02 EE M EE Trafos A

Electric Equipment QP 2013-2014
ELECTRIC EQUIPMENT
POWER TRANSFORMERS
POWER TRANSFORMERS
Reversible electrical machine that converts electrical energy
in the form U1, I1, f into another in the form U2, I2, f.
i1
u1
i2
N1
u2
N2
r =
d

d
d
d
79
POWER TRANSFORMERS
As the magnetic flux is sinusoidal, it can be expressed as a

phasor
=
cos
And then, voltages are

=
Voltages are in phase. The ratio of transformation is

defined as

80
POWER TRANSFORMERS
If you connect a load to the secondary will satisfy

The ideal transformer does not dissipate energy (neither active
nor reactive) then

1

N1
f
i1
u1
i2
N2
r =
u2
Z2
81
POWER TRANSFORMERS
According to the signs convention currents are 180 out of
phase and their modules satisfy
1
=
The impedance Z1 that is viewed from the primary side

i2
N1
f
i1
u1
u2
N2
Z2
r =
82
POWER TRANSFORMERS
Nearly ideal transformer: r
i1
u1
i2
N1
f
B, l, s, r
+
=
u2
N2
d
d
=
=
d
d
d
d
=
=
d
=
d
+
d
d
+
d
d
d
d
d
= 410
H
m
83
POWER TRANSFORMERS
Nearly ideal transformer: r
i1
u1
i2
N1
u2
N2
B, l, s, r
We know that
We name mutual induction coefficient the following value

=
84
POWER TRANSFORMERS
Nearly ideal transformer:
As we assume that all the flux into primary side is concatenated
into the secondary side (perfect coupling) we have

and, therefore,
=
d
+
d
d

d
In matrix form:
=
d
+
d
d
d
d
d
d
d
85
POWER TRANSFORMERS
Nearly ideal transformer:

In sinusoidal steady state results in

Magnetic coupling!
86
POWER TRANSFORMERS
Nearly ideal trafo under no-load

Under no-load secondary current is null (I2 = 0). Hence
=
The current consumed by the transformer under no-load is

called magnetizing current

87
POWER TRANSFORMERS

We define
=
=
=
=
Magnetizing currents satisfy

Magnetizing flux is

88
POWER TRANSFORMERS

Magnetizing flux is exactly the same whatever side is the
one connected to the power supply:

=1
89
POWER TRANSFORMERS
Nearly ideal trafo under load
i1
u1
i2
N1
u2
N2
B, l, s, r
Voltages, in sinusoidal steady state, are

=
=
+
+
+
90
POWER TRANSFORMERS

=
=
+
1
Primary current is the sum of a fix part (magnetizing) and a

part that depends on the load (current consumed by the
ideal transformer with the same load).
91
POWER TRANSFORMERS

When the load of the transformer is large, we can consider
that the transformer is ideal, since

>>
Under no-load, in the contrary, transformer behaves like a

large value inductance as

92
POWER TRANSFORMERS

Does not matter whether nearly ideal transformer is under
load or under no-load, primary and secondary voltages
satisfy rt:

1+
1+

=
93
POWER TRANSFORMERS

At what flux does nearly ideal transformer work?
Remembering
=
we have
Flux proportional to the voltage and independent of the load! 94
POWER TRANSFORMERS

Currents do not satisfy rt:
+
1
95
POWER TRANSFORMERS

But primary effective current and secondary current YES!

1
+
=

96
POWER TRANSFORMERS

Power balance
=
=
97
POWER TRANSFORMERS

Equivalent circuit (referred to primary):

The values Z, I2 and U2 are the secondary ones referred to primary
98
POWER TRANSFORMERS
N-i trafo with R in windings

Windings resistance can be considered concentrated and
outside the transformer
i1
R1
v1
R2
u1
N1
f
=
=
+
+
u2
N2
B, l, s, r
i2
v2
They dissipate power, copper losses:

=
99
POWER TRANSFORMERS
N-i trafo with R in windings

i1
R1
v1
R2
u1
N1
u2
N2
i2
v2
B, l, s, r
Due to windings resistance, we have
However,
As R1 and R2 are (and must be) small (voltage drop and losses)
100
POWER TRANSFORMERS
Trafo values referred to primary

101
POWER TRANSFORMERS
Trafo values referred to secondary

102
POWER TRANSFORMERS
N-i T. with leakage in windings

Part of the flux is closed with air path and it is not concatenated
by both windings!
i1
u1
i2
N1
d
d
d
d
d
d
d
+
d
u2
N2
f
B, l, s, r
Typically
103
POWER TRANSFORMERS

C
i1
u1
i2
N1
=
=
We define
u2
N2
f
B, l, s, r
104
POWER TRANSFORMERS

C
i1
u1
i2
N1
u2
N2
f
B, l, s, r
Substituting in the previous equations results in:

=
d
;
d
d
+
d
d
+
d
d
d
Magnetic coupling is not ideal. Global inductances are

defined as:
=
+
; =
+

=
<

105
POWER TRANSFORMERS

=
d
+
d
d
;
d
d
+
d
In sinusoidal steady state:
d
d

Coupling factor is defined as:

=
From now on we will use the following notation:

=
106
POWER TRANSFORMERS

Equivalent circuit referred to primary

107
POWER TRANSFORMERS
N-i trafo with losses in iron

Iron losses are of two types:
- Hysteresis
,
where Kh is a constant that depends on material

- Eddy currents
=
where Kf is a constant that depends on material

108
POWER TRANSFORMERS

Global iron losses are
1
2
2
1
2
So we can associate a fictitious R for iron losses
109
POWER TRANSFORMERS

Equivalent circuit referred to primary

110
POWER TRANSFORMERS

Equivalent circuit referred to secondary

=
111
POWER TRANSFORMERS
Equivalent circuit of real trafo

Referred to primary

112
POWER TRANSFORMERS

Referred to secondary

113
POWER TRANSFORMERS

Cases in which simplify equivalent circuit of real transformer
is correct and the accuracy is not greatly compromised
Calculation
purposes
Simplifications
No-Load
PFe, Img
R1 0
Under Load
U, PCu
RFe
SHORTCIRCUIT
ICC
Conditions
Xd1 0
I2 = 0
Xmg
RFe ; Xmg ;
typically R1, R2 << Xd1, Xd2
V2 = 0
114
POWER TRANSFORMERS
Transformer under no-load

Results from no-load test:

due to
A1
U1
V1
W1
Transformer
V2
115
POWER TRANSFORMERS
Transformer under load

From a certain level of secondary transferred power, values of
Img and IFe are very small in comparison to I1 and, therefore,
simplification of equivalent circuit can be accepted.
=
In order to calculate power and efficiency, transversal branch

is never negligible!
= +
+

116
POWER TRANSFORMERS
Transformer under short-circuit

Results from short-circuit test:
=
=
100

pu

=
A1
=
=
pu
W1
V1

=0
pu
(if ideal grid)
Transformer
% =
A2
117
POWER TRANSFORMERS
Transformer nameplate
The information displayed on the nameplate of the
transformer are:
,
rated voltages and rated apparent power
rated frequency
,
noload losses and shortcircuit voltage

,
rated currents
noload current primary and rated copper losses
118
POWER TRANSFORMERS
Transformer efficiency
The ratio of the output active power (trafo delivered power)
to the input active power (trafo consumed power) is called
the efficiency of the transformer:
efficiency =
Delivered active power

Consumed active power
=
Usually it is given in %
(%) = 100
= 100
+
119
POWER TRANSFORMERS
Voltage drop in a transformer

Voltage drop in a transformer is defined as the difference
between the ideal transformer expected voltage and the
real voltage. Hence, the voltage drop in % is defined as:
% = 100
Clearly, if the transformer is supplied with the primary rated

voltage, the expected voltage in the secondary is the rated
secondary voltage.
120
POWER TRANSFORMERS
Autotransformers
Advantages: Less volume of iron and copper, and thus
more lightweight and economical.
Disadvantage: Galvanic isolation is lost. If you break a turn
in the common part, the entire input voltage appears at the
output!
I
I
1
I2
U1
N1-N2
I2
N1
N2
Transformer
U1
U2
N2
U2
Autotransformer
121
POWER TRANSFORMERS
Exercise
The figure represents the single line diagram of a single
phase installation
TR
Line
TR: SR = 10 kVA
Line: R = 0,05
Load: PR = 6 kW
UR = 440/120 V
fdpR = 0,8 (i)
SC = 5 %
PCuR = 1,5 %
Load
I0 = 2 %
P0 = 0,6 %
UR = 110 V
122
POWER TRANSFORMERS
Exercise
TR
Line
Load
Knowing that the voltage in the load is the rated one, determine:
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
Transformer currents
Percentage voltage drops in the line and in the transformer
Line, transformer and total efficiencies
Primary and secondary transformer currents in case of a short-circuit at the
secondary
Primary and secondary transformer currents in case of a short-circuit at the
end of the line
Current and active and reactive powers in case of load disconnection
123
POWER TRANSFORMERS
Exercise
From single line diagram we can get the single phase circuit:
a

=
=
120
= 0,072
10000
pu
= 0,05
pu
= 0,015
= 68,68 m
= 2 = 0,1
120
= 21,6 m
10000
= 110 V
124
POWER TRANSFORMERS
Exercise
a

sin
1 cos
= 68,18 A
6000 1
=
1 0,8
0,8
110
=
= 68,18
= 54,55 40,91 A
120
= 18,6 A
440
125
POWER TRANSFORMERS
Exercise
a
= 0,1 54,55 40,91 + 110 = 115,45 4,1 V
= 115,53 V
= + =
115,45 4,1 + 0,0216 + 0,06868 54,55 40,91 = 119,44 1,23 V
= 119,45 V
= 100
= 100
440
119,45 = 437,98 V
120
115,53 110
= 4,61 %
120
119,45 115,53
= 100
= 3,27 %
120
= 100
= 7,88 %
126
POWER TRANSFORMERS
Exercise
a

With respect to UR:
= 100
= 100
= 100
= 100
115,53 110
= 5,03 %
110
119,45 115,53
= 3,56 %
110
= 8,59 %
127
POWER TRANSFORMERS
Exercise
a
= 0,1 68,18 = 464,85 W

=
pu
= 0,006 10000
% = 100
% = 100
+
+
% = 100
pu
= 0,0216 68,18 = 100,41 W
437,98
440
= 59,45 W
= 100
6000
= 92,81 %
6000 + 464,85
= 100
6464,85
= 97,59 %
6464,85 + 59,45 + 100,41
pu = 100 0,9281 0,9759 = 90,57 %
128
POWER TRANSFORMERS
Exercise
a

119,45
= 1659 A
0,072
=

+
=
= 1659
120
= 452,5 A
440
119,45
= 855,3 A
0,1216 + 0,06868
= 855,3
120
= 233,3 A
440
129
POWER TRANSFORMERS
Exercise
a

=
=
pu
=
=
= 59,45 W
pu = 10000 0,02 0,006 = 190,8 var
= 190,8
pu
437,98
440
= 189,1 var
pu
= 0,02
10000 437,98
= 0,452 A
440 440
130
POWER TRANSFORMERS
Three-phase transformers
In order to transform a three-phase system in a different
voltage one, three identical single-phase transformers can
be used (TR1 = TR2 = TR3). It can be connected in wye or
in delta on either side.
U1
TR1
U2
U1
TR2
U2
U1
TR3
U2
131
POWER TRANSFORMERS
The ratio of transformation of the three-phase bank does
not necessarily coincide with the ratio of transformation of a
single transformer. For instance:
A
a
U1
TR1
U2
= 3
b
U1
TR2
U2
c
U1
TR3
U2
132
POWER TRANSFORMERS
Three-phase banks are only used in very specific installations
as they can cause problems in front of unbalanced load.
A three-phase transformer with columns (3 or 5, but windings
only in the three central columns) has a primary winding and
a secondary winding in each column.
Primary and secondary winding connections can be in wye,
delta or zigzag. Depending on the connections we will obtain
different properties and ratios of transformation.
133
POWER TRANSFORMERS
134
POWER TRANSFORMERS
Wye connection:
The neutral can be accessible (there may be phase to
neutral voltages) and the line current and the branch
current (the current of one winding) are equal.
Each winding has to withstand phase to neutral voltage.
135
POWER TRANSFORMERS
Delta connection:
Each winding is made to withstand phase to phase voltage,
but inside it only circulates the line current divided by root 3.
We need root 3 times more turns than in wye connection.
There is no neutral wire.
136
POWER TRANSFORMERS
Zigzag connection:
Two windings per phase are needed. The line current will
flow through these windings. We need more turns than in the
case of wye connection (two divided by root 3 more turns).
The neutral is accessible and it is only used when the load is
strongly asymmetric.
137
POWER TRANSFORMERS
Phase displacement:
The winding voltages of each column will be in phase or
with 180 phase displacement (depending on where are the
homologous points of the windings).
Due to three-phase system symmetric it can be shown that
any phase displacement in wye, delta or zigzag windings is
a multiple of /6 regardless of the connection. Given that
there are only 12 possible lags, this was assimilated to a
clock that had the long handle to twelve (high voltage side,
primary) and the short handle corresponding to the same
secondary voltage.
138
POWER TRANSFORMERS
The phase displacement assumes the transformer fed by
the high voltage side with a direct sequence three-phase
system. A change in the sequence implies a change in the
phase displacement.
U
AN
Uca
Uab
UCN
UBN
Ubc
12
UAN
Uan
139
6
POWER TRANSFORMERS
IEC vector group code:
IEC vector group code of a transformer provides a simple way
of indicating how the internal connections of a transformer are
arranged. Capital letter for high voltage side and lower case
letters for low voltage side. The phase displacement is also
indicated. If the neutral wire is present it has to be indicated
with the letter n (capital or lower case accordingly).
Example: Dyn11
High voltage side is delta connected, low voltage side is wye
connected (and has neutral wire) and the phase displacement
is 1130, that is, 330.
140
POWER TRANSFORMERS
Connection of transformers in parallel:
In order to connect two transformers in parallel the following
requirements have to be fulfilled:
- The same rt (and the same UN if possible)
- The same CC (and the same cos CC if possible)
- The same phase displacement
These conditions imply that with the same level of loading the
output voltages are equal in module. Are equal in phase if the
conditions in brackets are also fulfilled. It is recommended
that the power ratio of the transformers is less than 2.
141
POWER TRANSFORMERS
Exercise
TR
MV Line
LV Line
Load
The figure represents the single line diagram of a

three-phase installation.
TR: SR = 620 kVA UR = 10/0,44 kV CC = 5 % PCuR = 1 % I0 = 1 % P0 = 0,6 % Dyn11
MV Line: R = 6 X = 6
LV Line: R = 0,01 X = 0
fdpR = 0,8 (i)
UR = 400 V
Load: PR = 500 kW
142
POWER TRANSFORMERS
Exercise
TR
MV Line
LV Line
Load
Knowing that the voltage at the beginning of the installation

is 10,5 kV, determine:
1) Percentage voltage drops in lines and in the transformer
2) Lines, transformer and total efficiencies
3) Primary and secondary transformer currents in case of a shortcircuit at the secondary
4) Primary and secondary transformer currents in case of a shortcircuit at the end of the LV line
143
POWER TRANSFORMERS
Exercise
a
pu
0,4
= 204,8 + 153,6 m
0,5
0,8 0,6
0,8
= 0,05
pu
0,44
= 15,61 m
0,62
= 0,01
0,44
= 3,12 m
0,62
=
= 15,3 m
144
POWER TRANSFORMERS
Exercise
a
=6
= 10,5
0,44
10
= 11,62 m
440
= 462 V;
10
462
3
=6
0,44
10
= 266,7 V;
= 11,62 m
= 266,7 V
+
266,7
=
= 717,9 564,6 A
11,62 + 11,62 + 3,12 + 15,3 + 10 + 204,8 + 153,6

= 913,3 A
145
POWER TRANSFORMERS
Exercise
a
= 204,8 + 153,6 0,7179 0,5646 = 233,7 5,36 V

= 233,8 V;
= 3
= 233,7 5,36 + 0,01 717,9 564,6 = 240,9 11 V

= 241,2 V;
= 404,96 V
= 3
= 417,7 V
= 240,9 11 + 3,12 + 15,3 0,7179 0,5646 = 251,8 1,8 V
= 251,8 V;
= 3
= 436,1 V;
= 9,913 kV
146
POWER TRANSFORMERS
Exercise
a
With respect to load rated voltage:
% = 100
% = 100
% = 100
= 100
417,7 404,96
= 3,185 %
400
= 100
436,1 417,7
= 4,6 %
400
= 100
462 436,1
= 6,475 %
400
147
POWER TRANSFORMERS
Exercise
a
With respect to transformer rated voltage:
% = 100
% = 100
% = 100
= 100
417,7 404,96
= 2,895 %
440
= 100
436,1 417,7
= 4,182 %
440
= 100
462 436,1
= 5,886 %
440
148
POWER TRANSFORMERS
Exercise
a
= 3
= 3 0,2048 913,3 = 512,48 kW
= 3
= 3 0,01 913,3 = 25,02 kW
= 3
= 3 0,00312 913,3 = 7,81 kW
=
= 3
pu
= 0,006 620

9,913
10
= 3,66 kW
= 3 0,01162 913,3 = 29,1 kW

149
POWER TRANSFORMERS
Exercise
a
% = 100
% = 100
+
+
pu
512,48
= 95,35 %
512,48 + 25,02
= 100
% = 100
% = 100
+
+
+
= 100
+
+
pu
537,5
= 97,91 %
537,5 + 3,66 + 7,81
= 100
548,97
= 94,97 %
548,97 + 29,1
pu = 100 0,9497 0,9791 0,9535 = 88,66 %

150
POWER TRANSFORMERS
Exercise
a
266,7
= 8,69 kA
11,62 + 11,62 + 3,12 + 15,3
Current in the secondary:

= 8,69 kA
Current in the primary:

= 8,69
0,44
= 382,4 A
10
151
POWER TRANSFORMERS
Exercise
a
266,7
= 7,29 kA
11,62 + 11,62 + 3,12 + 15,3 + 10
Current in the secondary:

= 7,29 kA
Current in the primary:

= 7,29
0,44
= 321 A
10
152
POWER TRANSFORMERS
Exercise
The figure represents the single line diagram of a three-phase
installation.
TR1
Line
TR2
Load
TR1=TR2: SR = 4,5 MVA UR = 20/6 kV SC = 5 % PCuR = 1 % I0 = 1,7 % P0 = 0,7 %

Line: R = 100 m X = 300 m
fdpR = 0,96 (i)
UR = 6 kV
Load: PR = 8000 kW
153
POWER TRANSFORMERS
Exercise
TR1
Line
TR2
Load
Knowing that voltage at the load is 6 kV, determine:

1) Percentage voltage drops in the line and in transformers
2) Line, transformers and total efficiencies
3) Primary and secondary transformer currents in case of a shortcircuit at the load
4) Primary and secondary transformer currents in case of a shortcircuit at the secondary
154

02 EE M EE Trafos A

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Electric Equipment QP 2013-2014

Electric Equipment QP 2013-2014

As the magnetic flux is sinusoidal, it can be expressed as a

And then, voltages are

Voltages are in phase. The ratio of transformation is

The ideal transformer does not dissipate energy (neither active

nor reactive) then

Electric Equipment QP 2013-2014

The impedance Z1 that is viewed from the primary side

Electric Equipment QP 2013-2014

We name mutual induction coefficient the following value

Electric Equipment QP 2013-2014

Nearly ideal transformer:

Nearly ideal trafo under no-load

The current consumed by the transformer under no-load is

Electric Equipment QP 2013-2014

Nearly ideal trafo under no-load

Magnetizing currents satisfy

Nearly ideal trafo under no-load

Electric Equipment QP 2013-2014

Nearly ideal trafo under load

Voltages, in sinusoidal steady state, are

Nearly ideal trafo under load

Primary current is the sum of a fix part (magnetizing) and a

Electric Equipment QP 2013-2014

Nearly ideal trafo under load

Under no-load, in the contrary, transformer behaves like a

Nearly ideal trafo under load

Electric Equipment QP 2013-2014

Nearly ideal trafo under load

Flux proportional to the voltage and independent of the load! 94

Nearly ideal trafo under load

Electric Equipment QP 2013-2014

Nearly ideal trafo under load

Nearly ideal trafo under load

Electric Equipment QP 2013-2014

Nearly ideal trafo under load

The values Z, I2 and U2 are the secondary ones referred to primary

N-i trafo with R in windings

They dissipate power, copper losses:

Electric Equipment QP 2013-2014

N-i trafo with R in windings

Due to windings resistance, we have

Trafo values referred to primary

Electric Equipment QP 2013-2014

Trafo values referred to secondary

N-i T. with leakage in windings

Electric Equipment QP 2013-2014

N-i T. with leakage in windings

N-i T. with leakage in windings

Substituting in the previous equations results in:

Magnetic coupling is not ideal. Global inductances are

Electric Equipment QP 2013-2014

N-i T. with leakage in windings

In sinusoidal steady state:

Coupling factor is defined as:

From now on we will use the following notation:

N-i T. with leakage in windings

Electric Equipment QP 2013-2014

N-i trafo with losses in iron

where Kh is a constant that depends on material

where Kf is a constant that depends on material

N-i trafo with losses in iron