricate)
typical,
as projections
tessellations
(usually triangles),
of the
which
of a group acting by translations.
of Ford domains
euclidean plane R2
are
invariant
under
12. Geometrizationtheoremsin dimension3
336
12.4.3.
and
Uniqueness
examples.
12.13. Let \320\232

be a knot in R3, to which
Theorem
12.2,
\320\223
12.7
and
Section
12.4.2associatea
kleinian
and
Complement
group
\316\223'
a Ford domain \316\224\316\223(\316\277\316\277).
and
are
associated
If
similarly
\316\224\316\263'(\316\277\316\277)
\342\200\224>
oo and sending
to K, then
there
is an isometry \317\210:
\316\2273
\316\2273
fixing
Proposition
to \316\224\316\223'(\316\277\316\277).
\316\224\316\223(\316\277\316\277)
immediate consequenceof
is an
This
Proof.
To apply
Proposition 12.13,note that
an
isometry
of
\317\210
H3
D
that
and of a euclidean
H3. (Look at the linear or antilinear
induced
on C.) In addition, the possibilitiesfor \317\210
fractional
are
map
further
limited by the fact that
it
12.8
that
must
Proposition
implies
\320\276
\320\276
send Too to \316\223^,in the sense that \316\223'^= {\317\206
\321\203
\317\206-1;j e \320\223^}.
fixes oo
is just the
12.8.
Proposition
of
isometry
composition
Proposition
12.13
a homothety
R3 respecting
Figure
Because
of
of the
makes
12.5.
wealth of
Two
very
information
similar
knots
encoded
Ford domains a very powerful
in them,
tool to prove
that
two
are not isomorphic. For instance, considerthe two knots

represented
in Figure
12.5. Their respective Ford domains are represented
there
is no similitude (= composition
in Figure12.6.By inspection,
of
a homothety
a
euclidean
of
the
with
plane
sending the
isometry)
of one of these Ford domains to the other. For
some
instance,
projection
to 20 edges,
whereas
vertices of the second tessellationare adjacent
none have this property in the first tessellation.
One can also look at
of
tiles
the
of
each
the (finitely
tessellation.
shapes
many)
knots
12.4. Forddomains
The Ford
12.6.
Figure
337
of the
domains
knots of Figure
12.5
knots \320\232
and
K' of Figure 12.5 are not

were not completely chosen at random.
The
fact that they differ only by an exchange
of two twisted parts (the
technical term is \"mutation\")
make them very hard to distinguish
which were standard prior to
by the methods of algebraic
topology
the introduction
of hyperbolic
This example illustrates the
geometry.
that the
It follows
power of
knots
two
isomorphic. These
these
new
techniques.
hyperbolic
aside, these two
As an
of view of
hyperbolic geometry. For

on their complements have exactly
be clear from
the
still very
are
knots
the
the
from
hyperbolic
point
metrics
volume. It should also

picture of Figure 12.6(and
same
in each
parallelograms
the
instance,
close
and
Tx coincide
proved) that the stabilizers\316\223\316\214\316\277
to
of Ford
one needs the full force
up
isometry of K3. Consequently,
domains to distinguish these two knots.
As a final
consider
the two knots of Figure 12.7. Snapexample,
Peaprovides
in
the
same Ford domain for each of them, as indicated
In
cannot
show
12.8.
we
use
Ford
to
that
domains
Figure
particular,
these two knots are not isomorphic.
it
can
be rigorously
There
is a
good reason for
\321\217\320\263\320\265
actually
isotopic...!
l,wo
knots
were
listed
because
the two knots represented
a long time to realize this fact. These
as distinct in the early
knot
tables
established
this,
It took
by Charles Little [Little]

lor over 90 years; see for
in the
instance
nineteenth
[Rolfsen],
century,
where
and
remained
they appear
so
as
12. Geometrization theoremsin dimension
338
Figure
The Ford
12.8.
Figure
12.7.
Two more knots
of the
domain
knots of Figure 12.7
the knots numbered 10i6i and IO162, respectively.

that Kenneth Perko, an amateur
mathematician,
were isotopic [Perko]. SeeExercise
12.8.
We
the
are
this
mentioning
power
the isotopy
of hyperbolic
which
took
example
It is
to discover
is
now
they
very
well
Indeed,
theory.
a
1974
that
because it illustrates
of the computation
of Ford domains, provided
more information than we have indicatedso far.
consequence
in
only
noticed
geometric methodsin knot

90 years
simple
we
use
a little
are
of a Ford domain
paired
\316\224\317\201(\316\277\316\277)
for
Dirichwe
encountered
that
principle
already
together
by
of
domains.
notation
of
the
let
proof
Namely, using the
F -1 is
Proposition12.11,
if f7 is a face of the Ford
then
domain
\316\224\316\263(\316\277\316\277),
to
In
another face of \316\224\316\263(\316\277\316\277)
and
sends
7 G \316\223
particular,
F7.
F7-i
the quotient map
the faces F7 and F7-1 are glued
under
together
More
precisely,
the
same
H3 -> \316\2273/\316\223.
the faces
Ford
12.4.
As in the
the
case of
Dirichlet
we can
domains,
the
from
\320\2353/\320\223
space
quotient
339
domains
following
therefore reconstruct
the Ford domain
data:
on \316\224\316\263(\316\277\316\277);
the gluing
translation group \316\223\316\214\316\277
data between the faces \316\224\316\263(\316\277\316\277).
is homeomorphic to the
Indeed,
H3/7
and
obtained
quotient
space
by, first, taking the quotient
\316\224\316\263(\316\277\316\277)/\316\223\316\277
of
faces
then gluing the faces of \316\224\316\223(\316\277\316\277)/\316\223\316\277\316\277
the
the
images
(namely,
of
data.
under
the quotient
\316\224\317\201(\316\277\316\277)
map) according to the gluing
If we are only interested in reconstructing
up to homeomor\316\2273/\316\223
to know exactly
as
do
not
need
to
to
we
phism
opposed up isometry,
\342\200\224*
the gluing maps F7
but only their combinatorics.
F7-i,
of the
the
action
\316\224\316\263(\316\277\316\277);
More precisely,let \320\223

and
\320\223\"
be two kleinian
groups as in
they have well-definedFord domains \316\2247(\316\277\316\277)
and
and
We will say that the Ford domains \316\224\316\263(\316\277\316\277)
\316\224\316\263'(\316\277\316\277
\316\224\316\263'(\316\277\316\277).
if there
is a
and
have
the
same
combinatorics
their
data
gluing
of
one-to-one correspondence between the faces, edges and vertices
Complement
12.7,
that
so
edges and
and
the
\316\224\316\263(\316\277\316\277)
faces,
vertices of
such
that
\316\224\316\271-'(\321\201\321\216)
is contained
in a given face if and only if
edge of \316\224\317\201(\316\277\316\277)
in the
is contained
corresponding edge of \316\224\316\263-'(\316\277\316\277)
is contained
a vertex of \316\224\317\201(\316\277\316\277)
face;
similarly,
corresponding
in a given edge if and only if the corresponding vertex of
is contained
in the corresponding edge of \316\224\317\201\302\273
\316\224\317\201'
(\321\201\320\276)
(\321\201\320\276);
differ
two faces, edges or vertices of \316\224\317\201(\316\277\316\277)
the
action
by
of an element of \316\223\316\214\316\277
if and
only if the corresponding faces,
of \316\224\317\201'
differ
edgesor vertices
by the action of an element
(\321\201\320\276)
(1) an
the
(2)
ofrj\302\273;
(3)
edges or
two faces,
if and only
if
the
are glued
\316\224\316\223/
(\316\277\316\277)
SnapPea easily
to the Ford domain
Proposition
two
kleinian
R3
\342\200\224
\320\232
and
that
the
Ford
vertices
12.14. Let \320\232and

R3
that
\342\200\224
\316\232',respectively,
domains
combinatorially equivalent.
faces, edges
together
or vertices of
together.
thus
data
combinatorial
associated
knot.
a hyperbolic
groups such
are
glued
\316\224\317\201(\316\277\316\277)
corresponding
computes the
of
of
K'
be two
and
\320\2353/\320\223
as in
knots, and let

are
\320\2353/\320\223'
\320\223
and
be
\320\223'
homeomorphic
to
Complement
their
and
and
\316\224\317\201(\316\277\316\277)
\316\224\317\201'(\316\277\316\277)
12.7. Suppose
gluing data are
the
Then,
Proof.
definition
it
holds
when
that
\342\200\224
\320\232'
between
theoremof
the quotient
the
that
can
\317\206
S3
\317\206:
-> S3,
is designed
so
equivalence
and
spaces \320\2353/\320\223
there exists a
be
\342\200\224
\342\200\224*
\320\2313
\320\232
\317\206:
knot complements. Then,

corresponding
and John Luecke [Gordon &
chosen
such that
home-
are
\320\2353/\320\223\"
homeomorphism
a deep
Luecke]
Gordon
Cameron
shows
combinatorial
of
in dimension
are isomorphic.
K'
\320\232
and
Therefore,
omorphic.
R3
knots
The
theorems
Geometrization
12.
340
so that
to
extends
it
=
\317\210(\316\232)\320\232'.This
proves
a homeomorphism
K' are
that \320\232
and
isomorphic.
Ford domains were originally

in the context of the
introduced,
hyperbolic plane ~H?, by Lester Ford in 1935 [Fordi]. Bob Riley was
the first one to realize
that
3-dimensional
Ford domains
probably
to distinguish
could be a powerful
tool
and
which
was
one
knots,
very
to computer implementation [Riley2,RUeys, Rileyi]. A
amenable
of Ford domains is due to David
different
conceptually
description
and Bob Penner [Epstein
& Penner].
Epstein
12.5. The general GeometrizationTheorem

Geometrization
The
case
a more
of
this
statement,
Consider
of all
\316\267-tuples
12.2 for knot complements is a special

result
for
3-dimensional manifolds. To explain
general
we need a few definitions
about
manifolds.
Theorem
the
the euclidean
\342\226\240
\342\226\240
\342\226\240
with
,\317\207\316\267)
metric
when
defined
dcuc
deuc(P,
=
\316\241
\320\237
subset
of
are all
equal to
homeomorphic
\316\241
G X,
there
homeomorphism
\317\210:
Bd(P,
M\342\204\242,
consisting
with
Kn
endow
We
\\/\316\243?=\316\220(*<-*\316\257)2
cases
is of
\342\226\240
\342\226\240
This
\342\226\240,
(\317\207\\,
\317\207'2,
\317\207'\316\267)-
where
we
< \316\267,
\317\201
of those
space
R.
xt e
= 2
\316\267
identify
points whose
0.
n-dimensional
An
every
IK\342\204\242
consisting
the
each
by
=
\342\226\240
\342\226\240
\316\241'
and
\342\226\240,
\317\2072,
\317\207\316\267)
(\317\207\316\271,
the natural generalization of

have considered so far. When
locally
euclidean
\316\267-dimensional
(xi,x2,
and
=
\316\267
the space
last (n
course
we
3 that
Mp
to
the
\342\200\224
p)
coordinates
is a metric space (X,d) which

is
for
euclidean space (\320\234\",\321\201?\320\265\320\270\321\201)\302\267
Namely,
X and
small ball Bd(P,e) \320\241
a
manifold
to the
exists a
\342\200\224*
\316\265) U between
Bd(P,
and
\316\265)
a subset
U of
M\342\204\242
12.5.
The
which
contains
at
ball
euclidean
a small
341
Theorem
Geometrization
general
U centered
\321\201
\316\222\316\2541\316\271\316\263\317\201(\317\210(\316\241),\316\265')
\317\206(\316\241).
Q =
connected
X is
manifold
exists a
curve
continuous
\320\263\321\203(\320\252)
(where
[a, b]
Manifolds
7:
an
is
\316\241
and
every
=
\316\241
going
closed interval in
arbitrary
physical
phenomena and, consequently, they
different branches of mathematics.
various
ofsurfaces.
12.5.1. Geometrization
as
locally
in
is the
many
same
thing
In Chapter 5, we constructedvarious
and spherical surfaces, namely, metric spaces
euclidean plane (\320\2502,deuc), the hyperbolic
plane
hyperbolic
to the
isometric
of
modelling
occur
surface
to
manifold.
a 2-dimensional
euclidean,
7(a)
R).
the mathematical
as in
there
G X,
from
\342\200\224>
X
[a, b]
appear
naturally
for
if,
(H2,dhyp) or the sphere (S2,deph)\302\267

is part of a more general phenomenon. The following
This
of work by a long line of mathematicians
in the
theorem is the
culmination
for
a
discussion.
nineteenth century; see for instance
[Bonahon,
\302\2471.1]
Theorem
12.15 (Geometrization Theorem for
X can be endowed
be a connected surface. Then
Let
surfaces).
with another
(X,d)
metric
d' such that

(1)
d'
the
that
the
(3)
(X,a\") is locally
the
(X,
space
metric
original
\316\231\316\254\317\207
provides
a\")
is
d, in the
a homeomorphism
complete;
isometric to
plane
hyperbolic
the
and (X,d');
(2)
metric
map
identity
between (X,d)
In
equivalent to
is topologically
sense
euclidean
the
(EC2,dhyp)
or
the
plane
sphere
(M.2,deac),
(S2,deph)\302\267
addition:
(1)
when (X,d')
morphic
(2)
when (X,
homeomorphic
the torus,
to
is
the
locally
sphere
d!) is locally
to
the
to the
isometric
or to
isometric
plane,
or the Klein bottle;
the
projective
sphere, it is
homeo-
plane;
to the euclidean plane, it is

the cylinder, the Mobius
strip,
(3)
when
is
is locally
(X,d')
not
homeomorphic
outside of
In particular,
nice
surfaces
examples
such
relatively
wilder
Figure 12.9
every
hyperbolic
metric.
surface of infinite
as the
set
in
the
plane
12.9. The infinite
Figure
for a
surface
given
clidean, hyperbolic
identify
to
such
two
turn
(X,
d), we
the corresponding
the moduli
Theorem
d'
when they are

3Vthyp(^)
metrics.
set of
as in
all
Indeed,
eu-
complete
Theorem
12.15, and
isometric. There is a
quotient space into
space MeUcPO,
in
represented
12.4 is not valid

is not unique up to
such
few
can consider the
or sphericalmetrics
metrics
Chapter 5, but also

genus
metric
still relatively
are
there
surface
This includes the
Ness Monster
Loch
As indicated earlier, Mostow'sRigidity

in dimension 2, so that
this
hyperbolic
isometry. However,
connected
Loch Ness Monster\,")or the

this
is).
(if you know what
\"infinite
the
as
a Cantor
of
complement,
exceptions,
we encountered in
that
(also known
four
a complete
isometric to the hyperbolic plane, it

the
to the sphere, the projective
plane,
Klein bottle.
torus, or the
can be endowed with
in dimension
theorems
Geometrization
12.
342
a metric
or Msph(X),
space2
way
called
of euclidean,
X is compact,
surface X. When
it is obtained
or more generally when
from a compact surface
by
a manifold
many
removing
finitely
points, this moduli space is almost
in the sense that it is locally
to the quotient of a manifold
isometric
of isometries;
such an object is called
by the action of a finite
group
an orbifold. In particular,
it is locally
a manifold at most of its
but can have singularities similar
to the cone singularities
of
points,
Exercise 7.14at those points
are fixed by nontrivial
elements of
that
the finite group.
For instance,
when X is homeomorphic to the sphere or to the
the moduli
plane,
projective
space Msph(^0 consists of a single point
hyperbolic
'with
or
spherical
several
metrics
classical choices
on the
possiblefor
the
metric
The
12.5.
Theorem
Geometrization
general
343
is another
it is a manifold of dimension 0), which
say that any two spherical metrics on X are isometric.
consequently
(and
way to
euclidean
For
bottle, and
is a
when
interval)
is obtained
When
the moduli space MeUc(^0 is a 3-dimenX is homeomorphic to the torus or the Klein
1-dimensional
orbifold (homeomorphic to a semi-open
X is a cylinder or a Mobiusstrip.
metrics,
when
orbifold
sional
by removing
the compact
from
points
\317\201
ori-
of dimension
is an orbifold
entable surface
of genus
g, then \320\234\321\212\321\203\321\200(\320\245)
\342\200\224
can
be
The
fact
that
this
is
finite
dimension
+
interpreted
3(2g p 2).
as the property that
a complete
metric on X is essentially
hyperbolic
controlled by finitely
many
parameters
(such as the shear
parametersof Section
that
there are only
say,
6.7.2) or, as a physicistwould
of
such
a metric. For
of
in
choice
freedom
the
finitely
many
degrees
as the
such
surfaces
infinite
space Mhyp(-X')
is
infinite
Ness
Loch
Monster,
infinite-dimensional.
surfaces in 3-dimensional
Essential
the
be
3-dimensional
sphere dennedby
(S3, dsph)
of
the
2-dimensional
generalization
sphere (\302\2472,dSph)
12.5.2.
dimensions.
the moduli
manifolds.
Let
straightforward
to
three
Namely,
=
\302\2473
and the
GM4;Xi
{(x1,x2,X3,Xi)
spherical distance dev^{P,q)
the euclidean lengths of
all
piecewise
+x22 +
is
x\\
denned
+ xl
= 1},
as the infimum
curves joining
differentiable
of
\316\241
in\302\2473.
toQ
12.15
hope that a version of Theorem
optimistically
3-dimensional manifolds, and that every 3-dimensional
admits a metric which
is locally
isometric
to the euclidean
One
might
also holds for

manifold
space(\320\2263,dcuc),
sphere
the
This
(\302\2473,
rfsph)\302\267
hyperbolic
space (H3. dhyp)
is not quite the case.
Let X be a 3-dimensional
A typical
X = K3
nerted
\320\232
is
the
neither
example
\320\232
of
3-dimensional
manifold.
of 3-dimensional manifold
a knot
\320\232
in
M3.
In that
is
the
complement
case, Theorem
12.2as-
complete hyperbolic metric on X provided

satellite nor a torus knot. Fora general3-dimensional
existence
\302\260r
the
of a
X,
type
surface in the 3-dimensionalmanifold

there exists a 2-dimensional manifold
A two-sided
subset
for
X
\321\201
\342\200\224*
\317\207
\316\245
\317\210:
(\342\200\224\316\265.
\316\265) U to
= S.
\317\207
\317\206(\316\245
{0})
the
metric
for all
hold
definition
an open ball V
phic to
in V
then
tube,
curve
that
boundary
of the
two-sided
Klein
preimages of small euclidean spheres

a
two-sided spheres in X. If we start from
thicken
it
to
a
we
can
also
to
small
X,
try
M3; the
\320\232
in
take
then
and
in
many
provide
closed
simple
such
X
\320\241
section.
this
in
in a 3-dimensional
can always find two-sided
surfaces
For instance, by
trivial
constructions.
by using
relatively
X contains a subset U which
is homeomorof manifolds,
One
manifold
products
of
in
as denned
(\342\200\224\316\265,
\316\265),
a subset
\316\245
and
\317\207
with
endowingthe product \316\245
(-\316\265,\316\265)
\320\243
of the euclidean
metric of the
and
will
Exercise 1.6. The same convention
Here, we are
of the
product
interval
is a
which
homeomorphism
on
condition
by
in X.
surfaces
of
is replaced
condition
nonsatellite
the
manifold
a certain
in dimension
theorems
Geometrization
12.
344
the
tube will
boundary
of this tube;
a two-sided
be
most
in
cases,
torus, but it can
the
also be a
bottle.
constructions
are clearly too simplefor the corresponding
surfaces
to have much significance. We will focus attention
on
be called
surfaces
which
are not obtained in this
way. Such surfaces will
basis.
where this word is denned on a case-by-case
essential,
Such
in the 3-dimensional manifold X is a twois homeomorphic to the sphere, and which is

\320\222
to a ball
in no subset \320\222
X
where
is homeomorphic
\321\201
essential
An
contained
sphere
S which
surface
sided
inM3.
An
surface
essential
which
projective
plane
is homeomorphic
to the
in X
is simply a
projective plane,
two-sided
with
no
further
condition.
involves
of an essential torus
essential
in
the
3-dimensional
an
torus
Namely,
The definition
two-sided surface
(1)
\316\223
is
\316\244
such
homeomorphic
is not
(2) \316\244
to a
homeomorphic
contained
more
properties.
manifold
X is
that
to the
in a
ball in M3;
torus T2;
X
subset \320\222
\320\241
which
is
12.5. The
(3)
general GeometrizationTheorem
V \320\241
X;
namely,
boundary of a solid torus
\342\200\224*
X such
\320\256>2
S1 \317\207
V \320\241
that
homeomorphism\317\210:
=
\316\244
\317\207
D2
the
unit
S1
denote
circle
and
where
and
\317\206(51 S1),
the
not
\316\244
is
is no
there
the closed
(4)
345
\316\244
is
not
respectively;
the boundary of a collar W

is no homeomorphism
there
namely,
that
such
in M2,
disk
unit
to infinity
goes
lim
T = \317\206(\316\2442
\317\207
{0})
in X as t tends
arbitrary base point
Pq
in X;
infinity
+oo,
that
in the
\317\207
\317\206(\316\2122
{t})}=
ini\\d{P0,P);Pe
for an
such
and
to
to
going
\342\200\224>
\317\207
\316\2442
W \320\241
\317\206:
[0, \320\276\320\276)
\317\207
\317\206(\316\2442
{\316\257})
sense that
too
X.
\302\243
twisted
The definition
of essential Klein bottles will involve
(also
called nonorientable) solid tori. Recallthat the circle S1 is homeomorobtained
from the interval [0,1] by gluing
phic to the quotient
space
1 (see Exercise
the point 0 to the point
4.5). As a consequence,the
D2 is homeomorphic
solid torus S1 \317\207
to the quotient space obtained
\316\241
D2 by gluing
from
each point (0, P) with
e D2 to the point
[0,1] \317\207
(1,P).
D2
Let the twisted solid torus S1\317\207
obtained
from
[0,1]
\317\207
D2
by gluing
each point
be
the quotient
space
(0, P) to (1,P),where
\316\241
= \320\241.The
\320\2322
G D2 \320\241
conjugate of \316\241
the
\317\207
Klein
torus
is
S1
bottle
of
this
twisted
solid
image \302\247l
boundary
\317\207
S1 under
the quotient map.
[0,1]
X
An
in the 3-dimensional manifold
essential
Klein
bottle
a two-sided surface \320\232
such
that
the
denotes
(1)
A\"
complex
is
(2) \320\232is
the
not
namely,
(3)
to the
homeomorphic
such
that
\320\232
is
not
there
such
lim
is
Klein bottle K2;
boundary of a twisted solid

S1
is no homeomorphism \317\210:
torus
\317\207
D2
\320\241
X;
\342\200\224*
X
V \320\241
=
\320\232
\317\206{81xS1);
the boundary
namely, there is no
X
of
that
inf
t\342\200\224*
+ OC
=
\316\232
[d(P0,
of a collar W
\317\207
{0})
\317\206(\316\2122
going
to infinity
in X;
\342\200\224>
\316\2322
\317\207
W \320\241
\317\210:
[0, \320\276\320\276)
homeomorphism
and
such that
=
\316\241
\317\207
G \317\206(\316\2322
\316\241):
{\316\257})}
+oo.
Proposition 12.16.
Let
is topologically
sphere, projective plane, torus or Klein
no essential
contains
If d
be a 3-dimensional
manifold.
complete hyperbolic metric d', then
d)
[X,
to a
equivalent
in dimension
theorems
Geometrization
12.
346
bottle.
See
V of
M3
((R
consisting
v) cos
cos
\317\201
u, (R
cos
\317\201
0 ^ \317\201
\302\243
where
^ r and
u, \317\205
\316\234,
> 0 are given,
For
any rational
the torus knots parametrized by
with
R
with
0 <
<
\317\201
(pt +
qi) cos
11\342\200\224\342\226\272
cos
+ \317\201
((i?
R and
is the corecircleof
disjoint --torus knots
S1
space
(0. P) to
(1,P).
\342\200\2242\317\2002
\316\263
is
from
[0,1]
\317\207
\316\2172
by
gluing
each (0,
into
disjoint
the partition
of V
^-torus
of the
partition
P) to
quotient
(1,\317\203{\316\241)).
(To
and
partition
a partition
simple closed
by
other
playdough,
to
this
[0,1]
a more rigorous argument.) Then the

space
core.
V is homeomorphic to the
\317\207
D2 by gluing
each point
\342\200\224>
the rotation of angle
D2 denotes
use your personal experiencewith
segments[0,1]\317\207
{\316\241}projects
\316\257\316\277),\342\200\224
/osingi)
corresponding curve
curves are
corresponding
of
to the
homeomorphic
0, the
this
from
D2
if \317\203:
However,
aiso
with
in
that
saw
already
obtained
\317\207
D2
v)
we can
qt) sin(pi
the
around
sin
\317\201
is
torus
radii R and r
consider
two
possiblepresentation
solid torus. Indeed, we

quotient
\317\201
> 0,
\317\201
wrapping
There is another
When
When
u,
\302\243
Q,
cos
i0), (R + \317\201
G K.
\316\257\316\277
V.
v) sin
the
> r
all
references.
further
Recall that the standard solid

of all points of the form
fibrations.
Seifert
12.5.3.
the subset
proof and
for a
Bonahon}
[Scott,
curves,
knots
which
of
space
obtained
check
this,
then
[0, lj
first
try to build
x D2 into line
of this second quotient

is
homeomorphic
to
as above.
to the twisted solid

This secondpresentation
extends
immediately
obtained
torus W = S1 x32. Recall that W is the quotient
space
\317\207
D2
\316\241
is
to
where
from [0, 1]
the complex
by gluing
(1, P),
(0, P)
- \320\241
across the
ID2 \321\201
\316\2342
the reflection
\302\243
under
conjugate image of \316\241
x-axis. Again,
the partition
of [0,1] \317\207
D2 into line segments [0,1] \317\207
{\316\241}
to a partition
of W into disjoint simple closed curves. Note
projects
that
the
curves
corresponding
to
in
\316\241
the
x-axis
(so that
=
\316\241
P)
wrap
The general
12.5.
around
once
Geometrization Theorem
all other curves
S1 xD2, but that
wrap
347
twice
around
this
twisted solid torus.

of a 3-dimensional manifold X is a partition
closed
simple
curves, calledthe fibers of the
of the
looks like the above decompositions
twisted
fibration, which
locally
and untwisted solid torus. More precisely,
for every
fiber K, there
is a subset U \320\241
X
containing
K, a rational number jj e Q and a
\342\200\224*
\317\207
S1
D2 or S1 \317\207
D2 between
U
U and the solid
homeomorphism \317\210:
D2 or the twisted solid torus S'xD2, such
torus S1 \317\207
that
A
of
fibration
Seifert
into disjoint
(1)
U is
(2)
sends
\317\210
of
union
\320\232
to
fibers;
the
core circle
of the twisted or untwisted
solid
torus;
(3)
sends
\317\210
in
S1
any
\317\207
D2
S1 \317\207
D2,
For most
all
one of
the
curves
fibers
3-dimensional
in
of
the
to
a E-torus
knot
of
decomposition
as above.
fibers, the solidtorus U is untwisted

are called exceptional.
other
Seifert
fiber contained
other
or to
that
manifold
admits
and we can take
a Seifert
^=
is
fibration
\316\263;
manifold.
Since a Seifert fibration

quotient space X. It easily
of
is a
partition,
it
gives
rise
to a
follows
from the local description of the
with
Seifert fibration
that
this quotient
space is a surface
boundary.
X
like
xS1 of X
To a large extent, X behaves
much
the
product
very
with
of X as a certain thickening
the circle S1, and we should think
of the surface
X.
This
intuition
is expressed in the early work
of
[Seifert]
Herbert Seifert,
who classified
Seifert fibrations up to homeomorphism
in terms of the quotient
X and of the
the fibration,
surface
respecting
A little over thirty
local type of the exceptional
fibers.
later,
years
Waldhausen [Waldhausen] and Peter Orlik,
Elmar
Friedhelm
Vogt
that
and Heiner Zieschang [Orlik, Vogt & Zieschang]showed
the
is unique
Seifert fibration of a Seifert manifold
up to homeomorphism,
outside of a few well-understood
exceptions, so that the classification
of Seifert
manifolds
to Seifert's
up to homeomorphism is equivalent
theorems in dimension 3
12. Geometrization
348
classification
main
to
up
respecting the fibration.

is that Seifert manifolds form
is very
manifolds which
well understood.
homeomorphism
of 3-dimensional
class
The
results
of these
consequence
The general GeometrizationTheorem.We are now

state
the Geometrization
Theorem for 3-dimensional
ready
we
need
a
last
manifolds.
However,
couple of definitions.
\317\207 \320\276\321\201)
\316\206\316\267
Let R\" denote the closed half-space Kn_1
\320\241
[0,
whose
of those
last
points of the euclidean space R\342\204\242
consisting
12.5.4.
almost
coordinate
(in
is
An
nonnegative.
word) is a
one
\316\267-dimensional
manifold-with-boundary
metric space (X, d)
\316\241
for
e
phic to (R\",cieuc).Namely,
every
ball Bd{P,e) \320\241X and a homeomorphism
R\"
twen Bd.(P,e) and a subset U \320\241
which
R+nBdou<;(P,
of the
\316\265')
X consistsof
those
by the
metric
\316\241
as
to have
is said
to the interior
instance, a compact manifold
omorphic
Monster
Ness
Loch
manifold
of infinite
Theorem
12.17
manifolds).
Let
topological
finite
contains
Klein bottle;
We
homeomorphism,only
complete
already
six
finite
Rn_1
X
complement
type
if
{0}
dX.
is home-
it
manifold-with-boundary.
topological
type. The
Figure 12.9is a
\317\207
\342\200\224
For
infinite
of a
example
typical
hyperbolic
complete
d! which
metric
to d;
an
essential
sphere,
plane,
projective
torus, or
D
little
these three
with
overlap
saw in Proposition
12.16
to (1) and (3) there
that (1) and
are,
respect
up
(2) are
to
Seifert manifolds that

admit
such
as
the
interior
of
solid
the
metrics,
torus,
exceptional
hyperbolic
with
is
Seifert manifold.
With
incompatible.
to a point of
type.
In addition, there is relatively

possibilities.
The
(The Geometrization Theorem for 3-dimensional

(X,d) be a connected 3-dimensionalmanifold
holds:
type. Then at least one of the following
(2) X
is a
has
surface of
topologicalêquivalent
a compact
a small ball
dX of
boundary
contains
topological
finite
topological
(1) X admits
(3)
of
is the
\342\200\224>
U be-
\317\210:Bd{P,e)
are sent
Its interior
there
X,
(R\302\243,detlc).
which
above
homeomorphism.
A manifold
space
homeomorexists a small
is locally
which
connected
general Geometrization Theorem
12.5. The
or
the
most
However,
12.18.
Complement
many subsets
\316\2442
and
where
the
that
metric
hyperbolic
It then
the
12.15
hyperbolic
with
other
up
unique
Theorem 12.17 may

for
not
bottle,
respectively.
(1) of Theorem
Theorem
Rigidity
to isometry under
12.17
D
12.4 that the

the hypotheses
quite
look like the Geometrization

it involves only one geometry,
the
However, Seifert manifolds can be endowed

structures,
namely, complete metricswhich
geometry.
geometric
isometric
Klein
the
conclusion
of
\317\207
[0,\320\276\321\201),
12.18.
because
surfaces
\317\207
\316\2442
andK2
[0,\320\276\321\201)
d' has finite volume.
of Complement
conclusions
Theorem
in
Mostow's
from
follows
of Theorem 12.17,
a
and
of
compact subset \320\241
and
torus
additionally require
hyperbolicmetric d! is
and
tori
hypothesis
union
the
homeomorphicto
\320\2322
denote
Then, we can
the
Under
X is
that
addition
in
suppose
two
bottles.
or Klein
finitely
T2
the line R. Similarly, only
with
contain an essential sphereor projective
Seifert manifolds contain many
essential
manifolds
Seifert
plane.
torus
of the
product
connected
\320\250
homogeneousmodel space.
of dimension 3, we have
spaces
Among
homogeneous
already
encountered
the hyperbolic
space (H3,cihyp), the euclidcan space
sphere (S3,dsph). Thesethreespaces
(R3,
cieuc) and the 3-dimensional
are alsoisotropic.However,
in dimension
3, there also exist
not
such
are
i2xl
which
as the products
homogeneous
isotropic,
spaces
\317\207
R.
and \302\2472
also exist twisted versions of these
There
products.
if we identify
two geometric models when
Altogether,
they
only differ by
rescaling, and if we require each of them to appear for at least one 3are
locally
dimensional manifold
to some
with
finite
volume,
there
are only eight possible
is due to Bill Thurston,

geometries in dimension 3. This observation
and is explainedin detail in [Scott,
for instance.
Bonahon],
It turns out that every Seifert manifold
can
be endowed
with a
geometric structuremodeledafter one of six of these eight geometries.
essential
spheres,
Therefore,
projective planes, tori and Klein
only
bottlescan createproblems
with
a geometric
structure.
for
endowing
a 3-dimensional
manifold
12. Geometrization
350
It
of
pieces
which
To
fibered.
manifolds
3-dimcnsional
no such
either
contain
some
extent,
factorization
unique
theories
earlier
that
out
turns
factorization
theorems in dimension3
provide a kind
of
finite
of
unique
these factorizations are analogous

of an integer as a product
of primes.
such facLorizationis the theory
of
into
type
topological
essential surfacesor can be Seifert

first
by Hel-
initiated
sums
connected
the
to
The
completed by Wolfgang Haken [Haken]

[Kneser]
and
John
Milnor
[Milnor]
(see also the graduate textbook[Hempel]),
which
reduces
the analysis of 3-dimensional manifolds
to
essentially
of manifolds containing no essentialsphereor projective
that
planes.
The second such factorization is provided by the CharacteristicToric
Decomposition,
originally
suggested
by Friedhelm Waldhausen and
developed
fully
by Klaus Johannson
[Johannson] and Bus Jacoand
muth
Kneser
Peter
Shalen
and
[Jaco
Combined with
that
these
conneci.ed
every
& Shalen].
factorizations,
3-dimensional
Theorem
manifold of finite
natural splitting into pieces, each of

structure. In particular, this explainswhy
has a
asserts
topological
type
admits
which
this
12.17 then
statement
Geometrization Theorem, and not just a Hyperbolization

Theorem 12.17and Complement 12.18were proved
Thurston
in
the
sensewhich
Theorem
1970s
we
in
the
case
will
proof in [Otali, Otal2,

that
for knot complements
the
a specialcase
of
this
of unbounded
Theorem.
by Bill
manifolds, or
contain essential two-sided surfaces

not define here). See [Thurstoni], and
which
manifolds
bounded
expositions of
late
a geometric
is called a
for
(in a
Kapovich]. The Geometrization

we presented as Theorem12.2is
result.
The final cases of the proof of Theorem

12.17
were completed
Grisha
Perelman
a
after
2000,
by
following
program started
shortly
in
the
the
1980s by Richard Hamilton. Perelman was offered
early
Fields
Medal for this work in 2006, but declined
the award.
Following
a definite pattern in this area of mathematics, the complete detailsof
the
released
proof have not been written down by Perelman, who
only
a few unpublished preprints [Perelmani, \320\240\320\265\320\263\320\2651\321\202\320\260\320\277\320\263,
\320\240\320\265\320\263\320\2651\321\202\32
are now beginning to become available
detailed
However,
expositions
& Lu & Ni, Chow & al., Cao & Zhu,
& Lott,
Kleiner
[Chow
&
&
Morgan
Tianl5 Morgan Tian2].
Exercises
for
351
12
Chapter
An important corollary of Theorem

12.17
the
Poincare
problem,
century-old
Conjecture-
7(0)
if,
be joined by
in
\316\241
and
for
if,
endpoints
70(0)
s e [0,1],all
11\342\200\224>
7S(i)
from
7S(0) =
\316\241
to
the
the euclideanspace\320\250\320\273
and
=\302\2473
In 1904,Henri
{{x, y,
Poincare
the intervening
0, 1.
The fact that
3-dimensional
later after
y2
z2 +
many
t2 =
conjecture,
unsuccessful
Conjecture).
is
Every
homeomorphic
which
in
attempts
simply connected
to the
D
Conjecture comesas a corollary

tion Theorem 12.17 by using relatively
simple
The Poincare
by
manifolds,
exploiting
or projective
Seifert
of the
Geometrizaon
arguments
the Kneser-Haken-Milnor
theory
of
the problem to manifolds

without
and
an
result of
earlier
planes,
by applying
that S3 is the only simply
connected
Seifert
to reduce
sums
essential spheres
Herbert
1}.
S3.
3-dimensional sphere
connected
\342\200\224*
X
years.
Theorem 12.19(The Poincare

bounded 3-dimensionalmanifold
hyperbolic
curves
sphere
the following
proposed
the
map H: [0.1] \317\207

[0,1]
the
z, t) G M4; x2 +
100 years
a theorem
s =
that
3-dimensional manifolds include
connected
of simply
on a parameter
continuously
=
Q and coinciding with
js(l)
depending
curves
Examples
became
[0\320\233]
simply connected
7i(l)
70(1)
7S:
going
original
P,
points
\342\200\224>
X
with
\316\241
the space of curves going
from
to Q is connected;
X and
X with
two curves 70: [0,1] \342\200\224>
71: [0,1] \342\200\224*
= 71(0) = \316\241
=
= Q, there exists a
to
70 and 71 when
7S depend continuously on s means
defined
by H(s, t) = js(t) is continuous.
the
7:
The manifold X is
two
any
solves
it
any
curves
of
family
if
curve
continuous
= Q.
7(1)
addition,
namely,
X is connected
a manifold
that
saw
We
Q G X can
is that
[Seifert]
manifold.
for Chapter
Exercises
12
Exercise12.1.
a.
Show
by
I-torus
a series
knot.
of pictures
that
the
| -torus
knot
is
isotopic
to the
b.
generally,
for every
the. |-torus
that
show
More
knot
to the
is isotopic
knot
in dimension
theorems
Geometrization
12.
352
-torus
\302\243
\302\243
Q.
be the figure-eight
knot represented in Figure
12.2. Let \320\232
11.5,
a
and let K' be its mirror
of \320\232
under
image, namely, let K' be the image
and K'
\320\232
reflection across a plane of R3. Show by a series of picturesthat
are isotopic.
Exercise
Exercise 12.3.
that
\320\2323.Show
Consider
the
there
exists a
element and acting
unknot,
on
freely
formed by the
kleinian
H3,
to the
group
such that the
Mobius
defined
by (x,y,u)
\320\2322
\320\241
a single
is
\320\2353/\320\223
First show that

by using a suitable
hints:
0)}, perhaps
R'1 \342\200\224
\320\226
\321\205
the map H3 \342\200\224\342\226\272
{(0,0)}
consider
then
transformation;
by
space
quotient
\342\200\224
S1. Possible
complement
homeomorphic
\316\232
\317\207
R3 \342\200\224
to K3 \342\200\224
S1 is homeomorphic
{(0,
R3
S1 in
circle
unit
\320\223\320\276,
generated
\320\275-* \320\270
\320\270
sin \321\203).
(\320\266,cos \321\203,
be two groups acting freely

12.4.
Let \320\223
and
and
Exercise
\320\223'
discontinuthe corresponding
that
quotient
ously on the hyperbolic space H3. Suppose
\342\200\224>
by a homeomorphism
spaces are homeomorphic
\317\206:
\320\2303/\320\223'\320\2303/\320\223.
a.
continuous curve in (\320\2303/\320\223,

diiyp),
Show that there exists a
H3 such that 5(a) = Pa and
parametrized
continuous
curve S: [o, b] \342\200\224\342\226\272
\316\277
\342\200\224> is the
\317\200:
\316\2273
q = \317\200
where
Consider
\316\261,
map. Hint:
quotient
\316\2323/\316\223
of the set of those t \302\243
the supremum
a can
[o, b] for which such a map
and
that \317\200
be defined on [\316\277,\316\257],
remember
is a local isometry by (the
proof of) Theorem 7.8.
Let
\342\200\224> be a
\316\261:
b]
\316\2273/\316\223
[\316\261,
at Pa
beginning
b.
that
Show
map q',
\321\201
Suppose
= q(o)
parametrized
with
Pa
a, the map
in part
infimum
consider
the
that
we are
depending
\320\2533/\320\223,
[a, b] \342\200\224\342\231\246
now
H3.
\302\243
S is unique.
of those
given
Hint:
G
a family
continuously
on a
of
another such
that a'(t) \321\204
a(t).
Given
[o, b] such
curves
continuous
parameter
\320\270
\302\243
d\\ in
[\321\201,
au
the
\320\275-*
defined
sense that the map [o,b] \317\207
is
by (i, \320\270)
\\c, d\\ \342\200\224\302\273\342\226\240
\316\2273/\316\223
au(t)
Assume in addition
continuous.
that au(a) \342\200\224\302\243
Pq for every \320\270
[\321\201,dj,
HI3 be associated
and
to qu as in parts a and b. Show
let au'- [a, b] \342\200\224\342\226\272
HI3 defined
that
the map [a, b] \317\207
by (t, u) >-* din {i) is continuous.
[\321\201,
d\\ \342\200\224\342\226\272
If the map was not
Hint:
continuous
at some (\316\257\316\277,\316\220\316\257\316\277),
the
consider
infimum of those t \302\243
that the map (t, u) \316\271\342\200\224>
au (t) is not
[o, b] such
continuous
at
(t,uo)-
d. Under the hypotheses and conclusionsof part

>-> au(b)
is constant.
that
the map \320\270
\302\243
\320\2353/\320\223
>\342\200\224> \302\243
HI3
is
also
\320\270
constant.
au(b)
e. Fix
two
choose
and
lift
c, suppose
in
addition
Show that the
map
= Pq. For \316\241

base
\316\2273
such
\302\243
that \317\206(\316\2410)
\302\243
points
P0, \316\241\317\214
HI3,
a continuous curve S: [o, b] \342\200\224\342\226\272
HI3 with a(a) = Po and 5(6) =
\316\277
\320\276
-* \320\2353/\320\223'
the curve a' = \317\210
\317\200
\320\260:
to a continuous
curve
[\320\276,
\320\254]
P,
for Chapter 12
Exercises
5':
[o,
of the
a'(a)
a.
curve
g.
h.
In particular,
PgH3
for every
that
Show
in
a.
part
a'(b) dependsonly
above map
Show that the
of
P' =
to each
associating
f.
= Pq as
\342\200\224\342\226\272
H3 with
b]
its endpoint
that
353
on
P,
Use parts a-d to showand not on the choice
there is a well-defined map

= \316\241'
the point
as above.
\317\206(\316\241)
\342\200\224\342\226\272
\316\2273
\316\2273
\317\206:
\342\200\224\302\273\342\226\240
\320\2303
is a
\320\2303
\317\206:
homeomorphism.
the
G \320\223,
\316\277
\316\277
is an
\317\206~\316\271
\317\210
\316\267
composition
element
\316\223'.
\342\200\224\302\273\342\226\240
the map \317\201:
\316\223
\316\223'
is a
defined
by p(j) \342\200\224
\317\201\316\263\316\277^\"1
\316\277 =
\320\276
\320\223.
and that
for
\302\243
every
\317\201{\316\267\\
\302\267\316\2632)
72
p{y\\)
p{y2)
71,
and
is a group isomorphism between the groups \316\223
if
\316\223',
\317\201
(Namely,
you know what this
is.)
that
Show
bijection,
12.5. Let \320\223\320\262

be the kleinian
group of Section 11.2, such that
to
the
R3 \342\200\224
\320\257\"
is
of the figure-eight
knot,
homeomorphic
complement
E3/Ts
and let \320\223\320\276
be a kleinian
a single
12.3, generated
group as in Exercise
by
\342\200\224
element and for which \320\2303/\320\223\320\276
is homeomorphic
S1
to the complement \320\2503
of the unknot.
Exercise
a.
Show
that
b.
Show
that 71
\320\241.
Use
are not
\302\260 =
h of
part
Exercise
72
72
\302\243
\320\223\320\276.
that the
R3
that
conclude
therefore
\302\260\342\226\240
71 \302\260
71
72 # 72
that
is not
knot
figure-eight
- S1
M3
\320\232
and
unknot.
Let the
kleinian
is locally
\320\2353/\320\223
space
every 71, 72
71
and
homeomorphic,
12.6.
\302\260 for
Exercise 12.4to
isomorphic to the
quotient
71, 72 such
elements
contains
\320\223\320\262
\320\223
act
group
isometric
to E3
freely
by
on H3,
so
7.8.
Theorem
that
the
We want
to define the hyperbolic volume of \320\2303/\320\223.

a.
Let
A be
a subset of
isometric
\320\2303/\320\223
to
which
\320\2303/\320\223
a ball of H3
is contained
by
an
in a ball
isometry
5jh
:
\317\206
Bjh
\320\241
(\316\241,\316\265)
\342\200\224<\342\226\
\316\265)
(\316\241,
\316\2273.Define
the hyperbolic
to be the
\320\241
volume volhyp(A)
as introduced
\320\241
in Exercise 9.12. (Here,
\320\2303,
hyperbolic volumeof \317\210{
\320\220)
are implicitly
we
\"nice\" that
assuming that the subset A is sufficiently
the triple
in the definition
of the hyperbolic
volume
involved
integral
of \317\206(\316\221)
makes
in this exercise will
sense; all subsets involved
satisfy
this property, so that
we do not have to worry
about
the deeper
that could arise in the general
mathematical
issues
this
case.) Show that
volume volhyp(^4) is independent of the choice of the ball
hyperbolic
an(3 of the isometry \317\206.
Hint:
Use Exercise 9.12.
(\302\267\316\241>\316\265)
Bjh
Bdhyp(Q,s)
b.
Now
ball
a subset
consider
many balls
in E3.
B\\,
B2,
is
which
contained
in \320\2303/\320\223,
each
B\342\200\236
\342\226\240..,
For every
subset /
of
{1, 2....,
in the
of which
n}, let
union
of
finitely
is isometric
Bt be the
subset
to a
of
theorems in dimension3
12. Geometrization
354
that
such
\316\241
G \316\2273/\316\223
those
{i;P
volhyp(A)
= I.
Bij
Define
\316\240
\316\222\316\271),
volbyP(A
\316\243
n}
ic{\\
a.
is defined
\316\240
where each volhyp(A
by part
\316\222\316\271)
is independent of the choice of the balls Bi.
a base
\321\201
Fix
point
er > 0 such
the
in
union
which is
As a
>
dbyp(P,f(P))
\342\200\224
\316\223
{Idr}\302\267 Conclude
7 G
every
Show that
G H3.
Pq
that
volhyp(A)
0, there exists
R >
every
and
\316\241
\342\202\254Bdhyp(Po,R)
every
(Pq, R) is contained
the ball Bjh
that
many balls
of finitely
isometric to a ball
for
\316\265
for
\321\217
that
Show
of
in \320\2303/\320\223,
each
B\342\200\236
\316\2222,
\316\222\316\271,
\342\226\240\342\226\240\342\226\240,
in H3.
consequence, the hyperbolic volume
is
(Pq, R))
volhyp(5jh
well
defined.
Show that the
d.
limit
lim
volhyp(H3/r)=
exists
(P0,R))
and is independent of the
infinite),
(possibly
vohyp(Bd
\302\261t\342\200\224\302\273+00j *
choiceof
base
the
point Po-
Exercise 12.7.
a.
the
Consider
of
bisector
perpendicular
two
\316\241
and
points
Q e
H3,
defined as
TipQ=
{R\302\243H3;
P) =
dhyp(R,
Q)}.
dhyp(R,
2.4.
Exercise
Compare
Hpq is a hyperbolic plane. Hint:
and
b. Let 7 be an isometry
of H3 such that
let (Pn)nen be
\316\277\316\277,
\317\206
7(00)
a sequencein H3 converging to the point 00 for the euclidean metric.
Show
that
the perpendicular
to the
bisector plane \316\240\317\201\316\2677(\317\201\316\267)
converges
in Lemma 12.9, in the sense that the
hyperbolic plane \316\2407defined
center and radius
of \316\220\316\257\317\201\342\200\236\316\212(\317\201\342\200\236),
considered
as a euclidean hemisphere,
to infinity.
tends
convergesto the center and radius of \316\2407as \316\267
Show
Exercise
Figure
12.7
of string
that
12.8.
Show
are indeed
may
(or
Let
Exercise
12.9.
consisting
of those
of
radius
K3 U
{oo}
R >
r.
admits
by
a series
isotopic. Tying
may not) be helpful.
\320\232
be
points
Show
that
a Seifert
z-axis and of the point

all other fibers
where
00,
the
the
fibration
where
knot
in
at distance
another
are isotopicto the
one
two
\342\200\224
\320\232
\320\2503
of
fiber is the
fiber is the central

E-torus
knots
knot.
of
laces or another type
on a
K3, drawn
r from a central
X =
complement
where
the
that
in shoe
knots
|-torus
are
that
a pictures
the
\320\232
in
union
\316\244
torus
circle \320\241
R3 =
of
the
circleC, and
Kit
Tool
This
T.l.
to as
referred
appendix,
list of notation
and
Kit
the Tool
the
in
text,
used
definitions
mathematical
basic
in
is a
quick
the
book.
set theory
Elementary
a set X is a collection of objects

In
called
its elements.
we
to
more
the
need
be
careful
in
definition
of
sets
in
order
to
theory,
avoid logical inconsistencies. However, these deep and
subtle
issues
do not arise at the level
of the
mathematics
described in this book.
we will be content
with the above intuitive
definition.
Consequently,
For
us,
the
When
belongs
In
practice,
between curly
the
{x; there
of the
contains
particularly
no
an
of the
element
set X,
can be describedby
set. For instance,the set of
useful
that
say
8 is
denoted by
that
is a set \316\245
such
then
set is
write
of its
all
listing
describing a property
or by
of a set X
of X. We
we
\317\207
\302\243
X.
\317\207
exists an integer \316\267

such
an element
A
\320\266
is
between\342\200\2243
and
A subset
also
a set
brackets
elements
are strictly
object
X and we write
to
all
that
characterizes
even
integers
or
{\342\200\2242,0,2,4,6},
and
\342\200\224
every
element
= 2n
\317\207
that
elements
that
by
3 < \317\207
< 8}.
of
\316\245
is
\316\245
\320\241
\320\245.
the empty set
{ },
which
element.
355
Tool Kit
356
A
does not hold.
property
belong
the
a symbol indicates that
corresponding
\317\207
does
For instance,\317\207
X
that
means
\302\243
not
set X.
to the
Hereis
in this
across
bar
diagonal
sets of numbers, with
of classical
a list
the
used
notation
book:
N
not an
0 is
particular,
set of all positive integers;in

is
which
element of N, a convention
is the
{1,2,3,...}
not
universal.
=
\316\226
{...,
Q is
the set
integers
the set
\320\241
is
the
in this
rational
written
with
R is
all
of
be
can
that
is the
-2,-1,0,1,2,3,...}
-3,
namely, of
numbers,
quotient 2
as a
set of
where
p,
all
integers.
all numbers
q e
\316\226
are
0.
\317\206
of all real numbers.
set of
Tool
all complex numbers. (SeeSection
T.4
later
Kit.)
X(lY consists
of all
two
sets X and Y, their intersection
consists
of
that are in both X and Y. Their union X U \316\245
those objects that are in X or in \316\245
The
in
complement
(or
both).
\316\245
to \316\245.For
X \342\200\224
consists
of those elements of X which
do not belong
=
if X = {1,2,3,4} and \316\245
then
instance,
{3,4,5},
Given
elements
=
\320\245\320\237\320\243
{3,4},
XUK
and X -
= {1,2,3,4,5}
=
\316\245
{1, 2}.
is empty.
are disjoint when their intersection
More generally,is X is a set of sets, namely, a set whose
themselves
the set
sets, the union of these JeXis
Two sets
are
[J I={a;;a;eIfor
some
elements
6 X}
xex
of those elements \317\207

that
belong
is
the set
their
intersection
=
\316\247
\316\241)
of
those
elements
\317\207
that
to at
\317\207
e X
{\317\207;
belong
least one
for all
to all X
X e
X.
\302\243
X e
X}
X.
Similarly,
T.l.
the product
ordered pairs
consider
also
can
We
357
set theory
Elementary
of all
\317\207
\316\245
\316\247
consisting
of X
y)
(\320\266,
\317\207
x
X2
generally, the product \316\247\316\271
of
all
consists
ordered
Xn
\316\267-tuples
...,
coordinate x\\ is an element of Xi-
and
\317\207
X
\302\243
\302\267
\302\267
\302\267
x
More
of
Xn
and
G Y.
\321\203
\316\267
sets
\320\2662,
\342\226\240..,
xn)
(\320\266\321\214
set
is the
which
Y,
where
\320\2452,
\320\245\320\263,
each
where
In particular,
R2=lxR=
to the
identified
is naturally
the
same holds for

R3 =
{{\321\205,\321\203);\321\205\320\265\342\204\226.,\321\203\320\265\320\251
plane through
3-dimensional
The
coordinates.
cartesian
space
\317\207
R \317\207
R =
{(x, y,
G R,
e R, \321\203
\316\266);\317\207
\316\266
G R}.
A map or function \317\206:

X -> \316\245
is a rule \317\206
which
to each \317\207
e X
an element \317\206(\317\207)
associates
G Y. We also express this by saying that
the
defined
is
\317\210
map
the
Note
\317\206(\317\207).
bym
different arrow
slightly
shape.
=
When
Y, there
to
\342\200\224>
X
: X
which
\316\231\316\254\317\207
Id^(i)
The
of two maps
composition
by the
\342\200\224>
\316\245
\316\226
is
\317\210:
\342\200\224>
and
\316\245
X
\317\206:
that
property
=
In particular,
\317\207
G X.
every
special map, calledthe identity map

X associates
itself, namely, such that
\317\207
G X.
every
\342\200\224>
\316\277 \316\247
\316\226
defined
\321\204\317\206:
map
for
\317\207
for
is a
\317\207
e
the
=
\316\277
\317\210\317\206(\317\207)
\317\210(\317\206(\317\207))
function
for any
\317\210 \316\231\316\254\316\263\316\277\317\210
\317\210\316\277\317\212\316\254\317\207
-\302\273
\316\245.
\316\247
\317\206:
The
x, x'
the
is
\317\206
map
X with
\342\202\254
image
is both
injective
X.
a; G
of some
\316\271/ \317\210(\317\207)
unique
inverse
for which
\317\210~1:\316\245\342\200\224*\316\247,
map
such that
it
and
X.
In particular,
\316\271/\317\206(\317\207).
\342\200\224>
\316\245
\316\247
is
\317\210:
When
that
\320\266
G
bijective,
a one-to-one
defines
elements
The image
The map
namely,
In this
surjective,
of a
\320\263/ \317\210(\317\207)
y>
if
is
G \316\245
bijective
if it
is
y>
is the
G \316\245
\321\203
every
tne
\302\245>_1(2/) is
Idy
say that
correspondence
image
well-defined
unique
\320\266
G
and
y>
every
every i/
case, there is a
=
\316\277
\317\210\"1
we also
y>(a;') for
^
\321\203>(\320\266)
or onio if
is surjective
\320\266
7^ \317\207'.It
and
if
or one-to-one
injective
\316\231\316\254\317\207.
\317\206~\316\273
\316\277\317\206
a bijection,
is
or
between elements of
of Y.
of
a subset
\320\220
\320\241
X
under
the map
X
\317\206:
subset
V?(A) =
{y G
for some
\320\243;
\316\271/\317\206(\317\207)
\320\266
G
X}
\342\200\224>
is
\316\245
the
Tool Kit
358
of Y. The preimage oiBcY
subset
the
\342\200\224>
\316\247
\316\245
is
\317\206:
under
\321\207>-1{\320\222) {\321\205\320\265\320\245;\321\207>{\321\205)\320\265\320\222}
the preimage \317\206~\316\273

is defined
even when \317\206
is not
case the inverse
not
be
and
defined
map
\317\206~\316\271
may
the preimageof a point may be empty or consistof many points.
X preserves
X \342\200\224>
or respects
The map \317\206:
a subset \320\220
X if
\320\241
that
Note
X.
of
in which
bijective,
in A.
\317\210(\316\221)contained
is
such that
If we
of
have a map
the function
every
a e
When
the
T.2.
sequence. In this
called a
a list
Pi,
the integer
P2,
\316\267
as
\342\226\240
\302\267
\302\267,
Pn,
set
A =
instance,the set
there
because
point
elements
We can
attention
=
\317\210{\316\277)
\316\250\\\316\261{\316\277)
this
fix
\302\26100at
each
does not
{2n;
than
problem
end of
to
denote the
short.
and
many real
than
numbers,
all the
other
the other
ones. Theseare
min A
A, respectively.
of
subsets
of R. For
have a maximum,
because
arbitrarily large. It has no minimum
\316\267
e Z}
that are
is no a e
positive
is customary
for
(Pn)n\342\202\254N
infinite
for
hold
all
and to
is larger
which
the minimum
A and
set N of
a subscript)
finitely
However, the same
restriction
it
consists
of
{\317\207\317\207,\317\2072,\342\226\240\342\226\240\302\267,xn}
the maximum max
either
the
supremum,
there is always
one of these numbers
ones and another one which is smaller
it contains
x.
by restricting
case,
or by
...,
minimum,
Maximum,
\317\207
G
\317\206
fixes
\320\220
\320\241
X,
on the
defined
infimum
If
element
by the property that
defined
\342\200\224>
\316\235
X is
\317\206:
map
\342\200\224
write \317\210(\316\267)
Pn (with
sequenceby
an
A.
it is
integers,
a subset
\316\221\342\200\224>\316\247
defined
\317\210^\316\221'-
namely,
A,
is
\317\206
say that
we then
X \342\200\224*
\316\245
and
\317\206:
to elements of
for
point
fixed
\317\207;
equivalently,
\317\206(\317\207)
A is
to
\317\206
for
does not
a <
that
such
2\342\204\242
for every
\316\267
G Z.
by doing two things. First, we introduce

the number line R = (\342\200\22400,
so as to
+00),
= R U
we will say that
Then,
get a new set [\342\200\22400,
+00]
{\342\200\224\321\201\321\216,
+\320\276\320\276}.
an element \316\234e [\342\200\224\321\201\321\216,
is a supremum
for the subset \320\220
R if:
\320\241
+\321\201\321\216]
(1) a
(2)
<
\316\234
is
\316\234
for
every
the
smallest
a e A;
number
that there is no \316\234'<
with
\316\234
such
this
that
property,
a <
in the
M' for every a
sense
A.
\302\243
\320\242.
2.
The secondcondition
is
an
Similarly,
property that we can
to the
equivalent
359
find
arbitrarily closeto M.
that are
of A
elements
and infimum
supremum,
minimum,
Maximum,
for
infimum
\320\220
R
\321\201
element m
is an
+\320\276\320\276]
[\342\200\224\321\201\321\216,
that
such
(1)
\316\261
> m
(2)
m is
ae
for every
A;
the largest number
there is no m' > m
this
with
that
such
in the
property,
for every
\316\261
> m'
sense that
a e
A.
subset
\320\220
R admits
\320\241
deep result of real analysis that
any
supremum \316\234= sup \320\233,and a unique infimum m = inf A.
The proof of this statement requires a deep understanding
of the
nature
of real
To a large extent, realnumbers
were
numbers.
precisely
introduced
for this property to hold true, and somepeopleeven
use
it as an axiom in the construction
of real numbers. We refer to any
textbook on real analysis for a discussion
of this
undergraduate
It
is a
a unique
statement.
For
instance,
Z} =
sup{2n;ra6
+oo
and inf{2\";\316\267
6 \316\226}
=
It may happen that sup A is

that
the supremum is also a
say
max A; otherwise,
the maximum
minimum
A,
the
and
minimum
infimum
exist
\320\233
of
min
does
not
\320\233
is
equal
of A
element
an
of A,
maximum
and
in
which
we
write
we
case
sup
=
\320\233
not exist. Similarly, the

to inf A if this infimum belongs to
A does
of
exist otherwise.
are elements
0.
In particular, the
when
they
maximum
The supremum
exist.
are not necessarily in A.

exist,
always
For instance,min{2n;nG N} = 2, but min{2n;n
since inf{2n; \316\267
e Z}.
e Z} = 0 0 {2n;\316\267
and
and
but
Be aware
of the
operations.For instance,if
\302\260f
re&l numbers,
(\320\243\320\277)\320\277\320\265\320\277
sup{a;n
and
inf {xn
and infima
of suprema
behavior
we
it is
are
given
+i/\342\200\236;neN}J
inf{a;n;
under arithmetic
two sequences (xn)neN
relatively easy to
+t/\342\200\236;neN}< sup{a;n;\316\267
e Z} does not
G N}
neN}
aQd
checkthat
+
sup{yn;\320\277\320\265\320\251
+ inf{i/n;
\316\267
\302\243
\316\235}.
However, these
inequalities will
- inf
{xn;
and
\316\267
6 \316\235}
inf{\342\200\224xn;
be enjoyable to considerthe caseof the empty

fact that sup0 = \342\200\224\321\201\321\216
the
and
inf 0 = +oo.
0, and
to justify
T.3.
Limits and continuity.
Section
It
the
xq
\342\200\224
xo\\
with
e D if
f(x) is
\316\264
>
<
0 such
\316\264.
This
that
property
small, and this is the situation

understand the meaning of
reinforce the
We can
given
can
then
for
every
is made
statement
and
precise
\317\207
\316\277
if,
that
for
definition
\316\265
>
every
<
we should
\316\265
for
keep
with
the
in
of
continuity,
\317\207
e
d(x, xq)
<
D with
\316\264
are
mind
both
to better
the
real
line R.
\\x
\342\200\224
y\\, namely,
by
The above definition
be rephrased by saying that / is continuous at xq

there exists a \316\264
> 0 such that
d(f(x), f(xo))
with
exists
0, there
space definition
metric
notation d(x,y)
\316\265
> 0,
\317\207
6 D
with
\"sufficiently\"
definition.
analogy
using the
function
The
\316\257
CR.
every
\\f(x)
f(xo)\\
is more relevant when \316\265
and
the
by
spaces
arbitrary closeto f(xo) when
\342\200\224
the usual metric d of
considering
every
1.3 by
Section
in
domain
\"arbitrarily\"
this
metric
encounters in
definitions.
close xq- This intuitive
and
In
numbers \316\265
\316\264.
/ is continuous at
a number
that one
a function
the adverbs
quantifying
by
function
\\x
at
is sufficiently
appropriate
the
R be
->
\316\246
in
continuity
notions
to review these calculus
be useful
/:
limits and
corresponding
continuous
\317\207
G D
rigorous
we define
1.3,
with
may
Let
/ is
set
Limits involving
infinity
calculus.
\316\267
G \316\235}.
sup{a;n;
it may
Finally,
analogy
\316\267
6 \316\235}
\342\200\224
cases. Similarly,
in most
strict
be
=
6 \316\235}
sup{-a;n; \316\267
In
Kit
Ibol
360
6 D if,
for
< \316\265
\316\264.
\342\226\240
of real numbers x\\, x2, \342\226\240
\342\226\240
\342\226\240
\342\226\240
xn,
\342\226\240,
converges
is
close
to
when
the
index
\316\267
is
Zoo
Zoo
arbitrarily
More
the
to \320\226\320\276\320\276
sufficiently
sequence {xn)n& converges
large.
precisely,
\342\200\224
\316\265
exists an no such that
f\302\260r
> 0, there
< \316\265
if, for every
Zool
\\xn
\342\200\224
\316\267
the statement
\316\265
<
> no.
every
Again, if we replace
by
\\xn
x^
we
here
the
of
in
<
definition
limits
metric
\316\265,
recognize
d(xn>Xoo)
1.3.
spaces that is given in Section
Also,
to
a sequence
R
\316\265
if xn
T.4.
In calculus,we
+00
\342\200\224
\\f(x)
L as
<
L\\
\316\265
for
to
\317\207
tends
such that
\317\207
with
every
\317\207
> \316\267.
Similarly,
\316\265
for
f(x)
and
\316\265
is small
where
that
to
converges
0 such
In both
\317\207
< \342\200\224\316\267.
\317\207
with
every
is that
more relevant situation
>
\316\267
every
every
\317\207
with
>
the
is large.
\316\267
into
a single
book, we combine +00 and \342\200\224\321\201\321\216
\317\207
to
L
as
tends
by definition,
f(x) converges
\316\265
exists a number \316\267
> 0 such that \\f(x)
> 0, there
\\x\\
> 0
\316\267
cases,
In the
Then,
the
as
\317\207
tends
exists a number
there
\316\265
> 0,
every
L\\ <
\\f(x)
f(x)
exists a number
\342\200\224\321\201\321\216
if, for
\342\200\224
limits, and limits

L 6 R as
has a limit
infinite
encounter
also
tends to \302\26100. Recall

that
for
\316\265
there
>
if,
every
0,
variable
to
361
numbers
Complex
\321\201\321\216.
infinity
to
\321\201\321\216
if, for
\342\200\224
for
L\\ < \316\265
\316\267.
symbols 00 and +00 representdifferent

= L
In particular, lim f(x)
statements.
objects
X \342\200\224\320\256\320\236
when the properties that
lim
lim f(x) = L and
fix) = L
the
that
Beware
in
mathematical
exactly
these
x\342\200\224>
+ oo
x\342\200\224>
\342\200\22400
hold.
both
f(x)
Similarly,
number
there
> 0,
\316\267
\342\200\224
<
\317\207
with
xq\\
\\x
to 00 as \320\266
tends
converges
exists a
<
\316\264
>
\316\264.
In
0 such
that
>
\\f(x)\\
lim
particular,
xq if, for
to
f(x)
for
\316\267
every
every
\321\201\321\216
if either
x\342\200\224>xo
lim
= +00
f(x)
or
X\342\200\224*Xo
lim
neither
- =
+00
Immediate
R2 U
R3 =
T.4.
of these
generalizations
{oo}
in
R3 U
in Chapter
{\321\201\321\216}
In the plane
lineR, by
R2,
limits
Riemann
\342\200\224
= \321\201\321\216
but
that
xÔ X
infinity
involving
sphere
9,13UC=H3UCU
Chapter
lim
is not
- =
book when we consider the
Complex
fact that
converse
the
\342\200\224
lim
\321\201\321\216
hold.
\317\207\342\200\224>0
\316\247
nor
\317\207\342\200\224>0
\316\247
in the
\342\200\224\321\201\321\216.
However,
byJ the
as illustrated
J true,
necessarily
lim
f(x)
X\342\200\224>X0
occur
= \320\241
\320\241
U {00}
in Chapter
{\321\201\321\216}
9, or
11.
numbers
we can
consider the
{0} as a
\317\207
{0} to the
\320\266-axis Rx
copy of the real
the point (x, 0) G R

number \317\207
G R.
identifying
be
set i = (0.1), then
of
the
can
written
as a
point
plane
every
= \317\207
this
we
linear combination
will
When
+
notation,
iy.
using
\321\203)
(\320\266,
\317\207
as
a
a
consider
+ iy
generalized number, called complex number.
If we
Ibol Kit
362
It
most
is
that
likely
and we
numbers,
(x +
review
just
be added
can
numbers
Complex
have somefamiliarity
with
a few of their properties.
you already
will
V) =
(a/ +
iy)
These additions and multiplications

For
algebra.
behave
x' + iy' and z\"

and z(z'z\") = (zz')z\".
Fora complex
real
Im(z)
y.
y'),
\342\200\2241,
namely,
+ xy').
to the
according
standard
=
complexnumbers \316\266
x+iy,
z(z' +
that
have
= \317\207
\316\266
+ iy,
number
part Re(z) =
we
iy\",
+ i(x'y
yy')
given three
instance,
= x\" +
z' =
i2 =
that
iy') = (xx'-
iy)(x' +
(x +
rules of
(x + x') + i(y
according to the rule
and multiplied
manner
obvious
the
in
complex
the
z\")
is
\320\266-coordinate
zz'
called
+ zz\"
the
and the y-coordinate is its imaginary part

is the complex
number
complex conjugate of \316\266
The
\317\207
of z,
\342\200\224
= \317\207
\316\266
iy
the
and
or absolute value
modulus,
\\z\\
In
\316\266
is
of
+ y2 =
\\/x2
yfzH.
particular,
1
x +
\316\266
\316\266
iy
zz
\317\207
\316\266
+y2
\\\316\266\\2 \317\2072
\321\203
\317\2072
+
y2'
Also,
zz' =
(xx'
\342\200\224 \342\200\224
yy')
i(xy'
\342\200\224
=
\321\203\321\205')
(\317\207 iy)(x'
\342\200\224 =
iy')
zz!
and
\\zz'\\
for
\342\200\224
\316\266
\317\207
+ iy
every
In
notation,
the
book,
and
z' = x'
we make
= i/zlVz7?
Vzz'zz'
+ iy'
\320\230\320\230
G \320\241
extensive use of
Euler's
exponential
where
cos
for every
be written
\316\270
e R.
as
the same point
\316\270
+ i
\316\266
as
the
ew
\316\270
= \317\207
+ iy can
any complex number \316\266
are
coordinates
describing
[r, \316\230] polar
cartesian
coordinates (x, y) in the plane R2.
In particular,
re10, where
=
\316\266
sin
numbers
T.4. Complex
There are many ways

instance,we can remember
sl^ =
justify this exponential

the Taylor expansions
to
iMb
\320\2622\320\272
\316\2702 \316\270\316\233
\316\270*
\316\271
E(-1)fe(2fc)T
\342\200\236
~0\"
=\316\243^
1-^+4!-6!+\302\267\302\267\302\267
= 1+
\316\267=0
03
02
1 +
02
,,
4!
\316\231\316\223
\316\2705
06
5!
6!
07
7!+\302\267\302\267\302\267
0 by i0
we replace
the
in
last
\342\200\224
1,
06
05
04
07
06
05
07
\321\207./\320\273 03
+
4!-6!+\302\267\302\267)+1(0-3!5!-7!+\302\267\302\267)
04
absolute
to
this symbolic
justify
of this
convergence
In the same vein,

functions,
\321\207
addition
the
vising
manipulation by
series
infinite
of complex
formulas
numbers.
for trigonometric
= (cos0+ isin0)(cos0'
4 isin0')
=
(cos
0 cos
= cos(0
=
Note the
0'
\342\200\224
0
sin
sin 0')
+ i(cos0 sin 0' + sin
0 cos
0')
+ 0') +isin(0 + 0')
\320\265\320\232\302\2534\320\262')1
is again
which
Q4
+
+ isin0.
cos0
e'V
03
4!+i5!\"6!-i7!+\302\267\302\267
There is actually a way

provingthe
i0-2!-i3!
(1-2!
=
*+^ +
every
equation
02
0 e R. If, symbolically,
and remember that i2 =
for
valid
notation. For
+ 5!-7!+-
E(-1)fe(2FTI)!=0-3!
\321\201 V4
co^
363
consistent
the
with
notation.
exponential
special case
=
\320\265\321\213
-1,
known
mathematical
famous
as Euler's
Formula, which
constants
constants).
(three
combines
if one
two
of the
includes the
number
most famous
1 among
Tool Kit
364
More
we can
for an
generally,
immediately
complex
complex number
= \317\207
\316\266
+ iy
G C,
define
ez
It
arbitrary
exponential
exponentials,
= ex+iy
= exely =
ex(cosy + isiny).
above observations that this

many of the standard propertiesof real
\316\266
and in particular that ez+z = e2e2
for every
e C.
\316\266,
follows
from
satisfies
the
Supplemental
bibliography
references
and
In
this
section,
we list
text, but begin with

for further reading.
the references that
were
suggesting
bibliography
Someentriesappear in
both
mentioned
in the
additional
material
lists.
bibliography
Supplemental
This supplemental
bullet
difficulty.
One
same
mathematical
bullets
\302\267\302\267
used
are
material
\302\267
indicates
is
rated
with
a textbook
bullets, according
which is roughly
to its
at
the
or easier.
level as the present monograph
Two
for more advanced textbooks, at the graduate
level. Three bullets \302\267*\302\267

denote
research-level
material.
We have included software
Wada,
Weeks2,
[Heath,
Weeks3]
on the Internet,
that currently is freely available
and which
the
reader
is strongly encouraged to explore. Of course,
these
electronic
references are
time.
The beautiful
quite
likely to become unstable with
is also highly
(and mathematically challenging) movie
[NotKnot]
recommended.
365
Supplemental bibliographyand references
366
of this
Some
and
[Mumford,
text but offersa
the current
& Petronio],
[Benedetti
and
access
influential
this
is nicely
book,
of
presented
in
knot
in
end of
the book,
introductions
nice
provide
in
[Rolfsen]
of
applications
to 3-dimensional manifolds can be found

or [Rolfsen]. The book [Weeksx]
is a lively
geometric approach to 3-dimensionalmanifolds,
[Jaco]
a more
to
articles
the
while
the
towards
easy
approach
topological
[Hempel],
introduction
[Ratcliffe],
1].
material can be found

See also [Flapan]for
& Zieschang].
[Burde
knot theory.
Chapter
[Massey,
as
is not discussed
more advanced
and
theory,
and
which
surfaces,
be
as well
[Thurston.^],
[Stillwell2]for
historical references.
With respect to the topicsdiscussed

[Adams], [Lickorish]and [Livingston]
to
viewpoint.
See also
The topologicalclassification
in
and
[Marden2], [Maskit],
& Wright].
an introduction
to some
Series
[Mumford,
with
overlap
significant
emphasis
the very
include
textbooks
different
can
background on hyperbolicgeometry
[Greenberg], [Henle] or [Stillwelli].
More elementary
found in [Anderson],
Advanced
has a
& Wright],
Series
as the excellent[Stillwelli]
reading, such
suggested
[Scott]
and [Bonahon]
advanced
more
survey
topics.
You
are
There
topology.
learning some topology and
consider
also
should
numerous
textbooks
these
in
areas,
[Gamelin & Greene], [Hatcher2],[Massey]
[Armstrong],
algebraic
such
as
and
[McCleary].
[Adams]
\302\267
Colin
C. Adams,
the
mathematical
introduction
to
Mathematical
Society,
[Anderson]\302\267
W.
James
1999.
M.
[Armstrong] \302\267
Anthony
in
Series,
elementary
American
geometry, Springer
Springer-Verlag
London
Basic Topology,
New York-Berlin,
Springer-Verlag,
Armstrong,
Mathematics,
knots,
Hyperbolic
Anderson,
Mathematics
Ltd., London,
1983.
theory of
RI, 2004.
Providence,
Undergraduate
Undergraduate
Texts
The knot book. An
Supplemental bibliography
&
[Benedetti
Petronio]\302\267\302\267
367
Riccardo
Francis
[Bonahon]\302\273\302\267\302\273
Handbook
in:
on
structures
\"Geometric
Bonahon,
topology (R. J.
Sher, eds.), 93-164,North-Holland, Amsterdam,
3-manifolds\",
B.
Petronio,
Springer-Verlag,
Universitext,
1992.
Berlin,
R.
Carlo
Benedetti,
Lectures on hyperbolicgeometry,
of geometric
and
Daverman
2002.
Gerhardt
Burde, Heiner Zieschang,
de
Gruyter Studies in Mathematics
(Second
edition),
de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin,Germany,
2003.
& Zieschang]A
[Burde
Knots,
Walter
\302\267\302\267
Erica
[Flapan]
topological
topology meets chemistry. A

chirality, Cambridge University
When
Flapan,
at molecular
look
5,
Cambridge, United
Press,
of
Association
Mathematical
Kingdom\302\267,
Washington, DC, 2000.
America,
[Gamelin& Greene]
W.
\302\267
Theodore
to
Introduction
(Second
topology,
Robert E. Greene,
Dover Publications,
Gamelin,
Edition),
Mineola, NY, 1999.

J.
Marvin
[Greenberg]\302\267
Greenberg,
geometries:development
San Francisco,Calif.,1973.
and
[Hatcher2]
E. Hatcher,
\302\267\302\267
Allen
University
software,
Press,
[Hempel]\302\267\302\267
Heath,
John
Geometry
\302\267
Michael
Prentice
Hall,
[Jaco]
\302\267\302\267
William
Henle,
Inc.,
Jaco,
Modern
mathematical
playground,
Annals
Lectures
Regional
eamtical
Society,
Providence,
\302\267\302\267
B.
W.
Raymond
theory, Graduate Texts

New York, NY, 1997
1976.
NJ, 1997.
on three-manifold topology, CBMS.
43, American Math-
RI, 1980.
Lickorish,
in
NJ,
The analytic approach,
geometries.
in Mathematics
Series
of Mathematics
Princeton,
Press,
Upper Saddle River,
Conference
[Lickorish]
Cambridge
topology,
3-Manifolds,
Hempel,
Studies86, PrincetonUniversity
[Henle]
Algebraic
at www.plu.edu/-heathdj/java/.
available
freely
history,
W. H.
2001.
Daniel J.
[Heath]
and non-Euclidean
Freeman and Co.,
Euclidean
Mathematics
An
introduction
175,
to
knot
Springer-Verlag,
368
Charles
[Livingston]\302\267
of
Association
theory, Mathematical
DC, 1993.
Knot
Livinston,
Washington,
America,
Outer
Albert
Marden,
[\320\234\320\260\320\263\320\260\320\265\320\277\320\263]\302\267\302\267
United Kingdom,
University
Cambridge,
course in algebraic topology,

127, Springer-Verlag, Berlin,
in Mathematics
1997.
Bernard
[Maskit]\302\267\302\267
Press,
to
A basic
S. Massey,
Texts
Graduate
an introduction
2007.
William
[Massey]\302\267\302\267
circles:
Cambridge
3-manifolds,
hyperbolic
and references
bibliography
Supplemental
Kleinian
Maskit,
Mathematischen
Wissenschaften
der
Grundlehren
groups,
Berlin,
Springer-Verlag,
287,
1988.
\302\267
A
[McCleary]
31,
Library
Mathematical
[Mumford,Series
&
David Wright,
[NotKnot]
Indra's
\302\267
Not
of
University
A.K.
Minnesota,
vision of
Caroline
by the Geometry Center of

Peters Ltd, Wellesley,MA,
Mathematics
Series,
Felix Klein,
2002.
Foundations
Ratcliffe,
GraduateTextsin
Mumford,
The
New York,
video
Knot,
David
pearls.
Press,
\302\267\302\267
John
[Ratcliffe]
Wright]\302\267
University
Cambridge
Student Mathematical
Society, Providence, RI, 2006.
in topology,
course
first
American
of hyperbolic
Springer-Verlag,
149,
the
1994.
manifolds,
New York,
1994.
Dale
Rolfsen,
[Rolfsen]\302\267\302\267
Knots
and links, Publish
or Perish,
Berkeley,1976.
Peter
\320\233G.
[Scott]
of the
London Mathematical
\302\267
John
[Stillwelli]
\"The geometries
Scott,
C.
Stillwell,
Springer-Verlag,
New
\302\267\302\267
John
[Stillwell2]
History
of
Providence,
and
1997.
Geometry
of surfaces, Universitext,
1992.
1996.
Vol.
topology,
Mathematical
Society 15 (1983),401-487.
Sources of hyperbolicgeometry,
American
Mathematical Society,
10,
\302\267\302\267
William
[Thurston4]
Bulletin
C. Stillwell,
Mathematics
RI,
York,
of 3-manifolds\",
Series
35,
P.
Thurston,
1 (Edited
Princeton
Three-dimensional
geometry
by Silvio Levy), Princeton

University Press, Princeton,
NJ,
References
369
Masaaki
[Wada]
available
at
mathematical
OPTi,
Wada,
software, freely
http://vivaldi.ics.nara-wu.ac.jp/-wada/OPTi.
The
Weeks,
Jeffrey
[Weeksi]\302\267
Monographs
shape
in Pure
Textbooks
and
of space (Secondedition),
and Applied Mathematics
249, Marcel Dekker,Inc.,New York, 2002.

[\\Vieeks2] Jeffrey Weeks, SnapPea, mathematical
at
available
www.
Weeks, Curved
Jeffrey
[Weeks3]
at
available
freely
www.
software,
freely
org.
geometrygames.
Spaces, mathematical
software,
org.
geometrygames.
References
some of the references below correspondto
Note that
others
to articles
point
cell\", Proceedingsof
Clifford
[Ashley]
of knots, Doubleday, New
Francis Bonahon, LaurenceC. Siebengeometric

splittings of classical knots, and the
and
symmetries
of arborescent knots, to appear,
New
mann,
classification
&; Topology
Geometry
II:
groups,
available
at
Kenneth
D. Car-
torus
groups
W. Bromberg, \"The space of Kleinian

is not locally connected\",preprint, available
http://arxiv.org/abs/0901.4306.
& Thurston]
\"Group
invariant
James
Peano
W.
William
Cannon,
Geometry
curves\",
(2007),1315-1355.
&
Richard
Brock,
\"The classification
Minsky,
http://arxiv.org/abs/math/0412006.
[Bromberg]
punctured
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Jeffrey
of Kleinian
surface
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N.
Yair
nary,
Coventry, UK.
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[Brock & Canary & Minsky]
[Cao
the
& Siebenmann]
[Bonahon
[Cannon
n-
of an
of Sciences of
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York,
at
Academy
The Ashley book
Ashley,
deformation
9 (1923), 406-407.
of America
States
United
the
\"On
National
the
books, while
journals.
W. Alexander,
James
[Alexander]
academic
in
Zhu]
Huai-Dong
Cao,
the Poincare and geometrization
Xi-Ping
Zhu,
\"A
P. Thurston,
& Topology 11
complete
conjectures\342\200\224application
proof
of
of the
370
Hamilton-Perelman
[Cerf] Jean
Sur
Cerf,
dimension trois
(\316\2234
of
Mathematics
de
Springer-
53,
Studies
RI, 2005.
Providence,
Chow.
Graduate
flow,
of
Journal
The
Ricci
Dan Knopf,
flow:
Surveys and Monographs110,
Society,
Bennett
Ni]
Journal
1968.
York,
Mathematical
[Chow & Lu &
Asian
Asian
de la sphere
diffeomorphismes
Notes in
0), Lecture
& Knopf]
Bennett Chow,
an introduction,
Mathematical
Ricci
flow\",
les
Vcrlag, Berlin-New
American
Ricci
of the
theory
10 (2006), 165-492;\"Erratum\",
10 (2006), 663.
Mathematics
Mathematics
[Chow
bibliography and references
Supplemental
Peng
Lu, Lei
Mathematics
in
Hamilton's
Ni,
77,
American
Society, Providence, RI; SciencePress,New
Mathematical
York,
2006.
David
Glickenstein,
Chow, Sun-ChinChu,
Dan
James Isenberg, Tom
Ivey,
Knopf,
The
Lei
Ricci
Ni,
Peng Lu, Feng Luo,
flow: techniques and
Part
I. Geometric
applications,
aspects, Mathematical Surveys and
& al.] Bennett

[Chow
Christine
Guenther,
Monographs135,American
RI, 2007; Part II. Analytic
aspects,
Monographs 144,
Mathematical
Mathematical
American
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Mathematics
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hyperbolic
461-480,
structures
Elsevier
in
B.
Index
absolute
23, 362
value,
action
248
II
Waddell
Jamea
Alexander,
(1888 1971), 318

fractional
antilinear
27,
length,
81, 152, 152
Bromberg,
Kenneth
Busemann
178,
function,
178
43, 43-44
area,
282
W.,
Buaemann, Herbert
area, 131
hyperbolic
161
F., 283
Jeffrey
Busemann
102
49,
points,
see length
boundary
Brock,
348
of a manifold,
152
point,
boundary
bounded, 62,
map,
27-33, 38, 186,231-235

antipodal
arc
131
boundary
137-146, 261
137,
tilea,
adjacent
Oaaian (1819-1892),
Pierre
Bonnet,
185. 185-205,
a group,
of
183
(1905-1994),
spherical area, 53, 182
C, the
B2,
model
the disk
43,44, 101,
216, 223
Bd{P,r),
a
for
the
plane, 36,
hyperbolic
ball
158-160,
in a
36-39,
209, 212,
metric space, 4
ball
ball
in R3,
ball
in a
68-79,
5, 344
ball model for

apace,
236,
262
the
5, 90,
bijective,
357
Bonahon,
hyperbolic
240
185, 357
Francis,
canonical
D., 283
W., 302
143-146
143,
Jamea
Cannon,
42-43,
numbera,
tile,
Cauchy
Cauchy
135,
aequence,
182,211
Arthur
Cayley,
182
(1789-1857),
(1821-1895),
center
of a
center
of a
horocircle, 172,
horosphere, 234
214
Cerf,Jean, 318
circle,
5, 17-22,
32-33, 38, 48,
85-87,172,207-212,230,
iii
45
center
belong to, 355

bijection,
Canary, Richard
Cauchy, Augustin
metric apace, 4,
240,
of all complex
361-364
set
356,
288,
317
377
Index
378
great
48, 129
circle,
dihedral
great circlearc, 49, 50-51

closed
235
dihedron,
closed
49, 316
curve,
Dirichlet
closedgeodesic,
49, 127-129,204
closed
subset, 62, 80, 152,
152-154,250-251,
companion
293-313,
complement,
319-340, 352-354
geodesic,
21
183, 203,
182,
230, 260, 311,322, 325, 341,

346, 348
6, 1 1, 23, 361,
complex number,
361-364
complex conjugate,
6, 23, 44,
362
242, 364,
complex exponential,
362 364
composition,
6, 15, 28, 42, 51, 52,
186,
185,
87, 125-126,136,192, 205,

conjugate, see complex conjugate
continued
function, 4, 8, 9,
151,302,
61, 90,
360
4, 135, 147-155,360
infinity, 361, 360-361
361, 360-361
infinity,
convergence,
toward
at
convex
euclidean
polygon,
polygon,
distance
253-254
distance,
Edward
Dunne,
Rarle,
Clifford
48, 343
291
G., xv
280
J.,
edge cycle, 172, 172-181

of
a hyperbolic
82
of a polygon,
49-50,229-230,317
61-83,
257
41, 239,
240
61,
clement of a set, 355

elliptic
isometry,
set,
355
equivalence
relation,
essential surface,
29, 29-38,
258,
polyhedron,
258-265
essential
map,
253,
218-220,
distance,
signed
340
Epstein, David \316\222.
\316\221.,
equivalence
class, 84
82
crossratio, 44-45
differential
function,
euclidean distance,
2, 1-3, 8, 340
hyperbolic distance,
12, 12-14,
37, 39, 44, 45,228
empty
62
hyperbolic polygon,
spherical
distance
edge
224
fraction,
continuous
limit
342
64, 341
connected,
disk in the plane, 5

disk model for the hyperbolic
plane, 36, 36-39, 43,44, 101,
158-160, 209, 212, 216, 223
disk
sector,
72, 86, 205
domino diagram,
225,
Dumas, David, 282
cone singularities,
with
356
sets,
spherical
357
cone, 86
surface
260,268,
disk
complete metric space, 135,
147-155,
174,
189,
action,
203-205, 248, 254,

280-283,
286, 313
58, 58-60, 69-79,
189-197,
disjoint
complete
complete
286-287
group
discrete walk,
85-86
356
complement,
knot
discontinuous
251, 348
182, 203,
321
knot,
154,
198
domain,
discontinuity
15&
Guslav
Dirichlet,
Lejeune
(1805-1859),
space, 150,
198, 197-201
Dirichlet domain,
257-258,
286
compact metric
259, 259-265,
235,
angle,
290
40,
Klein
84
343-346
bottle,
345
essential projective plane,

essential sphere, 344
344
379
Index
essential
Ford
344
torus,
euclidean diatance,
2, 3, 340
euclidean geodesic,3, 21
euclidean
iaometriea,
euclidean
length,
euclidean metric,
euclidean
(1833-1902), 284
fuchaian
252-257, 280,
255,
group,
283-284
61, 61-66,
fuchsian
of the
group
firat
type,
256
euclidean
apace,
340,
euclidean
aurface,
67,
349
89-97,
343
103-104, 341
euclidean
125
triangle,
Euler
fuchsian group of the

type, 256
twiated fuchsian
group,
function, 357
fundamental
Euler
characteristic,
Euler
exponential
Leonhard
Euler,
(1777-1855), 131
131, 362
347
fiber,
exceptional
Gauaa-Bonnet
131
formula,
generate
exponential
complex exponential,
242,
364,
tranaformation
362-364
generated
group
135-136, 186,
by bijectiona,
194,260
152
point,
97, 129
genua,
polyhedron, 258, 257-265,
face of a
Carl Friedrich
Johann
Gauas,
(1707-1783),
288
259-269,
296-298
notation, 6,
second
192,
domain,
185-205, 259,
131
362
334-340
geodeaic, 21
closedgeodesic,
127-129,
49,
204
complete geodesic,21
Farey
crooked
Farey teaaellation,
241-247,265-279,
207-226
aeries,
Farey
243,
291-297
circle packing,
Farey
210,
223
Farey,
fiber, 347
Fielda
Seifert
see
fibration,
figure-eight knot,
352,
303, 293-313,
324
358
Cameron McA.,
48, 129
358
Ford
great circle arc, 49

185-205
185,
group,
abstract
group, 202
fuchsian
group,
252-257,
255,
280, 283-284
group
action,
isometry
185-205
185,
212
186
group, 186
group,
248,
241-302,
326-340
tiling
circlea,
340
circle,
kleinian
fixed point,
349
group of iaometriea,
353
finite volume,
Ford
fibration
322, 350
Medal,
49-51
geodesic,
spherical
Gordon,
207-226
210
3, 21
geodesic,
hyperbolic geodeaic,17 22,230
great
210,
teaaellation,
John
(1766-1826),
Farey
euclidean
geometric atructure,
Farey aum, 209
fix,
Immanuel
Lazarus
Fuchs,
183
exterior
212, 340
(1886-1967),
1-10
polygon,
Randolph
free group action, 192, 264,

280-282, 297, 352
67, 340
33
norm,
euclidean plane,
euclidean
5-7, 39
2, 48
326-340
331,
domain,
Ford, Lester
euclidean
group,
136,
212-222,259
135- 184,
Index
380
transformation
hyperbolic reflection,
185,
group,
185-205
H2, the
H3, the
plane, 11, 11-46

hyperbolic
hyperbolic
3-dimenaional
227-240
apace, 227,
Hamilton, Richard
Hatcher, Allen E.,
hyperbolic
Idx,
xvi
90
homeomorphic,
126,129,
90, 91, 96- 98,

182, 270, 288,
130,
the
303-311, 317 319,325

7, 15-16, 34-36,
15, 28, 41,
translation,
239
221-222
limit,
358-360
at infinity,
at infinity,
limit
361, 360-361
170, 170-180,
234-235,260-265,
331-332
298,
357
injective,
interior of a
256
178-180,
178,
172-176,
interior
horoaphere, 234,
inverae
348
manifold,
point, 152
interior
356
intersection,
E., xv
map, 185, 357
inveraion
hyperbolic
hyperbolic
area, 43,
hyperbolic
diak,
43-44
acroaa
42
23-27, 40, 232, 231-
234,
238,
239
322,
knot,
hyperbolic length,
227,
across
hyperbolic metric, 12, 12-14,37,

39, 44, 45, 82, 228
norm,
33, 33-36,
hyperbolic
228, 229
11, 11-46,
80
polygon,
a aphere,
229, 237
iaometric
extenaion,
233,
231-233, 236
iaometric
group
iaometric,
action,
67
186
iaometry, 5
322-340
11, 17-22,
230
plane,
16, 16-17,28,28,
iaometric
locally
hyperbolic
a circle,
42
hyperbolic diatance, 12, 12-14,

37, 39, 44, 45, 228
17 22, 230
hyperbolic
geodeaic,
14 -17, 25,
hyperbolic
isometry,
hyperbolic
infinite
257, 258, 257-265
172
iaometry, 172,
hyperbolic
11, 362
infima), 359,
361, 360-361
{pi.
vertex
horocyclic
33-34,
185, 357
infinity
172, 172-181, 214-222,
horocycle,
268,
357
X,
116, 170, 170-180,
part,
infimum
Howe, Roger
of
map
353
116
map,
imaginary
286
horodiak,
240,
125,
257,258, 257-265
image, 357
290
volume,
ideal polygon,
49-50, 128,129,230, 349

15, 28, 40, 228,239,
homothety,
228,
43, 98,
ideal vertex,
identity
horocircle,
triangle,
identity
homogeneous,
horizontal
82, 102,
ideal
41,
homeomorphiam,
aurface,
hyperbolic
130
318
Christopher,
Hiatt,
227, 227-240,
349
hyperbolic
S., 350
211
C,
Haros,
hyperbolic apace,
341-343
350
Wolfgang,
Haken,
15, 240
40
rotation,
hyperbolic
234
elliptic
isometry,
euclidean isometriea,
group of iaomelriea,
41, 239
5 7, 39
186
horocyclic
iaometry, 172,
hyperbolic
isometry,
172-176,221-222
14-17,
23-27, 40, 232, 231-234,

239
25,
238,
381
Index
186
group,
iaometry
loxodromic isometry,
parabolic
isometry,
spherical
isometriea,
41, 239,
50
327
316
finite,
349
340, 340-351
Klein
95, 93-95,
bottle,
Klein
eaaential
Klein,
284
kleinian
Felix
bottle,
128,341
345
(1849-1925),
maxima),358,
Hellmuth
Kneaer,
350
(1898-1973),
knot complement, 293-313,

knot,
321
187-189
141-143,
48, 343
350
metric,
John
W.,
minimum (pi.
358,
minima),
358-360
317
Minaky,
Yair
282, 283
N-,
Mobiua
length
euclidean length,
2, 48
Mobiua
11, 17-22,
length,
hyperbolic
33-34, 227, 230

in a metric apace, 3, 9, 87,
length
127
Mobiua
length
of
modulus
135, 147-155
at infinity,
limit
point,
270-279,
Moatow'a
23, 362
248
Rigidity
Theorem,
325, 324-326,336
361, 36& 361
Mostow,
George
325
Daniel,
248, 247-252,255-256,
299-302
linear fractional map,

38, 186, 231-235
groupa,
342
moduli),
(pi.
Moatow
limit
limit aet,
(1790-1868),104
341
atrip,
moduli apace,
4,
237
tranaformation,
of a
147-155
104, 103-104
Mobius, August
Mobiua
discrete walk, 58
a aequence, 135,
237
group,
Mobiua atrip,
length
limit,
82
metric,
quotient metric, 61, 58 61,

Milnor,
knot, 319
unknot,
9, 63, 81,
8, 344
metric,
spherical
319
knot,
trefoil
function,
product
319-340,
torus
37,
metric apace,3, 3-5,58-61,
352-354
satellite
12, 12-14,
metric,
metric
path
322, 322-340
knot,
322
\320\242.,
134-135,150-155
303
figure-eight knot,
Curtia
euclidean metric, 67, 340
321
knot,
hyperbolic
metric,
39, 44,45
knot, 316
companion
358-360
McMullen,
hyperbolic
241-302,
248,
group,
45, 95,
326-340
linear
296
Albert,
Marden,
maximum (pi.
Klein
82, 83
40, 239
map, 357
Klaus, 321, 350
Johannaon,
Luecke,
197, 259,
334
isometry,
340
John,
manifold,
317
238,
N., 337
134, 145,
iaometric, 67,
loxodromic
William H-, 321, 350
Jaco,
Charlea
locally
locally
isotropic, 7, 34-36, 49-50,230,

jacobian,
(1808-1882),104
Little,
261,333,
316
iaotopy,
Listing, Johann Benedict
317
isomorphic knots,
isotopicknots,
40, 239
202
27, 27
33,
N, the aet of all

356
nonorientable
norm
positive
surface,
inlegera,
104,
129
Index
382
euclidean
ideal polygon,
33
norm,
33, 33-36,
hyperbolic norm,
228, 229
normal
299, 299-302
114,
torua,
once-punctured
167-169,
114-125, 161-162,
212-214
one-to-one
357
correspondence,
357
one-to-one map,
preaerve,
358
product,
8, 357
product metric, 8, 344
246, 280
OPTi,
projective
342
orbifold,
187, 187-192, 198,248

space,
187, 187-192
orbit,
orbit
347
parabolic
parabolic
187-192
Perko, Kenneth
differentiable
198
curve,
Q, the
plane,
essential
projective
aet
Poincare'sPolygon
129, 341
344
Theorem,
169-181
174,
Poincare'a
Polyhedron
Theorem,
257-265
260,
Poincare, Jules
(1854-1912),
-201,
K. the
K2,
the
R3,
the
set
60, 58-61,
of all real
numbers, 356
apace, 4, 357
11, 362
euclidean
reflection,
6, 50 52
hyperbolic reflection,
335
61, 61-66,
regular
curve,
reapect, 358
80, 257
187,
euclidean plane, 1-10, 357

euclidean
3-dimensional
reflection
polygon,
58-61,
187-197
283, 351
183
hyperbolic
61
apace,
quotient
real part,
euclidean polygon,
rational numbers,
map,
Henri
polygon, 61-87, 89-131,133-184,
of all
187-189
141-143,
plane,
Poincare
Poincare Conjecture, 351
223
quotient metric, 61,
11, 11-46,234
102,
plane,
projective
60
108, 108-114,
quotient
1-10
hyperbolic plane,
60
triple,
quotient
euclidean
202
356
plane
192
partition,
Pythagorean
338
\316\221.,
bisector, 39,
perpendicular
groupa,
118-125
Clark, 340
Y., 350
Grigory
Robert
piecewiae
gluing,
proper
9, 63, 81,82
path metric,
Perelman,
proper
pseudosphere,
60
partition,
proper
linear
proper
327
point,
line, 42
projective
projective apace,202
327
239,
41,
isometry,
57, 57-87,
partition,
Penner,
40, 253
projection,
orthogonal
317
238,
orienlalion-reveraing,
projective
projective model for the

plane, 45
hyperbolic
plane,
projective
102, 129, 341
eaaential
projective
plane, 344
orientation-preserving, 238, 317

Orlik, Peter,
258,
polyhedra),
(pi.
257-265
Prasad, Gopal, 325
preimage, 358
357
onto,
261
polyhedral ball aector,

polyhedron
197
82
polygon,
apherical
subgroup,
116
finite polygon,
locally
reatriction,
358
316
15, 240
383
Index
Riemann
Riemann sphere,
stabilizer,
276-279
241-252,
Georg Friedrich
Riemann,
Riley,
spherical triangle,
52, 125
190, 190-192,204-205
27, 41,
Bernhard (1826-1866),27
Robert F. (1935-2000), 312,
340
41
stereographic
projection,
subsequence,
150, 150-155
355
subset,
358,
(pi. suprema),
supremum
358-360
rotation
341
surface,
euclidean
rotation,
hyperbolic
rotation,
6, 49-52
50, 51 52
89-97,
103-104,341-343
40
rotation-reflection,
surface, 67,
euclidean
82, 102,
surface,
hyperbolic
341-343
52, the
2-dimenaional
sphere,
sphere,
53, the 3-dimensional

351
satellite
47
343,
Schubert, Horat
(1919-2001),321
Seifert
Seifert
fibration,
347, 354
Seifert
manifold,
347
Seifert, Herbert
Karl
(1907-1996),
347
semi-distance
Johannes
3
function.
3, 58-61,
semi-metric,
surface,
surface of genus g, 129

two-sided surface, 344
357
surjective,
tangent
line, 276
tangent
map,
84, 187, 189,
set, 355
tile,
Peter
350
\320\222.,
321,
220, 290
shear parameter,
shear-bend
265, 289
parameter,
ahearing, 220
signed distance,
C,
SnapPea,
253,
218-220,
133-184,
147
341,348
3-dimensional sphere, 343, 349,
322,
topology
the same
induce
323, 335, 337, 339

341
torus
311,
topology,
322, 341, 348

(pi. tori), 56, 91
essential torus,
344
once-punctured
torus, 114,
114-125,161-162,167-169,
351
212214
344
sphere,
spherical
torus
spherical
area,
spherical
distance,
53, 182
19-51
50
isometries,
spherical metric,
spherical
polygon,
spherical
surface,
48. 84, 343

82
84,
341 343
319
knot,
tractrix,
343
48,
spherical geodesic,
spherical
136,
groupoid,
tiling
316
5, 47,
essential
133-184
group,
212 -222,259
322
253-254
simple curve,
133,
tiling
topologically equivalent, 311,
Laurence
Siebenmann,
P., 302, 312,
William
322,350
358
Shalen,
29
133, 133-184,
207-226,259, 259-265
Thurston,
sequence,
84, 341-343
2. 97, 97-102
surface of genus
tessellation,
202
sphere,
nonorientable
spherical surface,
321
knot,
manifold, 344
104, 129
a 3-dimensional
in
108
transformation
group,
185,
185 205
translation
euclidean
translation,
horizontal translation,
41, 228, 239
5
15,
28,
Index
384
trefoil
319
knot,
triangle
euclidean triangle,
125
triangle, 43,
hyperbolic
130
Inequality,
group, 186
trivial
fuchsian
twisted
344
62, 81,
unbounded,
288
group,
two-sided surface,
103,161-162
356
union,
317
unknot,
Veen, Roland, xvi
der
van
52, 125
triangle,
spherical
Triangle
98, 125,
vertex (pi. vertices)

of a
of
258
polyhedron,
ideal
170, 170-180,
116,
vertex,
257, 258,257-265
a polygon, 61, 80, 82,257
at
vertex
170, 170-180,
infinity,
257, 258, 257-265

Vogt,
Elmar,
347
volume
finite
324
volume,
hyperbolic volume,
Wada,
walk,
246
Masaaki,
Waldhausen,
see
Priedhelm, 347,350
walk
discrete
Weeks, Jeffrey
Wright Sharp,
Z, the
240, 353
set of all
R.,
323
Jennifer,
integers,
Zieschang, Heiner
xvi
356
(1936-2004),347

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STUDENT

From Euclidean Surfaces

American Mathematical Society, Providence,Rhode

the Student MathematicalLibrary

Series Editor for

The photo on the back coverof the author is reprinted with

Primary 51M05, 51M10,30F40,

information and updates on

@ The paper used

book is acid-free and falls within

Society retains all rights

Chapter 2. The hyperbolic

Exercises for Chapter

Exercises for Chapter

Exercises for Chapter 6

Exercises for Chapter 7

10. Kleinian groups

for knot complements

Exercises for Chapter

1991 as part of the \"Regional

Institute for Advanced Study (IAS)in

Institute (PCMI) was

City Mathematics Institute encouragesboth

total spectrum of activities that

is chosen as the focus of the

volume, are now being publishedas

John Polking, SeriesEditor

3-dimensional topology was

the Park City

these lectures, but the written

last chapter, is to bring the studentsto a level where

The first two-thirds

objects of mathematics, the Farey tessellationof the

We tried to strikea balancebetween

certainty provided by careful

somewhat break the

readeris encouraged,on a preliminary

The reader may

have thus been

samereason,the bookis not

sections. For the

When this occurs,

the remote control

the early material

The bookalso has

purely technical point

the task would

the students and

book and for

(which turned out to be right).

familiar with the geometry

of the hyperbolicplane H2. In this

notation concerning set

length and distance

by the differentiable vector-

This length is independent

piecewise differentiable curves

point of each 7i+i is equalto the terminal

words, sucha curve

the sum of the lengths 4uc(7i) of its

The euclidean distancedeuc(P,Q)

4uc (P, Q) = inf