Eco Bios

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l Volume 4, Number (1 & 2), December 2011
BEES.1995
SOCIETY FOR BIOMETRY, ECOLOGY & E COMETRICS (BEES)

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--------------------------- ADVISORY BOARD -------------------------1. Prof. Badrul Amin Bhuiya

Department of Zoology
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-------------------------- EDITORIAL BOARD -------------------------1. Dr. B. K Dev

Department of Zoology,
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Department of Life Science,
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,Vol. 4, No. (1 & 2), 2011
ISSN : 0972-6446
CLASSIFICATION, MOLECULAR PHYLOGENY,

AND HETEROSPORY OF PTERIDOPHYTES
MASAHIRO KATO
Department of Botany, National Museum of Nature and Science,
Tsukuba 305-0005, Japan;
e-mail address : sorang@kahaku.go.jp
HIGH-RANK CLASSIFICATIONS
Pteridophytes, like seed plants, are
vascular plants and also similar to
nonvascular bryophytes in the primitive freesporing reproduction. Evolutionarily they
followed bryophytes and preceded seed
plants. Thus, free-sporing and vascular
pteridophytes have a 420 million years-long
evolutionary history, and on the other hand,
like angiosperms, exhibit a recent
diversification, resulting in a total of about
12,000 species in primitive or advanced
status. The species were classified in many
different classification systems based on
morphological and other phenetic characters.
Conventional classifications recognized four
classes of living pteridophytes, i.e.,
Filicopsida (ferns) comprising Marattiales,
Ophioglossales and Filicales, Lycopsida,
Psilopsida, and Equisetopsida. The latter
three are called fern allies. Filicopsida has
megaphyllous leaves bearing aggregates of
sporangia (called sori). Lycopsida is defined
by the monosporangiate microphyllous
leaves. Psilopsida is characterized by the
absence of roots and typical leaves, while
Equisetopsida is characterized by the

strobilus comprising sporangiophores with
inwardly oriented sporangia and the whorled
sphenophylls. These classifications with
hierarchic ranks are generally taxon-based
and have usually not been given statistically
analyzed interrelationships of families.
MOLECULAR PHYLOGENIES
Molecular phylogeny, whose output
is displayed as phylogenetic relationships, has
contributed much to systematics,
classifications, evolution, and floras.
Molecular analyses with large data sets have
been explosive since the middle 1990s.
Hasebe et al. (1994, 1995) presented the
first large-scale molecular phylogeny of
leptosporangiate ferns. One of their findings
is that ferns considered primitive by
morphological systematics diverge earlier
than morphologically more advanced groups.
This order of phylogenetic relationships is in
good accordance with the polarity of
sporangium evolution. It is hypothesized that
the sporangium evolved from a massive to
,Vol. 4, No. (1 & 2), 2011
small capsule and from the distal to oblique

and then to vertical annulus. The second
finding is that tree fern families, Cyatheaceae,
Dicksoniaceae and Metaxyaceae, along with
Plagiogyriaceae, are monophyletic, although
Plagiogyriaceae are not typical tree ferns. A
recent
study
showed
that
Hymenophyllopsidaceae, a small nontree,
filmy-fern-like family endemic to the
Venezuelan Guayana, Guyana and Brazilian
sandstone highlands (tepuis), is closely
related to the tree fern group. It supports
monophyly of the tree fern and related
nontree fern families. Hence, this tree-fern
clade saw marked diversification in stem
habit, dermal appendage, lamina histology,
soral position, and indusium. The third finding
is that the aquatic and heterosporous fern
families, Azollaceae, Marsileaceae, and
Salviniaceae, form a monophyletic clade.
Aquatic life and heterospory are usually
considered to be a curious sharing, because
the families are so distinct morphologically
that they are placed distantly in traditional
classifications. The fourth finding is
monophyly
of
Polypodiaceae,
Grammitidaceae and Davalliaceae. This
monophyly suggests the origin of the
epiphytic families from a common ancestor of
a certain life form.
In a multiple gene analysis, Pryer et
al. (2001) found noteworthy relationships of
lower pteridophytes. Tracheophytes diverge
first into the microphyllous lycophytes and
the euphyllous plants. The latter
5
euphyllophytes diverge into seed plants and
euphyllous
pteridophytes
called
monilophytes. The monilophytes in turn
comprise eusporangiate and leptosporangiate
ferns. Surprisingly, Psilotaceae forms a clade
with the eusporangiate Ophioglossaceae,
while Equisetum forms another clade with
the eusporangiate Marattiaceae though
support is low. These findings show a sharp
conflict to the traditional classifications of
pteridophytes based primarily on
comparative morphology, with special
reference to lower groups, in which
pteridophytes are classified into one fern
group and three fern-allied groups.
Divergence time can be estimated
using molecular and fossil data. Penalized
likelihood analyses involving fossil data for
calibration of divergence time have been
extending to estimating the divergence times
of major groups of pteridophytes. Schneider
et al. (2004) demonstrated that most
polypodioid (in a broad sense) or higher
leptosporangiate ferns diversified in the
Cretaceous (100 Mya or later; Mya =
million years ago) after angiosperm radiation.
The fern diversification was perhaps an
ecological opportunistic response to the
diversification of angiosperms, as
angiosperms came to dominate terrestrial
ecosystems. Recently, an unconventional
photoreceptor phytochrome 3 was
discovered in a polypodioid fern, Adiantum
pedatum. Phytochrome 3 functions for redlight-induced phototropism and for red-light-
,Vol. 4, No. (1 & 2), 2011
induced chloroplast photorelocation, thereby

conferring a distinct advantage under lowlight canopy conditions. It is argued that the
photoreceptor was involved in the
diversification of ferns in angiospermdominant dense forest ecospaces.
A similar divergence time estimate
was undertaken for basal ferns (Pryer et al.,
2004). It is estimated that basalmost fern
families diverged during the Paleozoic. A
most basal fern clade of Ophioglossaceae
and Psilotaceae appeared near the end of the
Devonian (364 Mya) and the two families
diverged in the Late Carboniferous, while
that of Marattiaceae and Equisetaceae
appeared in the very Early Carboniferous
(359 Mya) and the families diverged shortly
after (354 Mya). Osmundaceae, the
basalmost leptosporangiate ferns, diverged in
the Middle Carboniferous (323 Mya). As a
result, the pteridophyte diversity reflects
deep and shallow phylogenetic histories.
MONOPHYLY AND PARAPHYLY

Recent progress in molecular
phylogeny has distinguished monophyletic
and paraphyletic groups. Monophyletic
groups, which include all taxa derived from
the most recent common ancestor, should be
given appropriate taxonomic ranks to
demonstrate phylogenetic relationships.
Paraphyletic groups, which do not include all
of derived taxa, are not usable as taxonomic
6
units in a strict sense, but may be useful in
non-taxonomic, general consideration, if they
represent evolutionary stages.
Monophyletic groups are (1)
Polysporangiophytes comprising vascular
and nonvascular plants with branched aerial
axes, and being sister to bryophytes with
unbranched, monosporangiate sporophytes;
(2) Lycophytes characterized by the
microphyllous leaves with single sporangia on
the adaxial side of leaves; (3)
Euphyllophytes characterized by the
euphyllous or non-microphyllous leaves and
comprising monilophytes and seed plants; (4)
Tracheophytes (=vascular plants)
comprising euphyllophytes and microphyllous
lycophytes; (5) Monilophytes comprising
three free-sporing groups, i.e., ferns (which
are not monophyletic), Psilotaceae and
Equisetaceae; and (6) Leptosporangiate
ferns characterized by the leptosporangia
that develop from single surface cells of
megaphyllous leaves. Paraphyletic groups
include (1) Pteridophytes comprising ferns
and three fern allies; (2) Ferns comprising
eusporangiate and leptosporangiate ferns, in
the former of which Marattiaceae and
Ophioglossaceae form monophyletic groups
along with the fern allies Equisetaceae and
Psilotaceae, respectively; and (3)
Eusporangiate
ferns
comprising
Marattiaceae and Ophioglossaceae.
Heterospory is an evolutionary
prerequisite to seed habit. A group of
heterosporous progymnosperms evolved into
,Vol. 4, No. (1 & 2), 2011
seed plants, which have thrived in the

Mesozoic and Cenozoic. Most remarkably
angiosperms were diversified in the Tertiary
up to the present. Heterospory appeared at
minimum 10 times in most (five) of major
lower vascular plant groups during the
Middle Devonian and Permian (Bateman &
DiMichele, 1994). In comparison, a few
heterosporous leptosporangiate ferns
(Salviniaceae [Salvinia,
Azolla],
Marsileaceae [Marsilea, Pilularia,
Regnellidium], Platyzoma) evolved more
recently, probably in the Jurassic or later.
Heterospory is linked to
gametophyte unisexuality: megapores
exclusively
produce
female
megagametophytes and microspores
produce male microgametophytes. It results
in obligate intergametophytic outcrossing,
which maintains genetic variations that
provide source of evolution to be selected.
In this aspect, heterospory is more
advantageous than homospory, which allows
intragametophytic selfing, although it is more
disadvantageous in that dispersed spores
singly cannot lead to fertilization and
colonization in a new location. Platyzoma
(Pteridaceae) shows incipient heterospory.
The megaspore is only two times larger than
the microspore, compared to about 10 times
larger megaspores of true heterosporous
pteridophytes. Gametophyte subculture
experiments show that spore dimorphism is
not necessarily linked to gametophyte
unisexuality. It is suggested that the linkage of
7
dioecism and dimorphism of the gametophyte
evolutionarily may have preceded true
heterospory, and sex determination may have
been accelerated from the gametophyte stage
to sporogenesis.
Heterospory is exclusive in aquatic
pteridophytes with an exception of
Selaginella, which might be secondary
terrestrial plants retaining air cavities around
the vascular tissue. Heterosporous plants
likely evolved in, and dominated, tropical
aquatic and amphibious habitats through
most of the Carboniferous. Aquatic
environments are favorable for the release of
spermatozoids, which are produced from
fast-developing, short-lived gametophytes,
and for the consequent aquatic fertilization.
These gametophytes exhibit a very shorter
time lag from spore maturation to fertilization
in, e.g., Marsilea than those of homosporous
ferns. It cannot be ruled out that those
progymnosperms that evolved into seed
plants had been aquatic or amphibious
heterosporous woody pteridophytes. If it is
the case, the early evolution of seed plants
might have been accompanied with habitat
transfer from aquatic to mesic terrestrial
environments.
Prior to fertilization, heterosporous
pteridophytes have to undertake successful
dispersal. Both megaspores and microspores
must be dispersed within short distances to
allow intergametophytic fertilization. This
situation may be achieved by chance or codispersal of both mega- and microspores by
,Vol. 4, No. (1 & 2), 2011
means of the same vector (e.g. birds) and/

or physical connection of microspores on the
megaspore surface before dispersal. This
microspore-on-megaspore connection may
be coined spore-pollination, compared to the
pollen-on-stigma or micropyle pollination in
seed plants. Spore-pollination may happen
between different sporophytes or in the same
sporophyte, and offspring resulting from self
spore-pollination has as low genetic
variability as that from self pollination.
Limited co-dispersal of self-pollinated spores
may promote isolation and speciation. Self
spore-pollination may have a disadvantage
with potential inbreeding depression. This
disadvantage might have been overcome by
gymnosperms with dioecism in the lineage of
lignophytes. Dioecious plants are exclusively
male or female.
8
Hasebe, M.T., P. G. Wolf, K. M. Pryer, K.
Ueda, M. Ito, R. Sano, G. J. Gastony,
J. Yokoyama, J. R. Manhart, N.
Murakami, E. H. Crane, C. H. Haufler
& W. D. Hauk. 1995. Fern phylogeny
based on rbcL nucleotide sequences.
Amer. Fern J. 85: 134-181.
Pryer, K. M., H. Schneider, A. R. Smith,
R. Cranfill, P. G. Wolf, J. S. Hunt & S.
D. Sipes. 2001. Horsetails and ferns
are monophyletic group and the closest
living relatives to seed plants. Nature
409: 618-622.
Pryer, K. M., E. Schuettpelz, P. G. Wolf, H.
Schneider, A. R. Smith & R. Cranfill.
2004. Phylogeny and evolution of ferns
(monilophytes) with a focus on the early
leptosporangiate divergences. Amer. J.
Bot. 91: 1582-1598.
REFERENCES
Bateman, R. M. & W. A. DiMichele. 1994.
Heterospory: the most iterative key
innovation in the evolutionary history of
the plant kingdom. Biol. Rev. 69: 345417.
Hasebe, M., T. Omori, M. Nakazawa, T.
Sano, M. Kato & K. Iwatsuki. 1994.
rbcL gene sequences provide evidence
for the evolutionary lineages of
leptosporangiate ferns. Proc. Natl. Acad.
Sci. USA 91: 5730-5734.
Schneider, H., E. Schuettpelz, K. M. Pryer,

R. Cranfill, S. Magalln & R. Lupia.
2004. Ferns diversified in the shadow of
angiosperms. Nature 428: 554-557.
,Vol. 4, No. (1 & 2), 2011
ISSN : 0972-6446
BIODIVERSITY OF APHIDS (ORDER HEMIPTERA) FROM

AGROECOSYSTEMS OF SATARA DISTRICT.
JADHAV B. V. AND T. V. SATHE
Department of Zoology, Balasaheb Desai College, Patan. - 415206. INDIA
Department of Zoology, Shivaji University, Kolhapur - 416 004. INDIA.
ABSTRACT
Satara district comes under western Maharashtra which is agriculturally very sound
area in India. In Satara district sugarcane, rice, jower, groundnut, maize, wheat, bajari and
vegetables are widely cultivated. However, expected yield of the crops have not achieved so
far, because of the damage caused by insect pests. Aphids are very prominent pests of above
crops in Satara district. Aphids suck the cell sap from the crops, secrete honeydew like substance
on the leaves and other parts and cause sooty moulds over the leaves which affect photosynthesis
and ultimately the yield of the crop. Therefore, biodiversity of aphids from agroecosystems of
Satara district have been studied. The aphid species recorded on various agricultural crops
were found belonging to fifteen genera viz. Aphis, Myzus, Lipaphis, Siphocronye,
Rhopalosiphum, Macrosiphum, Melanophis, Brevicoryne, Toxoptera, Pentalonia,
Hyadophis, Schizaphis, Dactynotus, Tetraneura and Cretovacuna. The most abundant
genera were Aphis, Dactynotus and Myzus and rare genera were Pentalonia and Hyadophis.
INTRODUCTION
Aphids belong to order-Hemiptera
containing 4000 described species all over the
world. In Indian subcontinent 653 species in
198 genera have been recorded of which
about 36 genera and 310 species are endemic.
Aphids are soft bodied, louse like insects,
readily distinguished by rounded form and
paired siphunculus on the abdomen. Aphids
are obligatory parasites of plants. There

notoriety, polyphagous habit and cosmopolitan
distribution have gained world wide
importance. Aphids are readily distinguished
by rounded forms and siphunculus on the
abdomen. They are associated with various
plant species in agro and forest ecosystems.
The aphids suck cell sap from plants, while
doing so they inject toxins into the plant body;
as a result growth of plant is adversely
,Vol. 4, No. (1 & 2), 2011
affected. The aphids are very destructive

insects of several agricultural and forest
plants, hence they have tremendous
economic importance in the integrated pest
management.
In past Basu et al (1975), David
(1969), (Eastop et al (1976), Raychaudhuri
(1980), Ghosh (1969), Ghosh &
Raychaudhuri (1968), Sathe (1992), Jadhav
(2006a, b) etc. have paid attention on the
aphids.
Satara district of Maharashtra has an
area of 10,492 sq.km. Which form a part of
deccan plateau between latitude 170 5' and
180 1' N and longitude 730 33' and 740 74' E.
Satara is bounded by Sangli at southern and
Pune at northern side. Which is subdivided
into eleven tahsils; the tahsil namely Patan,
Satara, Medha, Wai and Mahabaleshwar
comes under hilly region in Western Ghats
while Phaltan, Khatav, Dahiwadi at plane and
dry region. The altitude of Satara district
ranges from 500m to 1700 m from sea level
and average rainfall 600mm to 5000 mm.
Navaja and Mahabaleshwar have average
rainfall is 5000 to 6000 mm. The famous
Koyana dam and Koyana wild life sanctuary
is situated in Western Ghats of Satara
districts.
Satara district comes under western
Maharashtra which is agriculturally very
10
sound area in India. In Satara district
sugarcane, rice, jower, groundnut, maize,
wheat, bajari and vegetables are widely
cultivated. However, expected yield of the
crops have not achieved so far, because of
the damage caused by insect pests. Aphids
are very prominent pests of above crops in
Satara district. Aphids suck the cell sap from
the crops, secrete honeydew like substance
on the leaves and other parts and cause sooty
moulds over the leaves which affect
photosynthesis and ultimately the yield of the
crop. Therefore, biodiversity of aphids from
agro ecosystems of Satara district have been
studied.
MATERIALS AND METHODS

Aphids were collected directly from
the plants with camel hair brush and alate
aphids were trapped in yellow pan water
traps. Sometimes, infested plant parts together
with the aphids were collected in polythene
bag. The insects thus collected were put into
70% ethyl alcohol in small specimen tubes (45
cm X 2.7 cm). Later, microscopic studies
were carried out for their identification. The
twigs of the host plants have been collected
for identification.
,Vol. 4, No. (1 & 2), 2011
11
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

TABLE 1. Aphids recorded on Agro ecosystems of Satara district
Sr. No.
Aphids
1
Aphis craccivora Koch.
Myzus persicae Sulzer
Lipaphis erysini Kaltenbach
Siphocronye brassicae Linn.
2
Aphis gossypii Glover
Rhopalosiphum maidis Fitch
Aphis craccivora Koch
Aphis craccivora Koch
3
Plants
Oil seed crops :
Ground nut Arachis hypogae Linn.
Mustard - Brassica campestris Var.
Sunflower Helianthus annus Linn.

Pulse crops :
Pigeon pea Cajanus cajan Mill.
Bean - Dolichos labeab Linn.
Cow pea Vigna catjang Walp.
Pea Pisum sativum Linn.
Mung Phaseolus radiatus Linn
Gram Cicer aeriatum Linn.
Cereal crops :Jowar Sorghum vulgare Pers.

Melanophis sacchart Zehntner
Maize Zea mays Linn.
Wheat Triticum vulgare Linn.
Macrosiphum granarium Kby
Tetraneura radicicola
Paddy Oryza sativa Linn.
Rhopalosiphum padi Linn.
Rhopalosiphum rufiabdominalis
,Vol. 4, No. (1 & 2), 2011
Sr. No.
Aphids
4
Aphis malvae Koch.
5
Lipaphis erysini Kattenbuch
Bravicornyes brassicae Linn.
Lipaphis erysini Kattenbuch
Dactynotus carthemi HRL
6
Plants
Summer vegetables :Brinjal Solanum melongena Linn.
Cucumber Cucumis sativum Linn.
Chillies Capsicum annum Linn.
Winter vegetables :
Cabbage Brassica capitata Linn.
Cauliflower Brassica botrytis Linn.

Sapflower - Canthamus tinctorium

Myzus persicae. Sulzer
Hyadaphis coriandri Das
Spring vegetables
Tomato Lycopersicon esculeatum Mill.
Carrot Dancus carrota Linn.
Coriander - Coriandrum sativum
Potato - Solanum tuberosum
Cretovacuna lanigera Zehnt.
Sugarcane - Saccharum officinalis
8
Aphis fabae Glover
Toxoptera aurantii Boyer
Toxoptera aurantii Boy.
Pentalonia nigronervosa Coq.
9
12

Macrosiphum rosae
Fruit plants:Mango Mangifera indica Linn.

Citrus Citrus limetta Linn.
Guava Pisidium guajava Linn.
Bannana - Musa paradisica
Ornamental plants :Rose Rose multiform Thumb
China rose Hibiscus rosa- sinensis Linn
Bryophylum - .Bryphyllum pinnatum
,Vol. 4, No. (1 & 2), 2011
Ceratovacuna lanigera is widely

distributed in plain region on sugarcane and
causes tremendous damage of sugarcanes
form Western Maharashtra. N. caganae was
abundant on Cajanus cajan in plain region
of western Maharashtra in cold season. The
most prevalent species of aphids found on
vegetables in plain region were as Aphis
gossypii, M. persicae, Lipaphis erysimi and
Bravicornyes brassicae. Aphis gossypii was
abundant in cold season on ornamental plants
like rose and China rose.
In present ecosystem Aphis gossypii
was highly polyphagus on plants more than
sixty families of plants kingdom have been
attacked by this species. The second dominant
species of aphids found in agro ecosystem was
Aphis craccivora, this species attacked the
members of thirteen families of plant kingdom.
The above two species migrated from plain
region to forest region after harvest of
monsoon crops and again after onset of
monsoon, they returned to plain region. The
migratory behavior of many aphids species is
unknown and needs attention.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Authors are thankful to Shivaji
University, Kolhapur for providing the
facilities. First author thankful to Dr. H. D.
Shalgaonkar, Principal, Balasaheb Desai
College, Patan for inspiration and cooperation.
13
REFERENCES
1. Basu, R. C., Ghosh, M. R., & Raychaudhari
D. N. 1975. Studies on the aphids
(Homoptera: Aphididae) from eastern
India. VIII. New records of aphids
from Assam. Sci. Cult. 40: 41 423.
2. David, S. K. 1969. Some rare aphids in
new regions in India. J. Bombay nat.
Hist. Soc.. 66 : 323 326.
3. Eastop, V. F. & D. Hill Rislambers 1976.
Survey of worlds aphids. 1- 573
4. Ghosh, A. K. 1969. On a collection of
aphid (homoptera : Aphididae) from
India. Orient Ins. 8 : 425 432.
5. Ghosh, A. K. & Raychaudhari, D. N.
1968. Two new records of aphids
(homoptera : Aphididae) from India.
Bult. Ent. 9 : 147 148.
6. Jadhav, B. V. & T. V. Sathe, 2006.
Biodiversity of Aphids (Hemiptera)
from Satara district of Western Ghats.
Indian J. Env. & Ecop. 12(1), 237240.
7. Jadhav, B. V. & T. V. Sathe, 2006.
Biodiversity of Aphids (Hemiptera)
from Poona district of Western Ghats.
J. Adv. Zool. 21. 32- 35.
8. Raychaudhuri, D. N. 1980. Aphids of
North- East India and Bhutan. Zool.
Sur. India. pp. 1- 459.
9. Sathe, T. V. 1992. Fauna of Aphids on
plants of economic importance found
in Western Maharashtra, India. J.
Curr. Biosci. 9: 27 31.
,Vol. 4, No. (1 & 2), 2011
ISSN : 0972-6446
14
Fodder Legume Diversity for Cattles in the

Upper Brahmaputra Valley Zone, Assam
Arunima Das Hazarika 1, I.C. Barua 2 and P.K. Boruah 3
1. J.B.College, Jorhat;
2. Assam Agricultural University, Jorhat;
3. Dibrugarh University, Dibrugarh
ABSTRACT
It has been found that in the upper Brahmaputra Valley zone of Assam there are as
many as 60 number of leguminous species of fodder plants. Out of these, 51 % species are top
feeds embracing 17 trees, 10 vines and 7 lianes. These leguminous fodder plants supplement,
mostly the nitrogenous compounds in the feed of the ruminants. A review of chemical constituents
proved the superiority of top feeds over the herbaceous leguminous crops.
Key words : Leguminous fodder; Cattles; Assam.
INTRODUCTION
Leguminous plants are considered as
one of the most important forage supplements
for the large ruminants mostly for their role in
significant increase in milk production. The
palatable and proteinacious, leguminous
fodder crops, also play pivotal role in animal
production system (Rajasree & Raghavan
Pillai, 2001). With specific reference to their
value in animal feeding, the advantages include
inter alia: availability in the farm; accessibility;
provision of variety in the diet; source of
dietary nitrogen, energy, minerals and vitamins;
laxative influence on the alimentary system;
reduction in the requirement for perchance
concentrates; and reduced cost of feeding

(Devendra, 1991). As one of the bio-diversity
hot spots of the world, eastern Himalaya
possesses a wide range of genetic diversity of
leguminous plants. The Brahmaputra valley,
which is situated in the transitional belt between
the eastern Himalaya biozone and North East
Indian biozone, constitutes the valley region
and possesses several low altitude niches
under a variety of habitats to hold good both
indigenous and migratory plant species.
Hence, the present study has been undertaken
to explore the diversity of leguminous plants
available in this regions, more particularly in
the upper Brahmaputra valley Agro-climatic
zone, which can be utilized for the locally
,Vol. 4, No. (1 & 2), 2011
available cattle as fodder supplements.

Buffaloes, cows and goats are the most
common cattle in this region, which are mostly
dependent on naturally occurring forage
plants. As per an assessment of the
Government of Assam (Anonymous, 200809) the milk availability in Assam is still 76 ml/
head/day against the requirement of 208 ml/
head/day, and that indicated the need of
exploration and value addition to more and
more cattle-feed plants for increase in milk
production. The present investigation,
therefore, will open up the possibilities of
farther value addition of the leguminous feedplants for supplementing nitrogenous
compounds to these ruminants.

The upper Brahamaputra valley zone
(26 01 to 280 18/ N latitude and 930 17/ to 960
E longitude), constituted by Tinsukia,
Dibrugarh, Sibsagar, Jorhat and Golaghat
districts have been surveyed since 2005.
Plants samples have been collected by
following taxonomical sampling methods and
identified with the help of local floras and
herbaria of national repute. Along with the tree
leaves, the leaves of vines and lianas that
climbing on the canopy of large trees have also
been considered as top feeds in the
discussion.
0
15
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

The Indian Grassland and Fodder
Research Institute, Jhansi, and the Agricultural
Universities of the country, several exotic and
indigenous fodder trees and shrubs have
introduced in India during and after 1970s.
The most promising exotic leguminous species
are Leucaena latisiliqua (L.) Gillis and
Acacia tortilis (Forssk.) Hayne. The
indigenous introductions are Acacia nilotica
(L.) Delile, Albizia amara (Roxb.) Boivin,
Albizia lebbek (L.) Benth., Albizia procera
(Roxb.) Benth., Dalbergia sissoo DC. and
Sesbania sesban (L.) Merr. Some of these
species have also been successfully
propagated in silvipastoral and agroforestry
systems (Patil et al., 1979; Pathak et al.,
1981). Tree leaves are commonly referred to
as top feeds and are often considered as
emergency livestock fodder. They contribute
to the staple feeds of small and large ruminants
in India. These feeds are particularly valuable
for goats, whose population in India ranks first
in the world. For the goats, shrubs and tree
fodders contribute more than 60 per cent of
total feed (Raghaban, 1990).
The present investigation has revealed
as many as 60 leguminous species having
fodder potentiality in the upper Brahmaputra
valley zone of Assam (Table-1); out of which
51 per cent species were top feeds embracing
17 trees, 10 vines and 7 lianas (Fig.-1).
,Vol. 4, No. (1 & 2), 2011
16
Fig. 1. Status of leguminous plants in the upper Brahmaputra valley zone of Assam.
Fig. 2. Average yield of crude protein (CP), ether extracts (EE), crude fibre (CF), N-free
extract (NFE) and ash (in percentage) by some leguminous fodders of Assam (Ref. Table-2)
,Vol. 4, No. (1 & 2), 2011
17
TABLE-1
List of fodder legumes of the upper Brahmaputra valley zone of Assam
Species
1
Tree Shrub/ Herb Vines Liana

undershrub
2
3
4
5
6
Assamese name
7
Fabaceae
Arachis hypogaea L.
P
China Badam
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Butea monosperma (Lam.) Taub.
Palas
_____________________________________________________________________________________
P
Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp.
Raharmah; Landu
_____________________________________________________________________________________
P
Clitoria
mariana
L.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
P
Clitoria ternatea L.
Aparajita
_____________________________________________________________________________________
P
Codariocalyx motorius (Houtt.) H.
P
Bon-chandan
Ohashi
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Crotalaria juncea L.
Ausa
_____________________________________________________________________________________
P
Crotalaria spectabilis Roth
Ghantakarna
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Crotalaria pallida Ait.
Jhunjhuni
_____________________________________________________________________________________
P
Dalbergia lanceolaria L.f. var.
Mouhita
P
assamica
(Benth.)
Thoth.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Dalbergia sissoo DC.
Sisu
_____________________________________________________________________________________
P
Derris elliptica (Wall.) Benth.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
P Mokoi-sopa
Desmodium triangulare (Retz.)
P
Schindl. subsp. cephalotoides
Bon-landu
(Craib.) H. Ohashi
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Desmodium gangeticum (L.) DC.
Biyoni-haputa
_____________________________________________________________________________________
P
Desmodium triflorum (L.) DC.
P
Ulucha-bon
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Erythrina
stricta
Roxb.
Modar
_____________________________________________________________________________________
P
Erythrina variegata L.
Ronga-modar
_____________________________________________________________________________________
P
Flemingia macrophylla (Willd) O.
P
Kuntze ex Merr.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Flemingia strobilifera (L.) W. T.
Makhioti
P
Aiton
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Glycine max (L.) Merr.
P
Soybean
_____________________________________________________________________________________
P
Indigofera tinctoria L.
Nilgash
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Lablab
purpureus
(L.)
Sweet
Urohi
_____________________________________________________________________________________
P
Lathyrus sativus L.
Khesari
,Vol. 4, No. (1 & 2), 2011
18
2
Lens culinaris Medik.

Mosur
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Macrotyloma uniflorum (Lam.)
Kulthi-mah
Verdc.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Medicago sativa L.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Melilotus albus Medik.
Boga bon-methi
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Melilotus indicus (L.) All.
Bon-methi
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Milletia
pachycarpa
Benth.
Bokol-bih
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Mucuna bracteata Kurz
Bandar-kekua
_____________________________________________________________________________________
P
Phaseolus lunatus L.
Kotari-dobua-mah
_____________________________________________________________________________________
P
Pisum arvense L.
P
Motor-mah
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Pisum
sativum
L.
P
Motor-mah
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Psophocarpous tetragonolobus
Sari-hiria urohi
P
(L.) DC
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Sesbania sesban (L.) Merr.
Jayanti
_____________________________________________________________________________________
P
Sesbania
grandiflora
(L.)
Poir.
Bok-phul
_____________________________________________________________________________________
P
Spatholobus parviflorus (Roxb. ex
P Hati-bandha-lota
DC) Kuntze
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Tadehagi triquetrum (L.) H.
Ulucha
P
Ohashi
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Trifolium repens L.
P
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Trigonella foenum-graecum L.
P
Methi-sak
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Vicia sativa L.
P
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Vigna
mungo
(L.)
Hepper.
P
Matimah
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Vigna radiata (L.) R. Wilczek
P
Mogumah
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Vigna umbellata (Thunb.) Ohwi et
Bejia-mah
P
H. Ohashi
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp.
Lesera-mah,
P
subsp. cylindrica (L.) Verdc.
Dangbodi
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp.
Lesera-mah,
P
subsp. sesquipedalis (L.) Verdc.
Dangbodi
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Caesalpiniaceae
Bauhinia acuminata L.
Boga-kanchan
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
P
Bauhinia
purpurea
L.
Ronga-kanchan
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
P
Bauhinia vahlii Wight & Arn.
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
P Lota-Bhatghila
Bauhinia variegata L.
Boga-kanchan
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
P
Tamarindus indica L.
Teteli
P
,Vol. 4, No. (1 & 2), 2011
19
Mimosaceae
Acasia
Acacia auriculoformis A Cunn. ex P
Benth.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Khayer
Acacia catechu (L. f.) Willd.
P
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Kothia-koroi
Albizia lebbeck (L.) Benth.
P
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Lau-khuri
Albizia procera (Roxb.) Benth.
P
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Leucaena latisiliqua (L.) Gillis
P
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Lota-nilaji
Mimosa diplotricha C. Wight ex
P
Sauvalle var. inermis (Adelb.)
Veldkamp
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Prosopis cineraria (L.) Druce
P
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Dooli-gosh
Samanea saman (Jacq.) Merr.
P
Caesalpiniaceae Boga-kanchan
Fabaceae
Mimosaceae
Bauhinia variegata L.
Dalbergia sissoo Roxb.
Leucaena latisiliqua (L.)
Fabaceae
Fabaceae
Tamaridus indica L.
Vigna umbellata (Thunb.)
Lesera mah
Bejia-mah
Teteli
Motor mah
Subabool
Sisu
* Source: Deb Roy et al., 1980; Ranjhan, 1991; Anonymous, 2004.
Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp. Fabaceae
Ohwi et H. Ohashi
Fabaceae
Pisum sativum L.
Gillis
Fabaceae
Arachis hypogaea L.
China badam
Kothia-koroi
Mimosaceae
Albizia lebbeck (L.) Benth

15.0
31.7
13.0
Cow pea
Rice bean
Tamarind
Pea
Subabool
Shisham
18.2
16.5
13.4
16.7
16.7
9.60
Mountain ebony 15.7
Peanut
Siris
Black cutch
2.6
2.2
2.4
7.1
3.2
1.8
2.9
3.7
4.6
25.3
26.5
17.7
22.6
12.6
27.7
31.9
27.6
31.4
22.6
39.6
38.9
52.4
54.4
51.1
48.8
40.8
43.8
36.1
51.0
14.2
15.8
9.5
3.9
12.5
10.8
9.7
10.8
9.3
9.8
Assamese name English name CP % EE % CF % NFE % Ash

Khoer
Family
Acacia catechu (L. f.) Willd. Mimosaceae
Species
extract (NFE) and ash by some leguminous fodders of Assam*.
TABLE 2. Potentiality of yielding crude protein (CP), ether extracts (EE), crude fibre (CF), N-free
,Vol. 4, No. (1 & 2), 2011
20
,Vol. 4, No. (1 & 2), 2011
Review of chemical constituents of

certain commonly cultivated leguminous crop
revealed that the average percentage of crude
protein was 16.7 % (Fig.-2). However, it was
as high as 31.7 percent in Albizia lebbeck;
31 to nearly 32 % crude fibre was obtained
from Albizia lebbeck and Bauhinia
variegata, and above 50 % N-free extract
was obtained from trees like Acacia catechu
(L.f.) Willd., Leucaena latisiliqua,
Tamaridus indica L. except the herbaceous
crop Pisum sativum L. (Table-2) and thus
proved the superiority of top feeds over the
herbaceous leguminous crops. In general
leguminous trees have higher crude protein
content than the non-leguminous ones, grasses
and most of the cultivated fodders. However
their crude fibre levels were comparatively low
(Barbind et al., 1994; Saha et al., 1997; Datt
et al., 2008). Calcium content of tree leaves
is 2-3 times more than that of cultivated
fodders or grasses, while the tree leaves are
low in phosphorus (Raghaban, 1991). The
higher calcium content of tree leaves is of no
value without phosphorus supplementation
when feeding sheep and goats (Singh 1981).
The study reveals that the cattle in this
region mostly thrive on the following:
1. Grazing in lawns, road sides, forest edges,
and as well as in rice fallow fields.
2. As there is practically no typical waste
land, cattle also used to graze in the river
beds and along the banks of beels the
21
perennial water bodies typical to this
region.
3. Feeding at home by bringing grass after
cutting from the fields. In rice cropping
period the weeded out herbs from crop
field areas are also used for feeding the
ruminants.
4. Tree leaves are often been collected for
feeding mainly in the rice cropping period.
5. Horticultural crop waste and kitchen waste
are usually fed along with rice straws that constituted the usual feeding regime
in the villages.
6. Agricultural byproducts like oil cakes,
rice-brans, grain-grit etc. could also be
categorized as conventional food.
7. Cultivated green fodder has also gained
popularity in this region in a slower rate.
In grazing areas, the small herbaceous
legume species belonging to Desmodium and
Crotalaria have been recorded as of common
occurrence in this region. Cut grasses as well
as collection of weeds as feed often included
Desmodium triflorum (L.) DC., Lathyrus
aphaca L., Medicago sativa L., Melilotus
albus Medic., Melilotus indicus (L.) All.,
Vicia sativa L., etc. Leaves of Acacia
auriculiformis A.Cunn. ex Benth., Albizia
lebbek, A. procera, Bauhinia acuminata L.,
Butea monosperma (Lam.) Taub.,
Crotalaria juncea L., Dalbergia sissoo,
Samanea saman (Jacq.) Merr., Tamarindus
indica, etc. are often fed at home. Agricultural
,Vol. 4, No. (1 & 2), 2011
and kitchen wastes usually included Lablab

purpureus (L.) Sweet, Pisum sativum ,
Psophocarpous tetragonolobus (L.) DC.,
Trigonella foenum-graecum L., Vigna spp.,
along with several crop associated weeds like
species belonging to Lathyrus, Vicia, Vigna,
etc. Mimosa diplotricha C. Wight ex Sauvalle
var. inermis (Adelb.) Veldkamp, though
poisonous and show Mimosine toxicity in
cows when fed afresh, has been found to be
used as a feed plant mixing with other plants
in sugarcane growing areas particularly in the
kharif season, as there was extreme scarcity
of grazing area and conventional fodder plants
during this time because of occupancy of land
by sugarcane, transplanted rice and other
crops. Cultivation of Leucaena, Prosopis,
Crotalaria, Sesbania, etc. has been practiced
in very small pockets, mostly under agricultural
and veterinary extension programme. These
species have some other advantages such as
greater persistence and drought resistance.
However, it is worth mentioning that the cattle
of this region, more particularly the cows, are
very fond of some wild legumes that grow in
forest edges, road-side areas, lawns,
homestead woodlands and bamboo grooves
like Clitoria mariana L., Erythrina stricta
Roxb., E. variegata L., Mucuna bracteata
Kurz., etc. (Table 1). Inclusion of leguminous
crops in the conventional cropping systems
as well as conservation of natural habitat of
wild leguminous plants, is therefore, needed
22
more attention for enhancement of fodder
quality for the ruminants.
REFERENCES
Anonymous (2004). Forage Research in
Assam. Assam Agricultural University,
Jorhat.
Anonymous (2008-09). Report of integrated
sample survey for production of milk,
egg and meat. Department of Animal
Husbadary & Veterinary, Government
of Assam.
Barbind R. P., Waghmare, P. S., & Patel, P.
M. (1994). Nutritive value of some
top feeds and cultivated fodders.
Indian Journal of Animal Nutrition
10: 59-61.
Datt, C., Dutta, M. & Singh, N. P. (2008).
Assessment of fodder quality of
leaves of multipurpose trees in subtropical humid climate of India.
Journal of Forestry Research 19(3):
209-214.
Deb Roy, R., Shankaranarayana, K.A.,
Pathak, P.S. (1980). Fodder trees
and their importance in India. Indian
Forester 106: 306-311.
,Vol. 4, No. (1 & 2), 2011
Devendra, C. (1991). Nutritional potential of

fodder trees and shrubs as protein
sources in ruminant nutrition. In FAO
Expert Consultation on Legume
Trees and other Fodder Tees as
Protein Sources for Livestock, held
at Malaysian Agricultural Research
and Development Institute, Kuala
Lumpur, on 14-18th October, 1991.
pp. 95-113.
Pathak, P.S., Gupta, S.K., Deb Roy, R.
(1981). Production of aerial biomass
in Leucaena leucocephala. Indian
Forester 107: 416-419.
Patil, B.D., Deb Roy, R., Pathak, P.S. (1979).
Agroforestry problem analysis,
potentialities and its projected
research and development with
special reference to the IndoGangetic plains in India. In
Proceedings of the International
Agroforestry Conference, Imphal,
India. Indian Council of Agricultural
Research, New Delhi, India. pp. 110.
Raghavan, G. V. (1990). Availability and use
of shrubs and tree fodders in India.
In Shrubs and Tree Fodders for
Farm Animals. (Edt. Devendra, C.).
International Development Research
Centre, Canada. pp. 196-210.
23
Rajasree, G. & Raghavan Pillai, G. (2001).
Performance of fodder legumes under
lime and phosphorus nutrition in
summer rice fallows. Journal Trop.
Agriculture 39: 67-70
Ranjhan, S. K. (1991). Chemical composition
and nutritive value of Indian feeds and
feeding of farm animals. Indian
Council of Agricultural Research,
New Delhi, India.
Saha, R. C., Singh, R. B., Saha, R. N. &
Choudhary, A. B. (1997). Feed
Production and Milk Production in
the Eastern Region. National Dairy
Research Institute, Karnal, India.
Singh, N.D. (1981). Utilization of top feeds
for sheep and goats. In Proceedings
of the National Seminar on Sheep
and Goat Production. Central
Sheep and Wool Research Institute,
Avikanagar, India. pp. 1-16.
,Vol. 4, No. (1 & 2), 2011
ISSN : 0972-6446
24
ENVIRONMENTAL ACID STRESS IN A HILL STREAM FISH,

DEVARIO AEQUIPINNATUS : A SCANNING ELECTRON
MICROSCOPIC EVALUATION
SUDIP DEY 1* and SARAH M KHARBULI2
1
Electron Microscopy Division,

North-Eastern Hill University,
Shillong-793022
2
Department of Pisciculture, St. Anthonys College, Shillong-793001
*Address for correspondence:sudipdeyrsic@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
The hill stream fish, Devario aequipinnatus inhabiting small water courses in the state
of Meghalaya and adjacent area experiences severe environmental stress due to the acidic PH
(5.5-6) of water in its natural habitat. This is reflected in the gradual population decline, stunted
growth and reproductive inefficiency of the fish during the last few years. Scanning Electron
Microscopic (SEM) studies on some vital tissues of the fish revealed a number of abnormalities
at surface ultra-structural level. The abnormalities however could be overcome by culturing the
fish fingerlings in water with neutral PH . The abnormal ultra-structural features of some vital
tissues in response to acidic water PH and the adverse effects of these on the physiology of the
fish is discussed with the help of relevant literature.
Key words : Acid stress, SEM, Environment, Fish, hill stream
INTRODUCTION
Water analysis of the natural habitat
of the hill stream fish, Devario aequipinnatus
revealed that the the PH of the system ranges
between 5.5 -6(Kharbuli, 2005). This
suggests that one of the major stresses
experienced by the fish is the acidic PH of
water. It has been reported that acidification
of water significantly affects the growth of fish.

The acidic PH of water is known to cause
distortion in the fish population dynamics by a
high rate of mortality during early as well as
late stages in the life history (Peterson et al.,
1982; Barlaup et al., 1989). Experimental
studies by some authors have also confirmed
the relation between low water PH and
retardation in growth and reproduction in fish
,Vol. 4, No. (1 & 2), 2011
(Atland and Barlaup, 1991; Feng and Knight,

1994). Bio-accumulation of certain heavy
metals in some aquatic insects has been
reported to be affected by acidic PH of water
(Odin et al., 1995). Absorption and deposition
of certain pesticide residues have also been
reported to be favored by low water PH (Dey,
2002). Acidic PH of water has been found to
cause disturbances in cellular features and
elemental homeostasis in the integument of
some fresh water fish (Dey et al., 2002). In
the hill stream fish Devario aequipinnatus,
acidic water PH has been reported to have
adverse affects on sperm development (Dey
et al., 2009). Keeping these in view, a study
has been carried out on some vital tissues, eg.
Gill and muscle of Devario aequipinnatus, a
hill stream fish of Meghalaya to examine the
possible adverse affects of acidic water PH
on them.

Fish samples: The fish samples were
collected from Sumer stream, Mawkynroh
stream and Umroi stream situated in and
around Shillong, the capital city of Meghalaya,
a North-East Indian state.
Experimental design: Two groups of ten
individual juvenile fish each were reared in two
separate aquariums with water collected from
25
natural habitat. The water PH in one aquarium
was acidic (5.5-6), as the water from the
natural habitat was used in this. The water in
the other aquarium was maintained at neutral
PH by addition of lime (Barlaup et al., 1989)
to the water collected from the natural
habitat. The juveniles were reared in the
aquarium till maturity.
The fish from both acidic and neutral
PH group were anesthetized by exposing them
to a freshly prepared solution of Tricane
methane sulphonate in water to a final
concentration of 1:4000(McFarland and
Klontz, 1969).Muscle and gill were then
excised from the fish and were processed for
Scanning Electron Microscopy.
Scanning Electron Microscopy: The
samples were cut into small pieces of
approximately 2mmx2mm in size and were
fixed in modified Karnovskys fixative having
the composition of 250 ml of 0.2M Sodium
Cacodylate buffer, 20gm of Para
formaldehyde dissolved in it at 60C, bringing
the volume to 480ml by double distilled water.
To this 20ml of 25% gluteraldehyde and 12.5g
of anhydrous Calcium chloride was added.
After 4 hours in the above primary fixative,
the samples were washed thoroughly in 0.1M
Sodium Cacodylate buffer and post-fixed in
1%Osmium tetroxide (prepared in the same
buffer) for 1hour at 4C.Samples were then
dehydrated in ascending grades of acetone
with two changes of 15 minutes each and were
dried in Tetra methyl silane(TMS) following
,Vol. 4, No. (1 & 2), 2011
the method of Dey et al.(1989).The dry

samples were secured horizontally to brass
stubs by electro conductive paint, and were
coated with gold-palladium in a Fine coat
Ion sputter, JFC-1100(JEOL). The samples
were viewed in JSM 35 CF (JEOL)
Scanning Electron Microscope at an
accelerating voltage of 15 Kv. Tilt control was
fixed at 0 for setting the specimen stage in a
horizontal position.
26
Gill: The surface features of the gill apparatus
of the fish grown in acidic PH of its natural
habitat exhibited many abnormal features. The
gill arch was found to be larger in width
(30m) as compared to that of fish grown in
neutral water PH (20m). Besides this, lesions
of varying size, shrinkage , fusion and
breakage of gill lamella was evident at
places(Fig.4).In contrast ,the gill of fish grown
at neutral water PH in the aquarium did not
exhibit shrinkage ,lesions, fusion or any other
abnormality (Fig.5).
RESULTS
Muscle: The Scanning Electron Microscopy
of the transverse section of trunk muscles of
Devario aequipinnatus grown in acidic PH
of its natural habitat and also raised in aquarium
at low PH of water revealed certain abnormal
features. These include breakage and
distortion of individual fibers at places,
shrinkage of some of them and a remarkable
loss of wavy nature in many muscle fibers. In
contrast, the muscle of the fish reared at neutral
water PH of aquariums exhibited normal
structural features. There was no shrinkage
of the muscle fibers and the normal alignment
as well as the characteristic wavy nature of
the muscle was retained (Fig.1).Under
experimental condition of low PH the extent
of breakage and distortion of muscles,
shrinkage ,loss of wavy nature etc. were found
to vary considerably depending upon the
duration of exposure (Figs.2,3).
DISCUSSION
Teleost fish are known to develop
different types of muscles which perform a
variety of functions including the contractility.
The swimming pattern and the normal
movement of fish are determined by their
musculature. Hence it is quite likely that any
abnormality in the structure of the muscle fiber
will reflect abnormal biochemical phenomena
leading to adverse affect on muscle function.
In our present study, the occurrence of
breakage, distortion, shrinkage, loss of wavy
nature etc. in the muscle of fish grown at acidic
PH suggests abnormal functioning of muscle
in the fish due to environmental acid stress.
Although it is not known clearly why
the acidic PH of water causes several
abnormalities in fish including retardation of
,Vol. 4, No. (1 & 2), 2011
growth and high mortality (Rosseland et al.,

1980; Peterson et al., 1982; Barlaup et al.,
1989; Atland and Barlaup, 1991),
disturbances of the ionic balance is considered
to be one of the physiological responses
shown by fish exposed to water having an
acidic pH (Muniz and Leivstad,1980; Leivstad
et al., 1980). In this context, it is to be noted
that the properties of the inward Sodium and
outward Potassium currents were found to
permit high frequency firing in response to a
pulsatile depolarizing input of the kind
expected in fast swimming zebra fish
(Buckingham and Ali, 2004). Low PH of
water is known to cause a reduction in the
level of Calcium in water available to the
aquatic biota (Barlaup et al., 1989). The
change in homeostasis of Calcium has
significant impact on muscular function since
the element is known to play important role in
controlling muscle triggering involving
actomyosins (Williams, 1990) . The Calcium
network is intimately associated with
Phosphate reaction eg., pumps and enzymes
of Phosphate metabolism and then to Na +,
K+, Mg2+, H+ states (Williams, 1990) A study
carried out in our laboratory revealed several
abnormalities in the elemental profile of muscle
of some fish in response to acidic PH of water
(Dey, 2002). The higher concentration of Zinc
in low PH group of fish (Dey, 2002) indicates
an abnormally enhanced activity of the
enzymes responsible for collagen hydrolysis
in fish exposed to acidic PH of water. The
27
loss of wavy nature of the fibers, distortion at
places, and loss of alignments etc. in the muscle
of D. aequipinnatus exposed to acidic PH
of water in our present study suggests that
the abnormal structural features are the
results of disturbances in elemental
homeostasis leading to adverse effects in
enzyme system associated with collagen
metabolism.
In this context it is to be noted that
acidic PH of water has been reported to affect
the fish growth adversely (Barlaup et al.,
1989). Further, muscular structure, function
and physiology are reported to be extremely
important in determining the growth of fish
(Weatherly, 1990; Rrowlerson and Veggetti,
2001).
Although intrinsic factors such as
degree of ploidy (Suresh and heehan, 1998)
and strain dependant genomic differences
(Valente et al., 1999; Johnston et al., 2000
a,b,c) , appear to play important role in muscle
development, perhaps the extrinsic
environmental factors including oxygen
availability(Matchak et al., 1995), diet (AlamiDurante et al., 1997; Galloway et al., 1999),
exercise(Sanger, 1992) and ambient
temperature (Johnston et al., 1998) are the
most important factor in this regard.
Our present observations on the ultrastructural abnormalities on the muscles in
response to acidic PH ,and the earlier studies
from our laboratory(Dey, 2002) showing the
disturbances in elemental homeostasis
,Vol. 4, No. (1 & 2), 2011
resulting in possible abnormalities of enzymes

associated with collagen metabolism suggests
that besides temperature ,PH of water is an
important factor in governing the fish muscle
growth and development.
The occasional fusion of secondary
lamellae of the gill observed in the present
study is likely to reduce the surface area for
gaseous exchange as suggested by others in
different stress conditions experienced by
some fish (Hemalatha and Banerjee, 1997).
The increased thickness of the gill
arches observed in acid-stressed
D.aequipinnatus can increase the diffusion
distance between the ambient and vascular
components (Hemalatha and Banerjee,
1997). The extensive lamellar edema
observed in the study also causes the changes
in the permeability at tissue level. The lamellar
changes observed in the fish in response to
acid stress increases diffusional resistance
which is regarded as the major limiting factor
for gas exchange across the gills (Tuurala,
1981).
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Acidificationeffects on fresh water fish.In:
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Odin, M., Feurtet-Mazel, A., Ribeyre, F.,
Boudon, A.(1995): Temperature, PH and
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and Garside, E.T. (1982): Reproduction in
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D. and Muniz,T.P.(1980):Studies on
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E.F.S., Silva, M.W., Oliveria, M.H.,
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,Vol. 4, No. (1 & 2), 2011
ISSN : 0972-6446
31
SUSTAINABLE MANAGEMENT OF DEGRADED JHUM FALLOW

THROUGH PLANTATION OF THYSANOLAENA MAXIMA (ROXB.) O. KTZE
(BROOM GRASS) IN DIFFERENT SPACING TRIAL
KUNTALA. N. BARUA, INDRANI P.BORA and ARUNDHATI BARUAH

Rain Forest Research Institute, Jorhat
ABSTRACT
Shifting cultivation (Jhum) is a traditional and cultural integrated form of agricultural
system now considered as a major cause of environmental degradation having a disastrous
impact on the ecology. It is blamed as the causal factor of deforestation, loss of biodiversity, soil
erosion, lowering productivity, depletion of soil fertility and finally deepening impoverishment of
jhum dependent communities. Rehabilitation of such degraded shifting cultivation land through
plantation of non timber forest produce like broom grass is a means of sustainable land
management. This grass is considered as multipurpose, non-perishable cash crop that can
withstand a wide range of agro-climatic conditions. Present study revealed better performance
of growth in cultivation of broom grass in 2.5m spacing trial while highest yield was recorded in
2m spacing. From the study conducted in two successive years it was observed that the
production of brooms was significantly high in selected individuals than the locally available
plants. Cultivation of selected varieties of broom grass for two consecutive years contributes a
profit of Rs. 8200/- per hectare.
Key words : Fallow management, Thysanolaena maxima (Roxb.) O. Ktze (Broom grass),
Spacing trial.
INTRODUCTION
Shifting cultivation is a viable system
of agriculture as long as population densities
are low and jhum cycles are long enough to
maintain soil fertility (Anon, 1992). The
repeated use of land with short jhum cycle
today finally converts the jhum fallows into
degraded lands. Now, it is blamed as the
causal factor of most serious challenges
including deforestation, loss of biodiversity, soil

erosion, lowering productivity, depletion of soil
fertility and finally deepening impoverishment
of jhum dependent communities. It was
estimated that in Northeastern hilly region,
about 25,6083 sq. km. area (altogether 33
districts) was affected by jhum which on
account for 7.76% of the countries total
geographical area. With the increasing
ecological awareness, plantations have been
,Vol. 4, No. (1 & 2), 2011
emphasized for the reclamation of degraded

lands. Planting of non timber forest produce
(NTFP) can be a means of sustainable land
management for reclamation of such land.
Broom grass (Thysanolaena
maxima) (Roxb.) O. Ktze is one of such
NTFP species that are directly useful to the
mankind and can form the basis of economic
upliftment of rural areas where land
degradation and depletion of forest wealth
takes place at a faster pace (Palni et al, 1994
and Barik et al 1996). It is a tall, perennial
rhizomatous ornamental grass of North
American nativity. It has solid, smooth and
rounded culms and huge, drooping foxtail-like
terminal inflorescence. This grass is considered
as multipurpose, non-perishable cash crop that
can withstand in harsh environmental
conditions and can grow in steep rocky
mountain slopes, shallow soil, drought and high
rainfall conditions. Hence, it is suitable to
cultivate on wastelands as well as in undulating
landscape of degraded jhum fallow to arrest
environmental degradation. Broom grass
grows naturally in degraded forests and
abandoned wastelands of the hilly regions of
northeast India and demand and supply of the
broomstick has been fulfilled only from this
natural stock. Therefore, the growing stock
of broom grass in natural state has been
depleting in faster rate. Plants could be
propagated through rhizomes easily during
winter and early summer months. Seeds had
the potential for large- scale propagation,
either through simple conventional method
(seed dispersal) or with the help of a micro-
32
propagation protocol. Singh et al (1989)
recorded conservation value (CV) of 53.1%
and 58.0% were for water runoff and soil loss,
respectively.
In view of its multiple uses, high
economic return with minimum input and
availability of large area of degraded jhum land
its cultivation has a high potential to uplift the
socio-economic conditions of jhumias. Their
cultivation is site specific; therefore, selection
of a suitable species is very important from
ecological and economic point of view. The
yield of broom mainly depends upon the
quality of planting material, type of land and
cultural practices adopted. They stated by
following the appropriate strategy to enhance
the productivity the cultivation of this grass can
wean away the practice of shifting cultivation
and reduce the dependence of people on
forests.

Study site: A field experiment was conducted
during the period of 2006-09 in Deohari
Rangpi Village, Nilip Block and Raising
Rangpi village, Rongmongwae block of Karbi
Anglong district, Assam situated between 25
33' N to 26 35' N latitude and 92 10' to
93 50' E longitude. Due to variation in the
topography the area experiences with hot
humid condition and average annual rainfall is
nearly 1200 mm. Due to southwest monsoon
circulating over low-lying hills and absence of
any streamlined movement of wind, summer
0
,Vol. 4, No. (1 & 2), 2011
33
temperature remains comparatively high. The

soil is distinct red laterite old alluvial types
having P range from 5.2 to 6.5.
Experimentation: Broom grass growing
areas of Assam were surveyed and collected
rhizomes from best planting materials based
on the criteria viz. height of plant, number of
culms /tussock, length and number of panicles
etc. Rhizomes were splitted and planted in the
polybag having potting media of soil, sand and
FYM at the proportion of 2:1:1. After one
and half months depending upon the sprout it
was re-splitted and planted in the polybag
again for multiplication. Altogether 396
numbers of seedlings of both selected and
local individuals were prepared for plantation
in the experimental site.
0.4 ha degraded shifting cultivation
areas of each site were cleared and burned
during the month of Feb- Mar. 30cm pits
were dug and left one month for weathering.
Multiplied broom grass seedlings were planted
in the field at the onset of monsoon (AprilMay). The experimental plot was laid out in
Randomize Block Design (RBD) deliberate
size 10x10 m of plot with 1m, 2m and 2.5m
spacing respectively. Both local and selected
individuals were planted in 3 spacing trials (1m;
2m and 2.5 m) with three replications. The
treatment combinations were as follows:
T T. maxima in 1m. spacing (selected
Individual)
T T. maxima in 2m. spacing (selected
Individual)
T T. maxima in 2.5 m. spacing (selected
Individual)
H
T T. maxima in 1m. spacing (Locally

available Individual)
T T. maxima in 2m. spacing (Locally
T T. maxima in 2.5 m. spacing (Locally
4
RESULT AND DISCUSSION

Survival percentage of the seedlings
were recoded >90 percent in all the treatment
level studied. However, the percentage was
recorded less in selected individuals compared
to locally available individuals. This might be
due to the adaptation of seedling in new
environment.
Progressive height of the seedlings of T.
maxima was recorded from April, 2007 to
January, 2009 for two consecutive years
(Table 1). In both the year of cultivation
maximum value of height was recorded in
selected individuals (126.4m and 121.4m).
Growth was observed significantly less in 1m
spacing than the other two spacing regime.
Better performance of growth was recorded
in plots situated in Deohari Rangpi village as
compared to Raising Rongpi village.
Basal diameter of the culms was gradually
increased with the increment of the height of
the plant. Among these treatments, selected
variety of T. maxima revealed better health
performance. No prominent changes noticed
during the initial year of study. Burning was
done at the end of the first year harvesting
and diameter of the sprouted culm after
,Vol. 4, No. (1 & 2), 2011
burning increased significantly in all the

treatment studied. 2.5 m. spacing trial showed
high values compared to two other spacing
trials. However, the increment of culms per
tussock was recorded significantly high in the
succeeding year. Rapid emergence was
noticed in the sprouting stage after burning the
plot and continues up to panicle initiation stage.
Number of panicle/tussock increased
significantly high in selected individuals in both
the site studied (Table 2). Panicle number and
panicle length was recorded more in 2.5 m
spacing ie.25.2 cm and 96.2 cm respectively.
Comparatively more number of panicle in 2.5
m spacing facilitated proportionate increase
in rhizome and root biomass resulted in
development of profuse growth and higher
number of sprouting culms. Less value was
recorded in 1 m spacing for both the
parameter studied. This might be due to
insufficient spacing for absolute vegetative
growth. Uma Shankar et al, (1998) have also
reported that the competition for underground
space because of overcrowding of rhizome
restricted the production of new culms.
Present investigation revealed highest
performance of yield in 2m spacing (36.40
kg) trial of followed by 2.5m spacing (35.04
kg). Performance of selected individual was
recorded better while least value of yield was
observed in locally available individuals. Total
return of Rs.9110/- was found in the site
Deohari Rangpi village and Rs.8200/- in
Raising Rangpi village (Table 3). Estimation
for cost of cultivation for two consecutive
years in site A and B was given in table 4.
34
Study revealed that a profit of Rs 8873/- was
found in cultivation of selected varieties of
broom grass in site A. Comparatively more
fertile soil in Deohari Rongpi Village may be
the reason for better growth of the crop.
Due to biotic pressure and developmental
activities the gene-pool of broom grass is
depleting rapidly (Bisht and Ahlawat, 1998).
Therefore, rhizomes from quality individuals
are always desirable for better production that
provides higher economic return. The present
observation also showed better growth
performance in the selected individuals.
Broom grass is a suitable non timber forest
produce for the tropical low hills of North East
India where land degradation and depletion
of forest wealth takes place at a faster pace.
This multipurpose grass is indeed a handy
species which can thrive in wider and harsher
conditions, check soil erosion sustain land
management and can be used as a tool for
reclamation of degraded jhum land. Ahlawat
and Singh (1998) also revealed the potentiality
of broom grass cultivated on degraded and
jhum lands that not only mitigating the
economic conditions of the people of this area
but also help in improving the degrading
environment. Bhatnagar et al (1996)
promoting this grass that brings immediate
benefit to the local inhabitants at the shortest
possible time so as to improving the habitat
and at the same time uplift the economy of
local people.
,Vol. 4, No. (1 & 2), 2011
35
TABLE 1. PROGRESSIVE HEIGHT OF T. MAXIMA

A-Deohari Rangpi village; B-Raising Rongpi Village
15
A
18
A
______________________________________________________________________
12
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
Months
______________________________________________________________________
Treatment
21
A
T1
27.0 24.5 48.6 54.7 92.5 88.4 46.7 42.4 72.8 36.8 92.6 62.7 97.5 64.9
__________________________________________________________________________________________
T2
25.4 20.4 53.5 48.5 115.2 96.6 32.6 26.8 84.9 52.5 96.4 84.6 104.2 88.5
__________________________________________________________________________________________
T3
26.6 21.7 59.7 52.5 126.4 102.7 49.8 39.6 92.6 54.8 105.6 92.8 121.4 98.2
__________________________________________________________________________________________
T4
18.4 11.6 36.5 36.7 81.5 64.7 39.5 34.8 58.6 19.6 83.7 46.7 88.2 49.8
__________________________________________________________________________________________
T5
13.2 16.5 43.8 34.2 92.2 85.8 24.6 19.6 62.6 32.6 91.5 58.5 101.6 63.5
__________________________________________________________________________________________
T6
13.8 18.1 51.9 41.5 102.5 92.4 29.5 21.8 68.7 47.8 96.2 78.6 108.5 81.3
__________________________________________________________________________________________
SE
0.17 0.13 0.22 0.23 0.46 0.36 0.27 0.26 0.36 0.37 0.19 0.42 0.31 0.5
__________________________________________________________________________________________
CD (5%) 0.39 0.27 0.5 0.52 1.02 0.81 0.61 0.58 0.81 0.83 0.44 0.52 0.68 1.12
TABLE 2. YIELD PARAMETERS OF T. MAXIMA

No. of panicle/tussock
1 Year
2 nd Year
Treatment
Length of panicle (cm)
st
st
2 nd Year
1 Year
B
T1
10.5
9.4
16.5
14.2
59.6
60.6
75.6
64.3
__________________________________________________________________________________________
T2
11.8
11.5
19.5
16.5
71.5
67.6
82.9
73.5
__________________________________________________________________________________________
T3
13.7
13.6
25.2
19.7
72.5
71.4
96.2
81.4
__________________________________________________________________________________________
T4
9.5
8.6
13.6
12.4
54.6
54.6
61.2
59.6
__________________________________________________________________________________________
T5
10.4
10.2
16.6
14.5
63.8
62.8
74.5
69.4
__________________________________________________________________________________________
T6
11.3
11.6
21.5
17.5
67.9
65.6
89.6
76.1
__________________________________________________________________________________________
SE
0.04
0.04
0.12
0.07
0.19
0.16
0.34
0.22
__________________________________________________________________________________________
CD (5%)
0.08
0.11
0.25
0.16
0.43
0.36
0.76
0.49
,Vol. 4, No. (1 & 2), 2011
36
TABLE 3. PRODUCTIVITY OF T. MAXIMA

Treatment
Total yield of panicle (Dry) (kg/102m

st
1 Year
A
Total return/ha (Rs25/- per Kg Dry wt)
nd
1 st Year
2 Year
B
2 nd Year
B
T1
7.00
6.91
30.40
31.8
1750.00 1000.00 7615.50 6450.50
__________________________________________________________________________________________
T2
11.85
11.40 36.40
33.5
2963.00 2100.00 9110.00 8200.50
__________________________________________________________________________________________
T3
9.50
11.20 35.04
32.6
2375.00 1530.00 8762.50 7262.50
__________________________________________________________________________________________
T4
4.10
3.64
25.80
24.7
1728.00 910.00 7950.00 6198.50
__________________________________________________________________________________________
T5
8.40
8.04
32.80
31.8
2850.00 2010.00 8390.50 7951.00
__________________________________________________________________________________________
T6
6.12
8.46
29.00
28.4
2798.00 2117.00 8150.00 7100.00
__________________________________________________________________________________________
SE
0.07
0.08
0.10
0.09
15.47
15.34
15.14 22.02
__________________________________________________________________________________________
CD (5%)
0.16
0.17
0.24
0.20
34.50
34.21
33.77
49.11
TABLE 4. ECONOMICS OF T. MAXIMA (TWO YEARS)

Sl.
No.
Activities
Mandays
A
Cost (in Rs.)

A
1 Collection of rhizome
4
4
200/200/__________________________________________________________________________________________
2 Plot preparation(Jungle cutting, clearing and burning) 10
12
500/600/__________________________________________________________________________________________
3 Digging of pits, planting of rhizome;
12
12
600/600/__________________________________________________________________________________________
4 Maintenance and weeding -3 times (1st Year)
10
10
500/500/__________________________________________________________________________________________
7 Harvest of broom stick (1st Year)
8
8
400/400/__________________________________________________________________________________________
10 Maintenance and weeding -3 times (2nd Year)
8
10
400/500/__________________________________________________________________________________________
11 Harvest of broom stick (2nd Year)
8
10
450/500/__________________________________________________________________________________________
12 Miscellaneous
4
4
200/200/TOTAL COST
TOTAL RETURN
PROFIT
3200/- 3500/12073/- 10300/8873/- 7800/-
,Vol. 4, No. (1 & 2), 2011
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Authors express their thanks to The
Director, Rain Forest Research Institute for
his kind help and facilities.
REFERENCES
Ahlawat, S.P. & Singh, U.V. (1998):
Cultivation on broom grass
(Thysanolaena maxima) on degraded
and jhum lands in North East India In:
Perspective for Planning and
Development in NE India edited by
R.C. Sundriyal, U. Shankar and T.C.
Upreti. G.B.P.I; Kosi Katarmal,
Almora, U.P HIMAVIKAS Occasional
Publication No. 11 (1998) pp. 239-245.
Anonymous (1992): Agro-climatic planning
for agricultural development in
Meghalaya. Working group, Zonal
Planning Team, Eastern Himalayan
Region, AAU, Jorhat.
Barik, S.K.; Tiwari, B.K. & Tripathi, R.S.
(1996): Plantation technique and
management and growth features of
Thysanolaena maxima , a minor forest
produce species of North East India. In:
Management of Minor Forest Produce
for Sustainability, M.P. Shiva & R. B.
Mathur (eds). Oxford & IBH Publishing
Co., New Delhi. pp 208-215.
37
Bhatnagar, P; Shrivastava, A; Sharma, C.B.
& Bhatnagar, C. (1996): Potential of
forest based broom making enterprises.
Sustainable Forestry. 1( 2): 10-14.
Bisht, N.S & Ahlawat,S.P (1998): Broom
Grass State Forest Research Institu,
Dept of Environment & Forests, Govt
of Arunachal Pradesh, Ianagar.
Palni, L.M.S.; Kothyari, B.P.; Rikhari, H.C. ;
Bhuchar, S.; Negi, G.C.S.; Sharma, E.;
Samant, S.S.; Bisht, N. S. &
Choudhary, D. (1994): Thysanolaena
maxima (Roxb). Kuntz: a multipurpose
perennial grass of high folder value.
Hima-Paryavaran 6 (1): 9.
Singh, K.A.; Rai, R.N. d Pradhan, I.P. (1989):
Grow ameliso grass in NEH Region.
Indian Farming 38(10): 43-45.
Uma Shankar; Lama, S.D.& Bawa, K.S.
(1998): Ecology and economics of
domestication of non- timber forest
products: an illustration of broom grass
in Eastern Himalaya. Personal
Communication.
,Vol. 4, No. (1 & 2), 2011
ISSN : 0972-6446
38
Socio-cultural Value of Ficus species in Assamese Society

Sajida Begum1 and I. C. Barua2
1. State Council of Education Research and Training, Guwahati, Assam.
2. Assam Agricultural University, Jorhat, Assam.
ABSTRACT
The inhabitant of Assam includes as many as 65 tribes and sub-tribes (including 9 plain
tribes) and nearly 87 per cent non-tribal population including sixteen Dalit groups, amongst
which nearly 87.1 per cent live in rural areas; all of them have valued several species of Ficus in
their own way. Since long past many species of this genus have maintained close relationship
with man. Ficus religiosa, F. elastica, F. benghalensis, F. rumphi, etc. are well known for
their aesthetic values. The present study was undertaken since 2008 with an aim to find out
various uses of Ficus species in the greater Assamese society. The result revealed that as many
as 17 species of Ficus have socio-culturally intrinsic relation with the Assamese people. Out of
these, ripe hypenthodia of 7 species are eaten fresh. Despite, tender shoots, leaves and green
hypenthodia of 6species are cooked. As many as 9 species of Ficus have more or less therapeutic
value and are used by different tribes, races and rural inhabitants of Assam; some of which are
very useful and bears potentiality of further value addition.
INTRODUCTION
Assam is a part of the Eastern
Himalayan Mega Hotspot of biodiversity
(Rao, 1994; Barua & Bhagabati, 2007). The
inhabitant of this state includes as many as 65
tribes and sub-tribes (including 9 plain tribes)
and nearly 87 per cent non-tribal population
including sixteen Dalit groups (nearly 6.9%);
amongst which nearly 87.1 per cent live in rural
areas (Bordoloi, 1999; Anonymous,
2001a,b; Fernandes et al., 2008). Tribal, rural
and primitive societies have discovered

solution for treatment of disease to almost all
their needs and problems for the natural
resources around them (Basu & Mukhrjee,
1999). Various tribes, sub-tribes and races
of the great Assamese society have valued
several species of Ficus in their own way.
Because of having a good diversity of this
genus, this region possesses tremendous
scope of exploitation of its members, as many
species belonging to this genus have carried
good properties for uses for the benefit of
,Vol. 4, No. (1 & 2), 2011
mankind. With an aim to find out various uses

of Ficus species in the Assamese society, this
ethno-botanical study was initiated.

The study area was the state of
Assam, which lies between 24o 08/ to 27o 59/
North latitude and 89o 42 / to 96o 01 / East
Longitude. The study was initiated in the year
2008. Different places of Assam were visited
and people of different tribes and races were
interviewed. Voucher specimens were
collected, thoroughly studied in respect of their
morphology and identified with the help of
published literature and Herbaria of Assam
Agricultural University, Jorhat and Botanical
Survey of India, Eastern Circle, Shillong.
Voucher specimens are processed to deposit
in both the Herbaria.

Ficus (Moraceae) is one of the largest genera
occurring in Assam and is represented by
nearly 60 taxa under 50 species. Since long
past many species of this genus have
maintained close relationship with man. Ficus
religiosa, F. elastica, F. benghalensis, F.
rumphi, etc. are well known for their aesthetic
values. The ethno-botanical informations of
Ficus species collected during the
investigation are enumerated belowalong with
brief description :
39
1. Ficus altissima Blume, Bijdr. 444. 1825.
Vern. Name: Dhup, Dhup-bor, Gadhu-bor
(Asm.). Voucher specimen: Sajida, 101.
A large handsome tree, leaves are ovateelliptic or ovate-lanceolate, entire, obtuse and
coriaceous. Hypenthodia are sessile, in axillary
pairs, yellow when ripe.
The plant is often conserved as avenue tree in
roadsides and temple campuses, particularly
in lower Assam districts and considered as
sacred tree by Assamese Hindus. A red dye
is obtained from the decoction of its barks
mixing with lime (Kanjilal et al., 1940).
2. Ficus auriculata Lour., Fl. Cochinch. 666.
1790.
Voucher specimen: Sajida, 102.
The plant is a medium sized tree with very
large leaves. The species has a restricted
distribution in upper Assam districts and
Cachar district of the state.
The latex and leaf-paste are applied topically
on the wounds. Its ripe fruits are eaten raw or
roasted by forest dwellers and Nepalis
inhibiting in this region. Leaves are good
fodder.
3. Ficus benghalensis L., Sp. Pl., 1059.
1753. Vern. Name: Bot; Bor (Asm.); Gonok
(Garo); Indian Banyan Tree (Eng.). Voucher
specimen: Sajida, 103.
This plant has a special place in the
Indian culture and is admired as a sacred tree.
It is very often found in old temple complexes,
road sides and other public places as well as
in forests thoughout the state.
The leaves are essential in marriage
ceremony and other religious functions of
,Vol. 4, No. (1 & 2), 2011
Assamese Hindus. The latex of the plant is

commonly used in Assam as pain killer more
particularly in rheumatism, toothache and
lumbago. Paste prepared from the bark is
applied in cuts and wounds and joint pain.
The wound healing capacity of the
plant is well known. In south India the leaf
powder is mixed with coconut oil and applied
topically on affected places to treat wound
(Ayyangar & Ignacimuthu, 2009). The plant
is also known as astringent, acrid, anodyne,
antiemetic, cooling, diaphoretic, disperative,
refringent, sweet and tonic. The bark extract
possessed antidiabetic and ameliorative
potential (Joy et al., 1998; Mahalingam &
Krishnan, 2008).
4. Ficus benjamina L., Mant, 129. 1767.
Vern. Name: Pukar (Hindi); Sami, Sarans,
Swami (Nepali); Frap-Rak-Sheng (Garo).
A large, evergreen tree with drooping
branches. The leaves are ovate or ellipticovate and the tips are cuneate. Hypenthodia
are in axis, paired. The tree is commonly
planted as house plant and in the public places.
It is usually considered as a poisonous
plant. Nepalis used as flee and bag repellent.
Its ripe fruits are edible. Latex is applied on
wounds and boils by tribal communities of
Rabhas, Garos and Mishings.
5. Ficus curtipes Corner, Gard. Bull.
Singapore 17: 397. 1959.
Vern. Name: Kotholua-jori; Kothal-potiabor (Asm.); Laghu paat (Mishing). Voucher
40
A large tree usually starts as epiphyte,
glabrous throughout. Leaves are oblongelliptic or obovate elliptic and thickly
coriaceous. Hypenthodia are globose, sessile
and axillary.
Leaves are used by the Mishings for
fermenting liquor to make the liquor clear and
light, in preparing their traditional country
liquor Apong.
6. Ficus drupacea Thunb. var. pubescens
(Roth.) Corner, Gard. Bull. Singapore 17:
381. 1960.
Vern. Name: Jangali-dhup-bor (Asm.).
A very large tree, with abruptly
acuminate elliptic leaves; young parts
pubescent. Hypenthodia are globose, paired
and rusty-tomentose.
It is a soft wooded timber yielding tree
and distributed in the forests of the
Brahmaputra valley.
7. Ficus elastica Roxb. ex Hornem., Hort.
Bot. Hafn. Suppl. 7. 1819.
Vern. Name: Dewak-Arong (Karbi); FrapRam-Khet (Garo); Indian Rubber; Assamrubber fig (Eng.). Voucher specimen: Sajida,
107.
A big and glabrous tree. Leaves are
elliptic-oblong, abruptly caudate and
coriaceous.
The plant is cultivated as ornamental
tree. Young shoots are eaten cooked along
with other vegetables in hilly areas.
Marderosian & Roia (1979), mentioning the
non-toxic nature of its fruits, reported the
,Vol. 4, No. (1 & 2), 2011
proteolytic properties of its latex to treat the

intestinal worms.
8. Ficus heterophylla L. f., Suppl. Pl. 442.
1781.
Vern. Name: Konai dimoru (Asm.). Voucher
A creeping and trailing much branched hispid
scandent shrub with axillary solitary
hypenthodia.
The plant is commonly cultivated
ornamental trailer on walls or tree trunks. Its
bark and root powder is medicinal in cough,
asthma and chest pain (Dutta, 2006) and
Assamese people administered it mixing with
coriander.
9. Ficus hirta Vahl, Enum. 2:201.1806.
Vern. Name: Khongal dimoru (Asm.).
A rusty-pubescent shrub with hollow
stem and broad-ovate leaves. Hypenthodia
are axillary, in pairs, globose and tomentose.
Its ripe fruits are eaten fresh and very young
top shoots are cooked by Mishings, Ahoms
and Dimashas.
10. Ficus hispida L.f., Suppl. Pl. 442. 1781.
Vern. Name: Khoksa-dimoru ; Dimoru
(Asm.); Takpi-asing, Tak-piang (Mishing).
A small to medium sized tree with
hollow branches, obovate to elliptic serrate
leaves and paired or clustered hypenthodia.
The plant is quite common throughout the state
with somewhat weedy nature.
The green figs are cooked as
vegetables and ripe figs are eaten fresh.
41
Leaves are also cooked. Both figs and leaves
possess antidiabetic properties. Leaves are
cooked with pork by Mishings and Thengal
Kacharis. Mishings also use its leaves for
fermenting their country liquor Apong.
Rajbanshis, Rabhas and Boros believe that
feeding ripe fruits to mothers promote milk
secretion and to children increase apatite.
All parts of this plant are useful; roots
and leaves are known as antidiarrhoeal
(Subhash & Mandal 2002), antidiabetic
(Ghosh & Sharotchandra, 2004), antibacterial
(Kone et al., 2004) and cardioprotective
(Shanmugarjan & Arunsunda, 2008). A
mixture of honey and the juice of these fruits
is a good antihemorrhagic (Nadkarni, 1996).
11. Ficus neriifolia J. E. Smith var. nemoralis
(Wall. ex Miq.) Corner, Gard. Bull. Singapore
17: 426. 1959.
Vern. Name: Katia-dimoru; Dimoru (Asm).
A small handsome tree. Leaves are lanceolate
to elliptic, entire, glabrous, sharply acuminate
at apex and narrowed to the petiole at base.
Hypenthodia are small, subglobose, solitary
or paired, axillary, reddish when ripe.
Ripe hypenthodia are eaten fresh. Leaves are
good fodder.
12. Ficus pumila L., Sp. Pl. 1060. 1753.
Voucher specimen: Sajida, 112
A creeping and trailing scandent
shrub, cultivated as ornamental evergreen vine
mostly on walls.
13. Ficus racemosa L., Sp. Pl. 922.1753.
Vern. Name: Gular (Hindi.); Jagya-dimoru,
,Vol. 4, No. (1 & 2), 2011
Ewan-dimoru (Asm.); Cluster (Eng.). Voucher

The plant is a large deciduous tree.
Leaves are ovate-oblong to oblonglanceolate, entire, distinctly 3-nerved at base,
abruptly acuminate. Hypenthodia are
pyriform, large, peduncled, in short panicled
fascicles on the trunk.
The leaves and young shoots are
eaten cooked by Mishings, Thengal Kacharis
and several non-tribal inhabitants of rural
areas. Ripe hypenthodia are eaten fresh by
many, including Karbis and Rabhas. Leaves
are used as fodder. Hypenthodia and leaves
are also used in many religious functions of
Assamese Hindus.
Tender fruits are astringent,
stomachic, refrigerant, and also administered
in dry cough, burning sensation, fatigue
(Chopra et al., 1992; Prabhakar & Suresh,
1990). It is one of the popular trees in
indigenous Indian System of Medicine (ISM)
like Ayurveda, Siddha, Unani and
Homoeopathy and its various parts are used
in dysentery, diarrhoea, diabetes, bilious
affections, menorrhage, hymoptysis, piles, etc.
(Paarakh, 2009).
14. Ficus religiosa L., Sp. Pl. 1959.1753.
Vern. Name: Aanhot (Asm.); Frapthi-brong
(Garo); Pipal-tree (Eng.). Voucher specimen:
Sajida, 114.
A large deciduous tree, starts as an
epiphyte or lithophyte. Leaves are broadly
ovate, glabrous and caudate acuminate.
Hypenthodia are sessile, in axillary pairs, subglobose. The plant is common throughout the
42
state and often appears as an industrial weed,
growing on man-made structures causing
serious damage to old buildings, brick-walls,
etc.
Hypenthodia are used as anti-emetic
by Muslim communities. Leaves are used in
marriage ceremony and some other religious
functions of Hindus in Assam. Besides, the
plant has extensive use in indigenous ISM.
Leaves are also used as fodder.
15. Ficus rumphii Blume, Bijdr. 548. 1825.
Vern. Name: Jori; Pakhri-bor (Asm.); FrapRak-Sheng (Garo); Siripipli (Karbi). Voucher
A large deciduous tree, starts as an
epiphyte or lithophyte. Leaves are ovate,
acuminate and glabrous. Hypenthodia are
sessile, ovoid, in axillary pairs. The plant is
quite common in road sides, open-places and
forests, and sometimes appears as weed in
industrial areas.
Leaves are good fodder, and used in
treating mouth diseases of cattle in Assam.
Fruit juice is medicinal in asthma and
prescribed with black-pepper, turmeric and
ghee (Dutta, 2006). Lac insects are reared
on this tree (Kanjilal et al., 1940; Dutta, 2006).
16. Ficus semicordata Buch.-Ham. Ex J. E.
Smith in Rees, Ctclop. 14:71. 1810.
Vern. Name: Takuk-asing (Karbi); Thaikhrau (Garo). Voucher specimen: Sajida, 116.
A medium sized tree, young parts
hirsute. Leaves are oblong-elliptic to
lanceolate, acute or acuminate, remotely
serrate or entire. Hypenthodia are globose or
pyriform, small, in pairs or clusters.
,Vol. 4, No. (1 & 2), 2011
Hypanthodia are edible. Leaves are

used as fodder.
17 Ficus virens Ait. var. sublanceolata (Miq.)
Corner, Gard. Bull. Singapore 17:377. 1960.
Vern Name: Tenga bor (Asm.); Chiri-arong
(Karbi). Voucher specimen: Sajida, 117.
A medium sized to large deciduous
tree. Leaves are oblong-elliptic to ovate,
abruptly and shortly acuminate. Hypanthodia
are sub-sessile, in axillary pairs.
Decoction of bark is used as wash
for ulcer and gargle in salivation in Assam
(Dutta, 2006). Tender twigs and green
hypanthodia are cooked as vegetable in lower
Assam and hilly districts.
The result revealed that as many as
17 species of Ficus have socio-culturally
intrinsic relation with the Assamese people of
Assam. Out of these, ripe hypanthodia of
seven species are eaten fresh. Despite, tender
shoots, leaves and green hypanthodia of
F. auriculata, F. elastica, F. hirta, F. hispida,
F. racemosa and F. virens var. sublanceolata
are cooked. Leaves of F. auriculata, F.
neriifolia, F. racemosa, F. religiosa, F. rumphii
and F. semicordata are used as fodder. As
many as 9 species of Ficus have more or less
therapeutic value and are used by different
tribes, races and rural inhabitants of Assam;
some of which are very useful and bears
potentiality of further value addition. Proper
value addition of these can increase
commercial prospect for this region.
43
REFERENCES
Ayyanagar, M. & Ignacimuthu, S. (2009).
Herbal medicines for wound healing
among tribal people in Southern India:
Ethnobotanical and Scientific evidences.
Intern. J. Applied Res. National
Products. 2 (3): 29-42.
Barua, I. C. & Bharabati, K. (2007).
Biodiversity of Medicinal Plants in
Northeast India. In Endemic
Bioresources of India Conservation
& Sustainable Development with
Special Reference to North East India
(Ed. Singh, N. I.). Bishen Singh
Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehra Dun. pp.
407-422.
Basu, R. & Mukherjee, P. K. (1999). Plants
used for lac culture by the tribals of
Purulia in West Bengal. Ethnobotany.
11(9): 119-121.
Bordoloi, B. N. (1990). Report on the Survey
of Alienation of Tribal Land in Assam.
Assam: Assam Institute of Research for
Tribals and Schedule Castes.
Chopra, R. N., Nayar, S. L. & Chopra, I. C.
(1992). Gossary of Indian Medicinal
Plants (Repr. Edn.). CSIR, New Delhi.
Dutta, A. C. (2006). Dictionary of Economic
and Medicinal Plants (Rev. edn.). Jorhat,
Assam.
Fernandes, W., Bharali, G. & Kezo, V.
(2008). The UN Indigenous Decade in
,Vol. 4, No. (1 & 2), 2011
44
Northeast India. North Eastern Social

Research Centre, Guwahati.
Popular Prakashan Pvt. Ltd., Mumbai.

pp. 550-551.
Ghosh, R. & Sharotchandra, R. S. (2004).

Hypoglycemic activity of Ficus hispida
in normal and diabetic albino rats. Ind.
J. Pharmacol. 36: 222-225.
Paarakh, P. M. (2009). Ficus racemosa Linn.An overview. Natl. Product Radiance

8(1): 84-90.
Joy, P. P., Thomas, J., Mathew, S. & Skaria,

B. P. (1998). Medicinal Plants. Kerala
Agricultural University, Kerala, India.
Kanjilal, U. N., Kanjilal, P. C., De, R. N. &
Das, A. (1940) Flora of Assam. Govt.
of Assam. Shillong.
Kone, W. M., Kamanzi, K., Traore, D. A.,
Terreaux, C., Hostettmann, K. &
Dosso, M. (2004). Traditional medicine
in North Cote-dlvoire: screening of 50
medicinal plants for antibacterial activity.
J. Ethnopharmacol 93: 43-49.
Mahalingam, G. & Krishnan, K. (2008).
Antidiabetic and ameliorative potential
of Ficus bengalensis bark extract in
streptozotocin induced diabetic rats.
Indian J. Clinical Biochemistry 23(4)
394-400.
Marderosian, D. & Roia, F. C. (1979).
Household ornamental plants. In Toxic
Plants (Ed. Kinghorn, A. D.). Columbia
Univ. Press, New York. p. 126.
Nadkarni, K. M. (1996). Ficus hispida and
Ficus daemona. In Indian Materia
Medica. (Ed. Nadkarni, K. M. &
Nadkarni, A. K.) 2nd ed. Vol-1.
Prabhakar, Y. S. & Suresh, K. D. (1990). A

survey of cardioactive drug formulations
from Aurveda-II: porridges, oils,
clarified butters, electuaries, pastes, ash
preparations and calcined powders.
Fitoterapia 61: 395-416.
Rao, R. R. (1994). Biodiversity in India.
Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh,
Dehra Dun.
Anonymous (2001a). Census of India, SeriesI, Final Population Totals. New Delhi:
Office of the Registrar General and
Census Commissioner.
Anonymous (2001b). Census of India,
Series-I-India, Part II-B (ii), Primary
Census Abstract, Scheduled Tribes.
New Delhi: Office of the Registrar
General and Census Commissioner.
Shanmugarjan, T. S. & Arunsunda, M. C.
(2008). Cardioprotective effect of Ficus
hispida Linn. on cyclophosphamide
provoked oxidative myocardial injury in
a rat model. Intern. J. Pharmacol 2008:
1-10.
Subhash, C. & Mandal, C. K. (2002) Studies
on anti-diarrhoeal activity of Ficus
hispida leaf extract in rats. Fitotherapia
73: 663-667.
,Vol. 4, No. (1 & 2), 2011
ISSN : 0972-6446
45
AN ETHNOBOTANICAL REPORT ON LESS-KNOWN LEAFY

VEGETABLES CONSUMED BY DIFFERENT COMMUNITIES
OF BARAK VALLEY, ASSAM, INDIA
Ashis Nath1 and G. G. Maiti2
1
Department of Botany, Gurucharan College, Silchar - 788 004, Assam, India
E-mail: ashisnathgcc@gmail.com
2
Department of Botany, University of Kalyani, Kalyani-741 235, West Bengal, India
ABSTRACT
The present paper is an ethnobotanical report on less-known leafy vegetables consumed
by different communities of Barak Valley. Altogether 59 species belonging to pteridophytes (2
species) and angiosperms (57 species) are presented in this communication with 12 records as
new source of leafy vegetables for majority of the communities / masses, though these exists in
respective societies since time immemorial. The data presented here is an out come of regular
visit and survey in different markets (rural / urban) and interactions with different communities of
Barak Valley for last one and half decades. Correct nomenclature, together with family, local
names of respective community / tribal and mode of utilization (in short) have been provided
against each species in a tabular form.
INTRODUCTION
The Barak valley is the southern most
three districts viz. Cachar, Karimganj and
Hailakandi of Assam, India. It lays between
Longitude 900 15/ and 930 15/ E and Latitude
240 8/ and 250 8/ N and cover an area of 6922
sq. kms. The valley is surrounded to the north
by Dima Hasao (North Cacher Hills) district
of Assam, to the south by Mizoram, to the
east by Manipur and to the west by Sylhet
district Bangladesh and Tripura. The valley is
inhabited by about 80% Bengali community,

speaking mainly Sylheti Bengali (SB) - a
distinct Bengali dialect and the rest are the Tea
garden Tribe /workers (TGT), Methai
Manipuri (MM), Bishnupriya Manipuri (BM),
Assamese [Chutia] (A), plain tribes like
Barhmana / Kachari (K), Rajbonghsi (RJ) and
Rongmai Naga (RN) and the hill tribes like
Khasia (KH), Lusai /Mizo (M), Hmar (HM),
Halam (H), Riang (R), etc.
The valley lies in one of the remotest
corner of the country with undulating hills,
,Vol. 4, No. (1 & 2), 2011
46
valley and marshes with luxuriant vegetation.

Communities who are living in the forests, hill
sides, along the sides of wetlands and even
the peoples who were once villagers and now
settled in towns are being consuming numerous
leafy vegetables. Some of the leafy vegetables
are considered as less-known especially for
the masses and may be well known to specific
community / tribe are presented in this
communication.
economic / useful plants, ethnobotanical

plants, etc. has been made. Some of the
important works consulted are Anonymous
(1948-1976), Anonymous, (1992), Arora
(1981), Arora and Pandey (1996), Badhwar
and Fernandes (1969), Bandyopadhyay and
Mukherjee (2009), Dastur (1951), Devi
(2003), Jain (1964), Jain and De (1964), Jain
and Hajra (1977), Maheshwari and Singh
(1964), Maji and Sikdar (1982), Pal and
Regarding Ethnobotany of leafy vegetables /

wild edible plants / non-conventional edible
plants of Barak valley there is no available
published work, except a preliminary report
on non conventional food plants by Das and
Dutta Choudhury (2003) and some records
on the ethnobotany of Halam tribe by Nath
and Maiti (2009). For finding the less-known
/ new wild edible plants as well as wild plants
with new uses as food from the valley a
scrutiny of some important works on Indian
Banerjee (1971), Saklani and Jain (1994),

Singh and Arora (1978) and Watt (19891999).

Regular visit and survey in different
markets (rural / urban) and interactions with
different communities for last one and half
decades were made. During the survey 59
,Vol. 4, No. (1 & 2), 2011
47
species of less-known leafy vegetable plants

were noted and the sample specimens were
collected along with local names, places of
collection, communities who are using and
modes of utilization in some cases. In the
enumeration botanical names of the plants are

presented alphabetically in tabular form (Table
I) along with their family, local name,
community / tribe name and process of
utilization.
Table I. ENUMERATION
Sl.
No.
Botanical name
Family
Local name and

the community /
tribe in abbreviation
within bracket
Mode of utilization
1 *Aglaonema hookerianum Schott
Araceae
Bagdar (SB)
Fresh petioles are

cooked with along
with fish or paste of
Sesamum indicum L.
and eaten with rice.
2 *Alocasia fornicata (Roxb.)

Schott
Araceae
Jangli-kachu (SB /
(TGT)
Young leaves and

petioles are cooked
3 Alocasia indica (Roxb.) Schott
Araceae
Dalkachu (SB),
Mankachu (B)
Petioles are cooked

4 Alocasia macrorrhizos (L.) G.

Don
Araceae
Fun-kachu (SB)
Petioles are cooked

5 Alternanthera paronychioides
St. Hil.
Amaranthaceae
Hachia-sag (SB),
Bongima (B)
Young leafy twigs are

cooked and eaten
with rice.
6 Alternanthera philoxeroides
(Mart.) Griseb.
Amaranthaceae
7 Alternanthera sessilis (L.) R.

Br. ex DC.
Amaranthaceae
Halancha (SB),
Salinchey/Banhinche cooked and eaten
/ Panisalinchey (B), with rice.
Phakchet (MM)
Hacia (SB),
Sanchi (B),
Mati Kaduri (A)

cooked and eaten
with rice.
,Vol. 4, No. (1 & 2), 2011
8 Amaranthus viridis L.
48
Amaranthaceae
Khudra-sag (SB)
Young leafy twigs

are cooked and
eaten with rice.
Meliaceae
Neem (SB / B / H)
Young leaves are

fried and eaten with
rice.
10 Basella alba L.
Basellaceae
Pui-sag (SB)
Young leafy twigs

are cooked and
eaten with rice.
11 *Begonia thomsonii DC.
Begoniaceae
Shakhuk (H)
Young leafy twigs

are cooked and
eaten with rice.
12 *Blumea lanceolaris (Roxb.)

Druce
Asteraceae
Agijal (SB)
Young leaves cut

into small pieces,
fried with gram
powder (basen) and
taken with rice.
13 Centella asiatica (L.) Urban
Apiaceae
Thankuni (SB),
Perup (H),
Bor-manimuni (A)
Young leaf paste is

cooked and eaten
with rice.
Amaranthaceae
Bathua-sag (SB)
Young leafy twigs

are cooked and
eaten with rice.
Rutaceae
Sashni-jamir (SB)
Young leaves are

added in different
preparations of
curry and taken with
rice.
9 Azadirachta indica A. Juss.
14 Chenopodium album L.
15 Citrus medica L.
16 Clerodendrum viscosum Vent.
17 Colocasia esculenta (L.)

Schott
Verbenaceae
Araceae
Bhati (SB), Shakaipa Young leafy twigs

(K), Killiashak (C)
are cut into small
pieces, cooked and
eaten with rice.
Anna-kochu (SB)
Young leaves and

petioles are cooked
,Vol. 4, No. (1 & 2), 2011
18 *Crateva religiosa Forster f.
19 Diplazium esculentum (Retz.)

Sw.
20 Drymaria diandra Bl.
49
Capparidaceae
Athyriaceae
Caryophyllaceae
Barun (SB)

cooked and eaten
with rice.
Paloi-sag (SB),
Young fronds are
Kokdon (H), Dhekia cooked and eaten
(A), Burselai (K)
with rice.
Khudrani (SB)

cooked and eaten
with rice.
21 Eclipta prostrata (L.) L.
Asteraceae
Kariya (SB),
Oochisumbal (MM) cooked and eaten
with rice.
22 Elsholtzia blanda Benth.
Lamiaceae
Bon-tulsi (SB)

added into various
preparations of fish
curry and taken with
rice.
23 Enhydra fluctuans Lour.
Asteraceae
Halacha (SB),
Komprek-tujombi
(MM)

cooked and eaten
with rice.
24 Eryngium foetidum L.
Apiaceae
Naga-dhula (SB)
Young leaves are

added in preparations
like salad, curry, etc.
25 *Euryale ferox Salisb.
Nymphaeaceae
Ghangi (SB)
Young leaves are cut

into small pieces and
fried with gram
powder (basen) and
eaten with rice.
26 Gisekia pharnaceoides L.
Aizoaceae
Ghima (SB)

cooked and eaten
with rice.
27 Glycosmis arborea (Roxb.) DC.
Rutaceae
Bon-jamir (SB)
A paste is made with

the leaves of the
plant, cooked and
eaten with rice.
,Vol. 4, No. (1 & 2), 2011
28 Gnaphalium luteo-album L.
29 *Homalomena aromatica
(Roxb.) Schott
30 Houttuynia cordata Thunb.
31 Hydrocotyle sibthorpioides Lam.
50
Asteraceae
Khairka-sag (B)

cooked and eaten with
rice.
Araceae
Gondhi (SB),
Khakmantri (H)
Fresh petioles are

cooked with along with
fish or paste of Sesamum
indicum L. and eaten
with rice.
Saururaceae
Apiaceae
Ichlapata (SB),
Paste of young leaves
Kongpaningkok (H), cooked and eaten with
Machondori (A) rice.
Chuto-kudranik (SB), Paste of young leaves
Saru-manimuni (A) cooked and eaten with

rice.
32 Ipomoea aquatica Forssk
Convonvulaceae
Kalni-sag (SB)

rice, chapatti, etc.
33 Ipomoea batatus (L.) Lam.
Convonvulaceae
Mati-alu (SB)

rice, chapatti, etc.
Acanthaceae
Vasak (SB)

rice.
34 Justicia adhatoda L.
35 *Lasia spinosa (L.) Thw.
Araceae
Katakachu (SB), Young leaves cooked

Jangalbagun (TGT) with dry / fermented fish
36 Leucas plukenetii (Roth)

Spreng.
Lamiaceae
Sweet-dhuran (SB), Young leafy twigs are

Shyam tulsi (K) cooked and eaten with
rice.
37 Marsilea minuta L.
38 *Monochoria vaginalis
(Burm. f.) Persl.
Marsileaceae
Pontederiaceae
Pani amrul / Sushni Leaves cooked and

(SB), Labuk jenshin eaten with rice.
(MM)
Chichri (R)
Young leaves are cooked

,Vol. 4, No. (1 & 2), 2011
39 Moringa oelifera Lam.
51
Moringaceae
Sajna (SB)
Young leaves are cooked

40 Murraya koenigii (L.) Spreng.
Rutaceae
Kari-pata (SB),
Narasingha (A)
Leaves are added in

different preparation of
curry.
41 Neptunia prostrata (Lamk.)

Baillon
Mimosaceae
Jal-lajuki (SB)

rice.
42 Nymphaea nouchali Burm. f.
Nymphaeaceae Sundai/Hundai (SB), Fresh petioles are eaten as

Dhemp (A)
raw. It is cooked along
with fermented/dry fish
43 Nymphaea pubescence Willd.
Nymphaeaceae
Bhat (SB), Saluk /

Sapla (B)
Fresh petioles are eaten as

raw. It is cooked along
with fermented/dry fish
44 Ocimum basilicum L.
Lamiaceae
Babri-tulshi (SB)
Leaves are added in

different curry preparation
and taken with rice.
45 Ocimum gratissimim L.
Lamiaceae
46 Oxalis corniculata L.
Long pudina (SB), Leaves are added in

Krishna tulsi / Ram different curry preparation
tulsi (B)
and taken with rice.
Oxalidaceae
Amrul (SB),
Tengechi (A)
Cooked Leaves are eaten

as chutney.
47 Paederia foetida L.
Rubiaceae
Badhali-pata (SB)
Leaf paste are mixed with

rice powder and fried like
pakora and eaten with rice
48 Perilla frutescens (L.) Britt.
Lamiaceae
49 *Pogostemon benghalensis
(Burm. f.) O. Ktze.
Lamiaceae
Khamella/Nungshuk Leaves added in different

(MM)
preparations of fishes and
eaten with rice.
Rujanto (SB)
Leaves added in different

preparations of fishes and
eaten with rice.
,Vol. 4, No. (1 & 2), 2011
52
50 Polygonum microcephalum
D. Don
Polygonaceae
Chulong (SB)

cooked with fish and
eaten with rice.
51 Portulaca oleracea L.
Portulacaceae
Ghee-sag (SB)

cooked and eaten
with rice.
52 *Spondias pinnata (L. f.) Kurz
Anacardiaceae
Amra (SB)

cooked along with
small fishes and eaten
with rice.
Caryophyllaceae
Murmuri-sag (SB)

cooked and eaten
with rice.
Amburus (SB)

cooked and eaten
with rice.
53 Stellaria media (L.) Vill.
54 Tinospora cordifola (Willd.) Menispermaceae

Miers
55 Typhonium trilobatum (L.)

Schott
Araceae
Gandhi-kachu (SB)
Young leaves and

petioles are cooked
56 *Vernonia cinerea (L.) Less
Asteraceae
Ansha (H)
Fresh leaves used as

chutney.
57 Vitex negundo L.
Verbenaceae
Nishinda (SB),
Pasotia (A),
Urikshibi (MM)

cooked and eaten
with rice.
Rutaceae
Monga (SB),
Mukhrubi (M)

cooked with fishes
Rhamnaceae
Boroi (SB), Brui (R)
Young leafy twigs

eaten as raw or after
cooking.
58 Zanthoxylum acanthipodium
DC.
59 Ziziphus mauritiana Lam.
*May be recommended as new leafy vegetable.
,Vol. 4, No. (1 & 2), 2011
DISCUSSION
In the present investigation 59 plants
belong to 32 families of vascular plants (02
pteridophytes and 57 angiosperms) are
reported to exploited as leafy vegetable by
different communities of Barak Valley and
many of them are even sold in markets but
are less-known among the masses of the
valley. Majority of these leafy vegetables
recorded in this communication are used in
cooking and eaten with rice.
During survey it has been found that
the 12 species namely Aglaonema
hookerianum Schott, Alocasia fornicata
(Roxb.) Schott, Begonia thomsonii DC.,
Blumea lanceolaris (Roxb.) Druce, Crateva
religiosa Forster f., Euryale ferox Salisb.,
Homalomena aromatica (Roxb.) Schott,
Lasia spinosa (L.) Thw., Monochoria
vaginalis (Burm. f.) Persl., Pogostemon
benghalensis (Burm. f.) O. Ktze., Spondias
pinnata (L. f.) Kurz and Vernonia cinerea
(L.) Less, are used as leafy vegetable by only
a limited number of people or specific
community and not so popular among the
masses, thus these may be recommended as
new sources of leafy vegetable for the masses,
after the qualitative and quantitative estimation
of their food value.
Leaves of the species like Alocasia
fornicata (Roxb.) Schott, Alternanthera
53
paronychioides St. Hil., Alternanthera
philoxeroides
(Mart.)
Griseb.,
Alternanthera sessilis (L.) R. Br. ex DC.,
Amaranthus viridis L., Begonia thomsonii
DC., Clerodendrum viscosum Vent.,
Crateva religiosa Forster f., Diplazium
esculentum (Retz.) Sw., Drymaria diandra
Bl., Eclipta prostrata (L.) L., Enhydra
fluctuans Lour., Euryale ferox Salisb.,
Gisekia pharnaceoides L., Glycosmis
arborea (Roxb.) DC., Gnaphalium luteoalbum L., Hydrocotyle sibthorpioides Lam.,
Lasia spinosa (L.) Thw., Marsilea minuta
L., Monochoria vaginalis (Burm. f.) Persl.,
Oxalis corniculata L., Typhonium
trilobatum (L.) Schott, Vernonia cinerea
(L.) Less and Vitex negundo L. are
exclusively taken from their wild habitats and
added in the dietary supplement and the
remaining species are found both in wild
condition as well as under cultivation. Many
of the leafy vegetables reported in the present
investigation contains a good amounts of
protein and fat, besides different essential
elements like Iron, Calcium, Magnesium,
Manganese, Copper, Zinc, Cobult,
Carotenoids, etc. (Gopalan et al., 1976),
(Arora and Pandey, 1996) (Kalita et al.,
2003), and serves as an easy source of dietary
supplement for the poor rural communities.
,Vol. 4, No. (1 & 2), 2011
Further, mention may be made here

that the leaves of the species like Azadirachta
indica A. Juss., Blumea lanceolaris (Roxb.)
Druce, Centella asiatica (L.) Urban,
Clerodendrum viscosum Vent., Crateva
religiosa Forster f., Houttuynia cordata
Thunb., Hydrocotyle sibthorpioides Lam.,
Leucas plukenetii (Roth) Spreng., Moringa
oelifera Lam., Ocimum gratissimim L.,
Paederia foetida L., Perilla frutescens (L.)
Britt., Pogostemon benghalensis (Burm. f.)
O. Ktze., Vitex negundo L. and Ziziphus
mauritiana Lam. are eaten as vegetable
mainly for the treatment of stomach troubles
like diarrhea, dysentery, indigestion, acidity,
etc.
REFERENCES
54
Arora, R.K. and A. Pandey (1996): Wild
edible plants of India-Diversity,
Conservation and Uses. NBPGR.
New Delhi.
Badhwar, R. L. and R. R. Fernandes (1969):
Edible Wild Plants of Himalayas.
Delhi.
Bandyopadhyay, S. and S. K. Mukherjee
(2009): Wild edible plants of Koch
Bihar district, West Bengal. Natural
Product Radiance 18(1): 64-72.
Dastur, J. F. (1951): Useful Plants of India
and Pakistan. Bombay.
Das, P. S and M. Dutta Choudhury (2003):
A survey on non-conventional food
plants of southern Assam. J. Econ.
Taxon. Bot. 27(2): 416-420.
Anonymous, (1992): The useful plants of

India. Publication and Information
Directorate. CSIR. New Delhi.
Devi, M. (2003): Wild edible plants of

Sonitpur District, Assam. J. Econ.
Taxon. Bot. 27(2): 396-409.
Anonymous, (1948-1976): Wealth of India

(Raw materials) Vol. 1-11.CSIR
Publication. New Delhi.
Gopalan, C., B. V. Ramashastri and S. C.

Balsubramaniani (1976): Nutritive
value of Indian foods. I.C.M.R.,
New Delhi.
Arora, R.K. (1981): Native food plants of

north-eastern tribals. Pp. 91-106. in
Glimpses of Indian Ethnobotany.
Jain, S. K. (ed.) Oxford & IBH, New
Delhi.
Jain, S. K. (1964): Wild Food Plants of the

Tribals of Bastar (MP). Proc. Nat.
Inst. Sci. 30 B: 56-80.
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Jain, S. K. and J. N. De (1964): Some less

known plant foods among the Tribals
of Purulia (W.B.). Sci & Cult. 30:
285-286.
Jain, S. K. and P. K. Hajra (1977): Survey of
edible plants in bazaar of Meghalaya.
Bull. Meghalaya Sci. Soc.2: 29-33.
Kalita, D., N. J. Das and I. C. Barua (2003):
Assessment of essential elements and
heavy metal concentration in some
non-conventional leafy vegetables
naturally grown in Jorhat city of Assam.
Ecobios 2 (1 & 2): 28-33.
Pal, D.C. and D. K. Banerjee (1971): Some
less known food plants among the
tribals of Andhra Pradesh and Orissa
state. Bull. Bot. Surv. India 13: 221223.
Maheshwari, P. and U. Singh (1964):
Dictionary of Economic Plants of
India. New Delhi.
55
Maji, S. and J. K. Sikdar (1982): A taxonomic
survey and systematic census on the
edible wild plants of Midnapur district,
West Bengal. J. Econ. Tax. Bot. 3:
717-737.
Nath, A. and G. G. Maiti (2009):
Ethnobotanical studies of the Halam
tribes of Assam and Tripura, India. J.
Econ. Taxon. Bot. 33 (Suppl.): 282287.
Saklani, A and S. K. Jain (1994): Crosscultural Ethnobotany of North east
India. Deep Publication, New Delhi.
Singh, H. B. and R. K. Arora (1978): Wild
Edible Plants of India (1st Ed.) ICAR.
Publication. New Delhi.
Watt, G. (1889-1899): A dictionary of the
Economic Products of India
(Reprint Ed.). Cosmo Publ. Delhi,
India.
,Vol. 4, No. (1 & 2), 2011
ISSN : 0972-6446
56
Antimicrobial Activity of Leaf Extracts of Alpinia calcarata,

Bryophyllum pinnatum, Chromolena odorata, Mikania micrantha
and Osmunda japonica
Priyanka Daftery, M. K. Bhattacharya and Deepa Nath
Department of Botany and Biotechnology, Karimganj College, Karimganj, Assam, India.
ABSTRACT
Plants are the oldest source of pharmacologically important compounds. In
the present paper leaf extracts of five plants viz, Alpinia calcarata, Bryophyllum
pinnatum, Chromolena odorata, Mikania micrantha and Osmunda japonica have
been tested for antibacterial activities. It has been found that Alpinia calcarata is
most active with high bactericidal action against all test organisms. Among the
remaining species Bryophyllum pinnatum, Chromolena odorata, Mikania
micrantha and Osmunda japonica showed weak to moderate antibacterial efficacy
as evidenced by inhibition zones. Further, thin layer Chromatographic technique was
applied to separate different components from the leaf extracts of Alpinia calcarata.
It has been found that all the components inhibited growth of Bacillus subtilis and
Staphylococcus aureus, while Bacillus licheniformis was not inhibited by any
component. The isolate with Rf value 0.98 inhibited growth of Klebsiella
pneumoniae, E coli DH52, Bacillus subtilis and Staphylococcus aureus.
Key words: Antibacterial activity, leaf extracts, Alpinia calcarata, Bryophyllum
pinnatum,Chromolena odorata, Mikania micrantha and Osmunda japonica
INTRODUCTION
Screening of plants for antibacterial
substance possesses an enormous
challenge and it has become more
important especially with the emergence
of drug resistant pathogenic strains.
Antibacterial activity of extracts of

different parts of Alpinia calcarata
(rhizome), Bryophyllum pinnatum
(whole plant), Chromolena odorata
(leaves), Mikania micrantha (leaf) and
Osmunda vachelli (rhizome) have been
studied by George and Pandalai (1949),
,Vol. 4, No. (1 & 2), 2011
Akinsulire et. al. (2007), Owolabi et. al.

(2010), Ghosh et. al. (2008) and WenQin et. al. (2005) respectively against
certain micro-organisms. But the leaf
extracts of these plants are required to
be studied against different groups of
microbes belonging to saprophytic and
parasitic categories.

Plant materials used in the
present experiment are Alpinia
calcarata, Bryophyllum pinnatum,
Chromolena odorata, Mikania
micrantha and Osmunda japonica. The
test organisms include Bacillus
licheniformis, B. subtilis, E. coli
DH52, and Klebsiella pneumoniae and
Staphylococcus aureus. The plant
materials were collected and a
specimen of each plant was preserved
as herbarium specimen and deposited in
the Karimganj college herbarium. The
leaf extract of the above plants were
prepared separately using acetone,
petroleum ether and water as solvents in
the ratio 2:1 (W/V). Antimicrobial
assay was made using the method
described by Vincent and Vincent
(1944).Thin Layer Chromatographic
technique was employed to separate
different compounds from the leaf
extracts of Alpinia calcarata which
57
showed highest antimicrobial activity.

Further, antimicrobial assay was also
made with components isolated from
different spots in the TLC plate.

The plants used here are known
for their ethnobotanical uses
(Basnayake et. al., 1995; Pushpangadan
and Atal, 1984; Sharma and Singh,
1980; Jayaweera, 1982; Gill, 1992;
Sofowora, 1993 and others.). In the
present experiment Alpinia calcarata
showed highest antibacterial activity
against almost all test organisms. It has
been also found that the petroleum
ether extract of the leaves of Alpinia
calcarata was effective against Bacillus
licheniformis (7.5mm), Bacillus
subtilis (8.5mm), E coli DH52
(8.75mm) and Staphylococcus aureus
(9.0mm). Similarly acetone extract of
Alpinia calcarata also showed
excellent antibacterial properties
against Bacillus licheniformis
(9.25mm), Bacillus subtilis (7.25mm),
E. coli DH52 (8.5mm), and Klebsiella
pneumoniae (6.5mm) and Staphylococcus
aureus (5.75mm). The water extract of
A. calcarata showed an inhibition zone
of 8.5mm in case of Staphylococcus
aureus, 6.75mm against E coli DH52
and 6.25mm against Bacillus subtilis
,Vol. 4, No. (1 & 2), 2011
58
TABLE 1. Effect of water extract of leaves of selected plants against test

organisms using paper disc method of Vincent and Vincent (1944).
Name of the
plants
___M.
_________micrantha
___________________________
C.
odorata
_______________________________________
___O.
________japonica
____________________________
B.
pinnatum
_______________________________________
A. calcarata
Inhibition zone in mm (replicates of three observations)

Leaf
Bacillus
extract in
B.
E. coli
Klebsiella Staphylococcus
DH52 pneumoniae
aureus
solution of licheniformis subtilis
Water
____________0____________________6.5
_____________________0_____________________6
____________________________6______________
____________0___________________5.75
______________________0_____________________0
____________________________0______________
____________0____________________5.5
_____________________0_____________________0
____________________________0______________
0
0
7.5
0
______________________________________________________________________________________________________0______________
6.25
6.75
8.5
TABLE 2. Effect of Acetone extract of leaves of selected plants against test

organisms using paper disc method of Vincent and Vincent (1944).
Name of the
plants

Leaf
Bacillus
B.
E. coli
extract in
DH52 pneumoniae
aureus
___M.
_________micrantha
___________________________
__________5.5
______________________5.5
___________________10
____________________7.25
____________________________6.75
_________________
C.
odorata
6.75
5.5
5.75
5.5
_______________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________________0______________
___O.
________japonica
____________________________ Acetone __________6.5
________________________7___________________0_____________________0
_________________________6.75
_________________
___B.
________pinnatum
____________________________
__________6.5
________________________0________________6.75
________________________0
____________________________0______________
A. calcarata
9.25
7.25
8.5
6.5
5.75
TABLE 3. Effect of Petroleum Ether extract of leaves of selected plants against

test organisms using paper disc method of Vincent and Vincent (1944).
Name of the
plants

Leaf
Bacillus
B.
E. coli
extract in
DH52 pneumoniae
aureus
__M.
__________micrantha
___________________________
____________9______________________9___________________6_____________________7
____________________________6______________
__C.
_________odorata
____________________________ Petroleum ____________0______________________0___________________0_____________________0
____________________________7______________
__O.
_________japonica
____________________________ Ether ____________0______________________0___________________0_____________________0
____________________________0______________
A. calcarata
7.5
8.5
8.75
0
9
,Vol. 4, No. (1 & 2), 2011
59
TABLE 4. Determination of Rf value of different compounds extracted and

separated from A.calcarata leaf using TLC technique
Name of the Compound
plants
no.
Colour of
Distance
Distance
Rf value
compounds
travelled by
travelled by
found in TLC solvent in cm
solute in cm
____________1________________________Yellow
______________________
_________________________8.4
_________________________________________________________0.98
__________________________________
2
Black
7.5
0.88
__________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
A. calcarata ____________3___________________Dark
green
8.5
___________________________
_________________________5.6
_________________________________________________________0.65
__________________________________
4
Green
4.7
0.55
__________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
5
Yellow
3.7
0.43
TABLE 5. Effect of acetone of TLC separated compounds from leaf extract of

A. calcarata against test organisms.
Compound no. Rf Values
dissolved in
acetone
1
0.98
2
0.88
3
0.65
4
0.55
5
0.43

Bacillus
B.
E. coli
licheniformis subtilis
DH52 pneumoniae
aureus
____________0____________________16.5
__________________9.75
_________________________8___________________________7______________
____________0_____________________9.5
__________________8.5
________________________0________________________7.25
_________________
0
6.5
11
0
7.25
____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________0_____________________15
_________________6.25
_________________________0___________________________9______________
0
11
0
0
6.5
9
8
M. micrantha
C. odorata
O. japonica
B. pinnatum
A .calcarata
3
2
1
0
B. licheniformis
B. subtilis
E. coli DH52
Klebsiella
pneumoniae
Staphylococcus
aureus
Fig. 1. Effect of water extract of leaves of selected plants against test organisms using paper
disc method by plotting the test organisms on X axis and inhibition zone in mm on Y axis.
,Vol. 4, No. (1 & 2), 2011
60
12
M. micrantha
10
C. odorata
O. japonica
B. pinnatum
A .calcarata
4
2
0
B. licheniformis
B. subtilis
E. coli DH52
Klebsiella
pneumoniae
Staphylococcus
aureus
Fig. 2. Effect of acetone extract of leaves of selected plants against test organisms
using paper disc method by plotting the test organisms on X axis and inhibition
zone in mm on Y axis.
10
9
8
M. micrantha
C. odorata
A .calcarata
5
4
3
2
1
0
B. licheniformis
B. subtilis
E. coli
DH52
Klebsiella
pneumoniae
Staphylococcus
aureus
Fig. 3. Effect of petroleum ether extract of leaves of selected plants against test organisms using paper
disc method by plotting the test organisms on X axis and inhibition zone in mm on Y axis
,Vol. 4, No. (1 & 2), 2011
61
18
compound 1
16
compound 2
14
compound 3
12
compound 4
10
compound 5
8
6
4
2
0
B. licheniformis
B. subtilis
E. coli DH52
Klebsiella
pneumoniae
Staphylococcus
aureus
Fig. 4. Effect of acetone extract of TLC separated compounds against test organisms using
paper disc method by plotting the test organisms on X axis and inhibition zone in mm on Y axis.
whereas it showed negative results in

case of Bacillus licheniformis and
Klebsiella pneumoniae. Among the
remaining species Bryophyllum
pinnatum, Chromolena odorata,
Mikania micrantha and Osmunda
japonica showed moderate antibacterial
efficacy as evidenced by the inhibition
zones. When the compounds were
separated from leaf extract of Alpinia
calcarata by TLC and tested against the
test organisms. All the components
inhibited growth of Bacillus subtilis
and Staphylococcus aureus. It has been
found that the compound with Rf value
0.98 inhibited growth of Bacillus
subtilis (16.5mm), E coli DH52
(9.75mm), Klebsiella pneumoniae
(8.0mm) and Staphylococcus aureus
(7.0mm). The compounds with Rf value
0.88, o.65, 0.55 and 0.43 also showed

antibacterial activity but these were not
uniform against all the aforesaid
species. It is interesting to note here
that the leaf extract of Alpinia
calcarata was effective against Bacillus
licheniformis but none of the isolated
compounds were effective against this
micro-organism. It may be due to the
fact that the active principle of this leaf
extract is effective only when more
than one component is present together
as antimicrobial substance. It may be
mentioned here that the rhizome of
Alpinia calcarata has been used bythe
ayurvedic physicians in Sri Lanka
against arthritis (Basnayake et. al.,
1995). George and Pandalai (1949)
studied the rhizome extracts of Alpinia
calcarata against Gram positive and
,Vol. 4, No. (1 & 2), 2011
Gram negative organisms and found

positive results.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors are thankful to
Institutional Biotech Hub, Karimganj
College for support.
REFERENCES
1. O.R. Akinsulire, I.E. Aibinu, T.
Adenipekun, T. Adelowotan, and T.
Odugbemi. In vitro antimicrobial activity
of crude extracts from plants
Bryophyllum pinnatum and Kalanchoe
crenata. Afr. J. trad, CAM. 2007, 4 (3):
338-344.
2. C. S. Basnayake, L. S. R. Arambewalla,
P. Serasinge, M. S. A. Tissera, S. Dias, and
D. R. Weerasekere. Traditional treatment
in Sri Lanka for chronic Arthritis. NARSA,
Colombo, Sri Lanka, 1995
3. M.George, and K. M. Pandalai.
Investigaions of Plant antibiotics. Indian
J. Med. Res. 1949 37: 169-181.
4. A.Ghosh, B. K. Das, and G. Chandra.
Antibacterial Activity of some Medicinal
Plant extract. J. Nat. Med., 2008, 62(2):
259-262.
5. L.S. Gill. In The ethnomedical uses
of plants in Nigeria. Published by
University of Benin Press, University of
Benin, Benin City, Edho State. 1992, Pp
46: 143.
62
6. D.M. Jayaweera. Medicinal plants

used in Ceylon. National Science
Council of Sri Lanka, 1982, 5: 213.
7. M. S. Owolabi, O. K .Yusuf, L.
Lazidez, H. E. Villanueva, J. A. Tuten, and
W.N. Setzer. Chemical composition and
Bioactivity of the Essential oil of
Chromolena odorata from Nigeria. Rec.
Nat. Prod. 2010, 4(1): 72-78.
8. P. Pushpangadan, C.K. Atal. Ethnomedico-botanical Investigations in
Kerela. J. Ethnopharmacol, 1984, 11:
59-77.
9. A.K. Sharma and R.H. Singh. Screening
of anti-inflammatory activity of certain
drugs on carragenin induced hind paw
oedema in rats. J. Bull. Med. Res., 1980,
11: 262-277.
10. A. Sofowora. In Medicinal plants
and traditional medicines in Africa.
Published by Spectrum books Ltd.
Ibadan, 1993.
11. J.G. Vincent and H.W. Vincent. Filter
paper disc modifications of the Oxford
cup penicillin determination. Proc. Soc.
Exp. Med., 1944, 55: 162-164.
12. T. Wen-Qin, L. Xiao-Yan, M. XuFeng, H. Li-Yi and M. Shen-Yu. In vitro
antibacterial activities of extracts from
four plants used as traditional Chinese
Medicine Guanzhong. J. of Wuhn
Botanical Research, 2009 4: 15.
,Vol. 4, No. (1 & 2), 2011
GUIDELINES 63
FOR AUTHORS
1) The objective of the journal is to publish original papers dealing with basic and applied research
in Biology, Biometry, Ecology, Environmental Economics and Econometrics to promote the
academic and research activities.
2) Manuscripts should be written in English. They should be type-written in double space, leaving
enough margin and submitted in duplicate along with a Compact Disk (CD) containing the
article typed in PageMaker, Microsoft Word or LeapOffice.
3) Papers should be original, clear and concise. They should fall in any of the two categories (i) full communications, not exceeding ten pages of typescript and (ii) brief communications,
not exceeding three pages of the typescript including illustrations and tables. The papers
meant for category (i) only should be divided in main headings : Abstract, Inotroduction,
Materials and Methods, Results and Discussion and References. The papers for category (ii)
should be in running from and References added at the end of the paper. Both the categories
of the papers must contain the authors name and the address below the main title.
4) The contents of the paper should be arranged in the following manner : (1) The title, (2) Author
(s) name, (3) Authors address, (4) Abstract, (5) Key words, (6) Introduction, (7) Materials and
Methods, (8) Result and Discussion and (10) References. The references should include - (a)
Name of the author (s), (b) Year of publication, (c) Name of the paper, (d) Name of the Journal,
(e) Volume and (f) Pages. The papers should be neatly typed on one side of A4 size bond
paper.
5) The list of references should include only publications cited in the text. They should be arranged
alphabetically and the following examples be followed :
For full paper :
Bhattacharya, M.K.; Nath, A. & Baishya, A.K. (1995) : Pteridophytic flora of North Cachar
Hills District, Assam, India. Indian Fern J. 12 : 146 - 158.
For Brief communications :
Bhattacharya, M.K.; New Botanist, 1994, 21, 125 - 127.
6) Papers should be carefully revised by the authors and should be in the final form for printing.
They are accepted for publication upon advice received from referee.
7) Illustration should be kept minimum in number and numbered consecutively in Arabic numerals
( e. g. Fig. 1 etc.). Photographs should be on glossy paper with high contrast. Legends for
figures should be listed consecutively on a separate sheet of paper.
8) Each table should be typed on a saparate sheet of paper. Tables should be numbered
consecutively and attached at the end of the text.
9) Proofs may be sent to the authors for correction, if necessary.
10) All authors must be members of the society. The life (Rs.1000/-) annual membership fees
(Rs.80/- + admission fees Rs. 20/-) may be sent through demand draft, drawn in favour of
Society for Biometry Ecology & Econometrics payble at Karimganj. Please send full details
about your (a) Present address, (b) Permanent address, (c) Research interest and (d) Present
occupational status.
11) There will be no printing charges. However, the authors (s) will have to pay the cost of reprints
at the rate of Rs. 160/- per printed page(50). No manuscript will be accepted for publication
without order for 50 reprints. On compliance the paper will be processed for evaluation by
referees
12) All correspondence should be sent to the following address :
M.K. Bhattacharya, General Secretary, Society for Biometry Ecology & Econometrics,
Karimganj Collage, Karimganj : 788 710, Assam.
,Vol. 4, No. (1 & 2), 2011
64
ISSN : 0972-6446
CONTENTS
1. Classification, Molecular Phylogeny, and Heterospory of
Pteridophytes. v Masahiro Kato (pp. 4-8)
2. Biodiversity Of Aphids (Order Hemiptera) From Agroecosystems
Of Satara District. v Jadhav B. V. and T. V. Sathe (pp. 9-13)
3. Fodder Legume Diversity for Cattles in the Upper Brahmaputra Valley
Zone, Assam. v Arunima Das Hazarika , I.C. Barua and P.K.
Boruah (pp.14-23)
4. Environmental Acid Stress In A Hill Stream Fish, Devario
Aequipinnatus: A Scanning Electron Microscopic Evaluation. v Sudip
Dey And Sarah M Kharbuli (pp. 24-30)
5. Sustainable Management of Degraded Jhum Fallow through
Plantation of Thysanolaena Maxima (Roxb.) O. Ktze (Broom Grass)
in Different Spacing Trial. Kuntala. v N. Barua, Indrani P. Bora
and Arundhati Baruah (pp. 31-38)
6. Socio-cultural Value of Ficus species in Assamese Society.
v Sajida Begum and I. C. Barua (pp. 38-44)
7. An Ethnobotanical Report on less-known Leafy Vegetables
Consumed by Different Communities of Barak Valley, Assam, India.
v Ashis Nath and G. G. Maiti. (pp. 45-55)
8. Antimicrobial Activity of Leaf Extracts of Alpinia calcarata,
Bryophyllum pinnatum, Chromolena odorata, Mikania micrantha and
Osmunda japonica. v Priyanka Daftery, M. K. Bhattacharya and
Deepa Nath (pp. 56-63)
Published by Dr. M. K. Bhattacharya, General Secretary, Society for Biometry,
Ecology and Econometrics (BEES) for and on behalf of BEES, Karimganj and
printed at CLASSIC COMPUTER, Station Road, Karimganj.

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ISSN : 0972-6446

,Vol. 4, No. (1 & 2), 2011

l Volume 4, Number (1 & 2), December 2011

SOCIETY FOR BIOMETRY, ECOLOGY & E COMETRICS (BEES)

SOCIETY FOR BIOMETRY, ECOLOGY & ECONOMETRICS (BEES)

EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE : 2011-12

Dr. Amal Chandra Sharma

Dr. Mrinal Kanti Bhattacharya

Gaurish Chandra Roy

Shri Shobhan Sen

Dr. Sakhi Dutta

Dr. Pranab B. Mazumder

Copyright Society for

Biometry, Ecology & Econometrics. All rights

,Vol. 4, No. (1 & 2), 2011

l Volume 4, Number (1 & 2), December 2011

--------------------------- ADVISORY BOARD -------------------------1. Prof. Badrul Amin Bhuiya

5. Dr. Asish Nath

2. Hit Kishore Goswami

6. Prof. I.C. Baruah

3. Prof. (Retd) P.C. Bhattacharjee

7. Dr. Sudip Dey

Assam University, Silchar, Cachar, Assam.

-------------------------- EDITORIAL BOARD -------------------------1. Dr. B. K Dev

4. Dr. Partha Sarathi Das

,Vol. 4, No. (1 & 2), 2011

CLASSIFICATION, MOLECULAR PHYLOGENY,

Equisetopsida is characterized by the

,Vol. 4, No. (1 & 2), 2011

small capsule and from the distal to oblique

,Vol. 4, No. (1 & 2), 2011

induced chloroplast photorelocation, thereby

MONOPHYLY AND PARAPHYLY

,Vol. 4, No. (1 & 2), 2011

seed plants, which have thrived in the

,Vol. 4, No. (1 & 2), 2011

means of the same vector (e.g. birds) and/

Schneider, H., E. Schuettpelz, K. M. Pryer,

,Vol. 4, No. (1 & 2), 2011

BIODIVERSITY OF APHIDS (ORDER HEMIPTERA) FROM

are obligatory parasites of plants. There

,Vol. 4, No. (1 & 2), 2011

affected. The aphids are very destructive

MATERIALS AND METHODS

,Vol. 4, No. (1 & 2), 2011

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Sunflower Helianthus annus Linn.

Cereal crops :Jowar Sorghum vulgare Pers.

Rhopalosiphum maidis Fitch

,Vol. 4, No. (1 & 2), 2011

Cauliflower Brassica botrytis Linn.

Aphis gossypii Glover

Cretovacuna lanigera Zehnt.

Sugarcane - Saccharum officinalis

Aphis gossypii Glover

Fruit plants:Mango Mangifera indica Linn.

,Vol. 4, No. (1 & 2), 2011

Ceratovacuna lanigera is widely

,Vol. 4, No. (1 & 2), 2011

Fodder Legume Diversity for Cattles in the

concentrates; and reduced cost of feeding

,Vol. 4, No. (1 & 2), 2011

available cattle as fodder supplements.

MATERIALS AND METHODS