6.

Underground Blast Design

Ganda M. Simangunsong

Fakultas Teknik Pertambangan & Perminyakan ITB

GMS

Introduction
There are two reasons to go underground and
excavate:
1. to use the excavated space, e.g. for storage,
transport etc.
2. to use the excavated material, e.g. mining and
quarrying operations.
In both cases tunneling forms an integral part of the
entire operation.
The main difference between tunnel blasting and
bench blasting is that tunnel blasting is done towards
one free surface while bench blasting is done towards
two or more free surface.
GMS

Introduction (cont.)
Underground vs. Open Pit Blast Design:
One free face explosive consumption is higher than
open pit blast design
Environmental constraint toxic fumes
Small burden at area of Cut Desensitization 75200 mm; and sympathetic detonation <75mm
Explosive charge at LIFTER should be water resistant.
CONTOUR should be smooth blasting

GMS

Introduction (cont.)

Open Pit Blast Design ?

GMS

Introduction (cont.)

GMS

Blasting Round

GMS

Look Out

Empirical guidance
L = 10 cm + 3 cm/m X Hole depth
GMS

CUT
Various types of Cut (Langefors & Kihlstrm, 1978)
Wedge cut or V-cut
Pyramid or diamond cut
Drag cut
Fan cut
Burn cut

GMS

Wedge Cut or V Cut

Blasthole are drilled at an angle to the
face in a uniform wedge formation so
that the axis of symmetry is at the
centre line of the face.
The cut displaces a wedge of rock out
of the face in the initial blast and this
wedge is widened to the full width of
the drift in subsequent blasts, each
blast being fired with detonators of
suitable delay time.
This type of cut is particularly suited
to large size drifts, which have well
laminated or fissured rocks. Hole
placement should be carefully
preplanned and the alignment of each
hole should be accurately drilled.
GMS

Pyramid or Diamond Cut

The pyramid or diamond
cut is a variation of the
wedge cut where the
blastholes for the initial
cavity may have a line of
symmetry along
horizontal axis as well as
the vertical axis

GMS

Drag Cut
The drag cut is particularly suitable in small sectional
drifts where a pull of up to 1 m is very useful

GMS

Fan Cut
The fan cut is one-half
of a wedge cut and is
applicable mainly where
only one machine is
employed in a narrow
drive.
Generally the depth of
pull obtainable is limited
to 1.5 m

GMS

Burn Cut
A series of parallel holes are
drilled closely spaced at right
angles to the face. One hole or
more at the centre of the face
are uncharged. This is called the
burn cut.

The uncharged holes are often of

larger diameter than the charged
holes and form zones of
weakness that assist theadjacent
charged holes in breaking out the
ground.
Since all holes are at right angles to the face, hole placement
and alignment are easier than in other types of cuts. The burn
cut is particularly suitable for use in massive rock such as
granite, basalt etc.
GMS

Rock factor, c
The rock constant is an empirical measure of the
amount of explosive needed for loosening 1 m 3 of rock
B

Example

= 32 mm

Q = 0.3 kg/m3

C = 1.2Q = 0.36

B=K= 0.5-1.0 m

1.3B

0-1 m

GMS

Rock Factor, c
c?
t?
RMR ?
C = 0.50 + 2.60(t/c)0.5 + 13t/c, kg/m3
For first trial C=0.4 kg/m3

GMS

Example:
Persson, Holmberg, Lee

GMS

Process (cuts)
Define reamer/
uncharged hole
Define 1st cut
Define 2nd cut and
others

A2
B2
A1
B1

GMS

Process (1st Cut)

1.
2.
3.

4.

5.

Define advance, I
Define hole depth, H (I = 95%H)
Define reamer
H = 0.15 + 34.1 39.42
Smaller diameter of reamer can be adopted with
number of reamers is estimated as follow,
d = /n0.5
Define charge concentration (explosive type and
diameter), l
l ANFO?
Difine first burden, B1
l = 55d [(B1/)1.5 (B1-/2)(c/0.4)]/WSRANFO
GMS

Process (1st Cut)

6.

7.

Define stemming length, hs

hs = 10 d
End

GMS

Process (2nd Cut )

1.

2.
3.

4.
5.

6.

Define opening width from the 1st cut, A1

A1 = 20.5 B1
Define 2nd burden, B2
B2 = 8.8 x 10-2 [(A1 l WSRANFO)0.5]/ d c
Define stemming, hs
hs = 10 d
Sub End
Repeat point 1 to 3 to find geometry of 3rd cut and
so on until the opening width is less than the square
root of advance (=I0.5) or Burden stoping/lifter.
End

GMS

Process (Lifters)
1.

2.
3.
3.
4.
5.

Define corrected rock factor, c

c = c + 0.05
Bn>1.4
c = c + 0.07/B
Bn<1.4
Define burden, B
B = 0.9 (l WSRANFO/1.45 c)0.5
Define spacing, S
S=B
Define stemming, hs
hs = 10 d
Define number of holes, n DRAW
End
GMS

Process (Stoping)
1.

2.

3.

3.
4.
5.

Define corrected rock factor, c

c = c + 0.05
Bn>1.4
c = c + 0.07/B
Bn<1.4
Define burden, B
B = 0.9 (l WSRANFO/1.45 c)0.5 Upward
B = 0.9 (l WSRANFO/1.20 c)0.5 Horiz, Downward
Define spacing, S
S = 1.25 B
Define stemming, hs
hs = 10 d
Define number of holes, n DRAW
End

GMS

Process (Contours)
If normal, follow geometry of the downward stoping
If smooth blasting is required, :
1. Define spacing, S
S = (15-16) d
2. Defind burden, B
B = S/0.8
3. Defind charge concentration, l
l = 90 d2
4.
5.

No stemming is required (fully charged)

End

GMS

Hole types

Number
of holes

Charge per
hole

Total
charge

1st cut

1.59

6.37

2nd cut

2.62

10.48

3rd-4th cut

3.76

29.36

Lifters

3.20

16.00

Roof

1.77

14.16

Wall

3.20

19.20

Stoping

3.20

16.00

Total charge

111.6 kg

Opening area

19.5 m2

Advance

3.0 m

Specific charge

1.9 kg/m3

Total number of holes

40

Hole depth

3.2 m

Specific drilling

2.2 m/m3

GMS

Example:
Stig O. Olofsson
Swedish Technique

GMS

Faktor Perencanaan Cut

Diameter lubang besar (kosong)
Burden
Charge concentration
Ketepatan pemboran, terutama untuk lubang-lubang
ledak paling dekat dengan lubang besar/kosong
Bila menggunakan beberapa lubang kosong, hitung
dahulu diameter lubang samaran (fictious diameter )

D = dn
D = diameter lubang samaran
d = diameter lubang kosong
n = jumlah lubang
GMS

Kemajuan Per Round

GMS

Perhitungan
Agar peledakan berhasil dengan baik (cleaned blast),
jarak antara lubang ledak dengan lubang kosong,
tidak boleh lebih besar daripada 1,5 lubang kosong.
Apabila jaraknya lebih besar hanya akan menimbulkan
kerusakan (breakage) dan jika jaraknya terlalu dekat
ada kemungkinan lubang ledak bertemu dengan
lubang besar kosong

GMS

Waktu tunda:
Hole depth 4 m
Clean Blast 60 100 ms
Stoping 100 500 ms
Antar cut utk V > 50 ms

a < 1,5 lubang kosong cleaned blast

a > 1,5 - kerusakan breakage
a << 1,5 - lubang ledak bertemu lubang kosong
GMS

Jarak lubang tembak ke lubang

kosong
a = 1,5
a = jarak antara titik pusat lingkaran lubang besar
dengan lubang tembak
b = diameter lubang besar

Jika gunakan beberapa lubang kosong,

a = 1,5 D
D = diameter samaran

GMS

Pemuatan Lubang Tembak Dalam

Bujursangkar Pertama
Muatan BP (charge concentration) sedikit batuan
tidak akan terbongkar.
Muatan BP banyak tidak akan terjadi blow out melalui
lubang kosong sehingga terjadi pemadatan kembali
batuan yang telah terpecahkan dan efisiensi
kemajuan rendah.
Kebutuhan muatan BP untuk berbagai jarak C-C
(pusat ke pusat) antara lubang kosong dan lubang
tembak terdekat dapat dihitung menggunakan grafik
berikut

GMS

Muatan BP Fungsi Jarak Pusat Pusat

Lubang Untuk Berbagai Diameter Lubang

GMS

Perhitungan Untuk Bujursangkar

Selanjutnya

Perhitungan bujursangkar dalam cut yang tersisa sama dengan

bujursangkar pertama. Peledakan pada bujursangkar sisa
mengarah ke bukaan segiempat bukan bukaan sirkular. Sudut
ledakan (angle of break) jangan terlalu kecil.
Dalam perhitungan burden (B) sama dengan lebar (W) dari
bukaan:

B=W

Dengan grafik perkirakan muatan bahan peledak minimum dan

burden maksimum untuk bermacam-macam lebar bukaan.
Muatan bahan peledak ini adalah muatan untuk semua kolom
lubang tembak.
Apabila diperlukan peledakan pada bagian dasar yang susah
diledakkan (constricted bottom) harus digunakan muatan dasar
yang besarnya dua kali charge concentration (lc) dan tingginya
1,5 B.
GMS

Muatan Fungsi Burden Maksimum

Untuk Berbagai Lebar Bukaan

GMS

Stemming Cut
Panjang kolom lubang bor yang tidak diisi bahan peledak.

ho = 0,5 B
Perhitungan berikut utk lubang tembak 38 mm

GMS

Merencanakan Cut
Bujursangkar I
a
= 1,5
W1 = a 2

mm

76

a mm

110 130 150 190 230

W 1 mm

150 180 210 270 320

mm

76

W 1 mm

150 180 210 270 320

C C = 1,5 W1

C-C mm

225 270 310 400 480

W2 = 1,5 W1 2

W 2 mm

320 380 440 560 670

Bujursangkar II
B1

= W1

89

89

102 127 159

102 127 159

GMS

Merencanakan Cut
Bujursangkar III
B2 = W2
C C = 1,5 W2
W3 = 1,5 W2 2

Bujursangkar IV
B3

= W3

C C = 1,5 W3
W4 = 1,5 W3 2

mm

76

102

127

159

W 2 mm

320 380 440

560

670

CC

480 570 660

840

1.000

W 3 mm

670 800 930 1.180 1.400

89

mm

76

102

127

159

W 3 mm

320 380 440

560

670

CC

480 570 660

840

1.000

W 4 mm

670 800 930 1.180 1.400

89

GMS

Geometri Bujursangkar

GMS

Round Stoping & Contour

Lubang lantai (floor holes)

Lubang dinding (wall holes)
Lubang atap (roof holes)
Lubang stoping arah pemecahan ke atas dan
horisontal
Lubang stoping arah pemecahan ke bawah
Untuk menghitung burden (B) dan muatan untuk
bermacam-macam bagian dari round dan Contour
dapat dipakai grafik berikut

GMS

Burden Fungsi Muatan BP Pada Berbagai

Diameter Lubang Tembak & Jenis BP

GMS

Geometri Pemboran & Peledakan Round Normal Profile Blasting

Charge concentration
Burden
(m)

Spacing
(m)

Height bottom
charge
(m)

Bottom
(kg/m)

(Column)
(kg/m)

Floor

1xB

1.1 x B

1/3 x H

lb

1.0 x lb

0.2 x B

Wall

0.9 x B

1.1 x B

1/6 x H

lb

0.4 x lb

0.5 x B

Roof

0.9 x B

1.1 x B

1/6 x H

lb

0.3 x lb

0.5 x B

Upwards

1xB

1.1 x B

1/3 x H

lb

0.5 x lb

0.5 x B

Horisontal

1xB

1.1 x B

1/3 x H

lb

0.5 x lb

0.5 x B

Downwards

1xB

1.2 x B

1/3 x H

lb

0.5 x lb

0.5 x B

Part of time
round

Stemming
(m)

Stoping :

GMS

Number of Holes

Check
Recheck!

Sumber: USACE, 1997

GMS

Specific Charge

Check
Recheck!

Sumber: USACE, 1997

GMS

Initiation Sequence

The Cut is fired using millisecond delay. Since the rock

removed between each hole in the cut and the central
empty hole must be blown out to provide expansion room
for the rock removed by the next charge, a long enough
interval between these holes is needed.

The recommended delay is 75 - 100 millliseconds.

1st and 2nd cuts are recommended to adopt one dalay

per hole. Other holes are fired with one delay for two
holes.

Stoping holes are recommended to adopt 100 500

milliseconds delay.

GMS

Typical Initiation (cont.)

GMS

Initiation Sequence (cont.)

GMS

Shafts
Shafts are either driven downwards, sink
shafts/shaft sinking, or upward, raise shafts.

GMS

Shaft Sinking
Shaft sinking is one of the most difficult and risky blasting
jobs as the work area is normally wet, narrow, and noisy.
Furthermore, the drilling and blasting crews are exposed to
falling objects.
The advance is slow as the rock has to be removed
between each blast with special equipment which has
limited capacity. The blasted rock must be well fragmented
to suit the excavation equipment.
The design of the cross section of the shaft principally
depends on the quality of the rock. Nowadays most of the
shaft are made with circular cross section which gives
better distribution of the rock pressure, thus decreasing the
need for reinforcement, especially in deep shafts.

GMS

Shaft Sinking
An important requirement in shaft
sinking is to provide optimum
fragmentation of the rock so that
it can be cleared quickly from the
congested shaft-face area.
Blasting operation is carried out
against gravity, and the scatter of
the broken rock is confined in the
shaft. It is common to use
generous distribution of
explosives hroughout the rock
using a large number of small
diameter (35 42 mm) shotholes.
GMS

Shaft Sinking

with benching method

The most common drilling &
blasting methods are benching
and blasting with pyramid cut.
The benching method is fast
and efficient method as the
time-consuming cleaning of the
floor between blast can be
minimized. It is easy also to
keep the shaft free from water
as a pump can always be
placed in the lower blasted part
of the shaft. The drilling &
charging pattern is similar to
that of smaller surface blasting.
GMS

Shaft Sinking
with pyramid cut

Shaft sinking with pyramid

cut is similar to tunnel
blasting with V-cuts. The
drilling is done with a drill
ring which is composed of
a circular I-beam to which
the drilling machines are
fixed. The drilling may be
fixed to the shaft walls
with bolts. Due to
construction of the drill
ring, the cut will be
conical.

GMS

Shaft Sinking
with pyramid cut

The number of holes

N required for sinking
a shaft of cross
sectional area A in m2
is given by:
N = 2.5A + 22
The drilling patterns
for shaft sinking are
basically the same as
those used in
tunneling but
generally the cone cut
is favoured
GMS

Shaft Sinking
The explosives used in shaft sinking must always be
water resistant. Even if the ground is dry, the flushing
water from the drilling machines will always stay in
the blastholes.
The powder factor in shaft sinking is rather high,
ranging from 2.0 kg/m3 to 4.0 kg/m3 (Olofsson).
Nonel type detonators are increasingly preferred for
initiation.

GMS

Raise Shafts
Older methods:
Timbered shafts
Open shafts up to 25 m, not recommended
Modern methods:
Boliden elevator type Jora
Alimak Raise Climber
Longhole drilling

GMS

Timbered Shaft
The rise shaft is driven vertically
and divided into two sections by
a timber wall which is extended
before each blast.
When the round is fired, one
section is filled with rock. The
blasted rock will then act as a
working platform for the next
round.
The second section is used as
ladder-way and for
transportation of equipment, drill
steel, explosive and timber. The
ventilation is also placed which is
covered during blasting.
GMS

Timbered Shaft
Timbered rise shafts have
been driven up close to 100
m, but normally the
maximum height should not
exceed 60 m.
The cross section area is
usually 4 m2, and the
advance per round approx.
2.2 m.

GMS

JORA lift method

1950s Boliden AB
developed the JORA lift.
A large hole, diameter 110
to 150 mm, is drilled from
an upper level in the center
of the intended shaft.
The drilling and charging
are carried out from
platform on the top of the
lift cage and some scaling
can be done from the cage
with protection of the
platform.

GMS

JORA lift method

The large hole is used as cut
hole in the blasting of the
round.
Due to the large size of the
cut hole, advances of up to
4 m are obtained.
The area is approx. 4 m2.
Maximum height is 100 m.
Free space above the shaft
is needed for the drilling of
the large hole and for
placing of the lifting gear.

GMS

ALIMAK raise climber

Introduced in 1957.
The equipment consists of a rise
climber with a working platform,
which cover practically the
entire area of the shaft. Under
the platform there is a cage for
transport of personnel, material
and equipment.
The rise climber is propelled by
a rack and pinion system along
a special guide rail.
The rail system incorporated a
tube system for the air and
water supply of the drilling
equipment.
GMS

ALIMAK raise climber

The platform is equipped with a
protective roof under which the
blaster stands during scaling and
drilling operation.
The air driven raise climber may
be used for up to 150 m shaft
length, electric drive up to 900 m.
For longer shafts diesel-hydraulic
driven climber are used.
The area normally 4 m2, but
inclined (60o) shafts have been
driven full face up to 36 m2.
The long term advance is approx.
3.5 m/day or 70-90 m per month.
GMS

Shaft raising
by long hole drilling

Drilling is done downwards with parallel holes and the

whole are is drilled at the same time.
Great precision in drilling and charging is a must and the
lack of precision has earlier limited the practical height to
25 30 m.
Safe - All drilling and charging work is carried out from safe
location.
Two different cut are used:
Large hole cut
Crater cut

GMS

Long hole drilling

with large hole cut

The large hole cut is still the most

common one.
The drill holes in the round have a
diameter of 50 to 75 mm and the
central large hole is reamed to a
diameter of 102 to 203 mm.
The charging is done from the upper
level. A piece of wood is lowered down
on a rope, and when the wood is
passes the lower mouth of the hole
the rope is tightened and the piece of
wood forms a plug for the lower part
of the hole.
The hole should not be stemmed as
the stemming may sinter and block
the hole for the subsequent blast.

GMS

Long hole drilling

with crater blasting

The crater blasting is used

only for the cut section to
open a hole of approx. 1 m2,
then normal stoping will
follow.
The crater consists of five
holes, one center hole and
four edge holes. The center
hole is blasted first
whereupon the edge holes are
blasted one by one with
different delays.

GMS

Long hole drilling

with crater blasting

Before charging the holes

are plugged with apiece of
wood, which is lowered down
from the upper surface on a
rope and secured to the
lower surface.
The hole is then filled with
sand to the calculated level
of explosive charge. The
charge should have a
diameter close to that of the
hole.
The charge is then stemmed
with water.
GMS

Long hole drilling

with crater blasting

Livingstones theories:
L = 6 x D (mm)
Lopt = 0.5 x Lcrit (mm)
Lcrit = S x Q1/3; (mm);
S : Strain energy (1.5)
Q = (3 x d3 x phi x P)/2; kg;
P : Charging density (kg/liter)
Lopt = 0.5 x S x ((3 x phi x d)/2) 1/3 x d x 10 (mm)

GMS

Ring Blasting

GMS

Ring Blasting

GMS

Ring Blasting

Toe spacing estimation

Spacing can be estimated as 2 times fractured zone (S = 2 x Rf)
Damage Zone (Hustrulid, 1999)

GMS

Ring Blasting
Design Example

GMS

Ring Blasting
Design Example

GMS

Ring Blasting
Design Example

GMS

Ring Blasting

Design Example JKSimBlast

GMS

Blast Damage

The prediction of damage to the rock mass is a very

important factor to evaluate the quality of the excavation
process in tunneling, so that it would allow the
optimization of explosive charges utilized in successive
blasting rounds, as well as lowering risks of instability
from rock loosening, less support costs and water inflows.

When an explosive charge detonate inside a borehole

several zones can be distinguished in the surrounding
rock: 1) Zone of crushing, 2) Zone of radial cracking, 3)
Zone of extension and expansion of fractures and 4)
Elastic Zone, where no cracks are formed.

GMS

Blast Damage (cont.)

GMS

Overbreak Extend

GMS

Excavation Damaged Zone

Deviations of that perimeter from their outside and inside

limits are called overbreak and underbreak respectively,
with the word backbreak used when overbreak is
excessive.

The factors influencing the magnitude of EDZ can

conveniently be grouped into two categories, which are
rock mass characteristics (geological factors) and
explosive (blasting factors)

GMS

Measuring EDZ
There are currently three methods of actually measuring
excavation profiles:
surveying techniques,
laser based, and

photographic light sectioning method (LSM).

The principle of the method is to project a radial light to the
perimeter of the underground opening so that light rays
intersect the perimeter contour of the cavity. The image of this
perimeter is then saved in digitized form to allow further
computerized analysis.

GMS

Measuring EDZ

GMS

Measuring EDZ
using PPF and Q
PPF = (Pe.Ee)/Vrp
PPF : Perimeter Powder Factor (PPF)

Pe: Weight of explosive charges used in the

perimeter blast holes (kg)
Ee: Unit explosive energy (kcal/kg)

Vrp: Excavated volume of annulus (m3)

GMS

Measuring EDZ
EDZo = (-a + b.PPF c.log Q)/100

EDZu = (a b.PPF + c.log Q)/100

Polynomial 2D
Model First
Order

EDZo : Damage for Overbreak (index)

EDZu : Damage for Underbreak (index)
a, b, c, a, b, c are coefficients whose values are obtained by
means of multiple regression statistics correlating Rock Mass
Quality Q and Perimeter Powder Factor (PPF) with observed
Overbreak and Underbreak.
These predictive equations are site specific, but can readily be
calibrated to suit other projects, where the rock and blasting
conditions differ from the present case.
GMS

Polynomial 2D Model, First order

z i bo b1 xi b2 yi
i n

i n

bo n b1

i 1

i i

i n

bo

i 1

i n

b2

y i z i bo

b1

i 1

i 1

i 1

i n

i n

i 1

i 1

i n

x z

i n

i 1

i n

xi2

b2

x y
i

i 1

i n

y i b1

i n

xi y i b2

i 1

y i2

i 1

x y bo z
2
x
xy b1 xz
2 b
x
y
y
2 yz

GMS

Measuring EDZ
using PPV

PPV = k (R/W1/3)-n

PPV : Peak Particle Velocity (mm/s)

R: Distance (m)
W: Weight explosive per delay (kg)

GMS

Damage Criteria using PPV

References

Bauer & Calder (1970)

Langefors & Kuhlstrom (1973)
Oriard (1982)

PPV (mm/s)

635 2540

Notes

Radial cracking/break up rock mass

305 610

New cracks/Fall in tunnels

635

Most rock mass damaged

Rustan et. al. (1985)

1000 - 3000

Rock damage

Meyer & Dunn (1995)

600

Major damage

Bogdanhoff (1996)

Murthy & Dey (2003)

2000 - 2500

2050

Tunnel damaged

Tunnel damaged (basaltic formation)

Or use tensile strength?

t = C PPV

GMS

Damage Criteria using PPV in

UG Coal Mines

(a) Major damage: fall of rock/coal blocks from roof and/or pillars.
(b) Minor damage: detachment of loosened chips from roof and/or pillars.
(c) No damage: no visual damage.

GMS

Supplement

FOR YOUR REFERENCES .

GMS

Rock Tunnelling Quality Index, Q

GMS

GMS

GMS

GMS

Bieniawski (1989)

GMS

Discussion .

END

GMS