REPRODUCTION IN ANIMALS

Reproduction is a characteristic of life. Since it is important for the continuation of a species.

There are two types of reproduction: sexual and asexual.
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION (ONE PARENT)
This occurs when an individual produces an offspring without fertilization, thus only one parent
is involved. It involves cell division by mitosis; the offspring are genetically identical to the
parent and to each other. It is considered conservative since less energy is required.
Examples of asexual reproduction
1. Binary Fission (e.g. of bacteria and Amoeba) occurs when a cell simply grows larger,
replicates its DNA in genes and chromosomes, and then forms a cell membrane down the
mid-section of the cell to form 2 new 'daughter' cells.
2. Budding (e.g. of yeast and hydras) occurs when a small part of the parent's body
separates from the rest and develops into a new individual, eventually either becoming an
independent organism or part of an attached colony.
3. Spore Formation (e.g. of ferns, malaria-causing protozoan called Plasmodium) occurs
where special cells with resistant coverings form. These coverings are resistant to
unfavourable environmental conditions such as heat, cold or dryness.
4. Fragmentation (e.g. of flatworms and starfish) occurs when a parent body is broken into
pieces, and each piece may form a new individual.
5. Regeneration (e.g. of many plants) occurs when part of an organism grows to form other
organisms that are often still connected to the original organism. Examples of
regeneration in plants are the vegetative propagation of runners of grasses and
strawberries, rhizomes in ferns, tubers in potatoes, and growing plants from cuttings.
6. Parthenogenesis (e.g. of bees, wasps, some cockroaches, and liver flukes inside a host)
occurs when a new organism develops from an unfertilised egg. For example, in
honeybees, the female or queen honeybee is inseminated just once in her lifetime. The
sperm she receives are stored in a little pouch connected to the genital tract, and closed
off by a muscular valve. As the queen lays eggs, she can either open this valve permitting
sperm to fertilise them (to become female queens or female workers), or she can keep the
valve closed so that unfertilised develop into male drones.

Advantages of asexual reproduction

numerous offspring can be produced without "costing" the parent a great amount of
energy or time

 it doesnt require a second partner

large numbers of offspring can be produced
offspring are identical to the parent so they will be able to make use of favourable
conditions
offspring can be produced quickly and continuously
organism doesnt need to travel to propagate the species
since it allow no variation no mutations which are negative can be passed on
Disadvantages of asexual reproduction
since there is no genetic variation if the environment is changing the offspring may find it
difficult to survive
overcrowding and competition may occur since offspring colonise the same area as does
the parent
it the parent is of poor stock the offspring will also be of poor stock
if some extreme weather condition or disease occurs the entire species may be lost since
there is no genetic variation.
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION (TWO PARENTS)
The formation of a new organism from 2 parents usually, and involves the joining of gametes
(e.g. sperm, pollen, egg) to form a single cell called a zygote (or fertilised egg). The gametes are
produced during meiosis; they are haploid in nature this means that they have half the number of
chromosomes of a normal human cell. The offspring are similar, but not identical to the parents.

Advantages of sexual reproduction

There is greater genetic variation of the offspring and therefore, greater chance of
survival in changing environments.
The species may be able to colonise new areas successfully
If the parents are of poor quality the offspring may be of better quality.
Disadvantages of sexual reproduction
Energy is expended in finding a mate in many organisms. However some organisms have
both male and female reproductive organs that are able to produce gametes
simultaneously.
A lot of time is expended finding a mate
Only few offspring are produced
Even if the parents are of good quality the offspring may be of poor quality
REPRODUCTION IN MAN
There are two sexes in humans: male and female. Each sex produces gametes by meiosis; these
gametes are haploid in nature. The male gamete is called the spermatozoa (plural)/ spermatozoon
(singular) and the female gamete is called the ova (plural)/ ovum (singular).
The sex organs of a man are part of the reproductive system, consisting of the penis, testicles, vas
deferens, and the prostate gland. The male reproductive system's function is to produce semen

which carries sperm and thus genetic information that can unite with an egg within a woman.
Since sperm that enters a woman's uterus and then fallopian tubes goes on to fertilize an egg
which develops into a fetus or child, the male reproductive system plays no necessary role during
the gestation.
THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
The organs of the male reproductive system are specialized for the following functions:

To produce, maintain and transport sperm (the male reproductive cells) and protective
fluid (semen)

To discharge sperm within the female reproductive tract

To produce and secrete male sex hormones

The male reproductive anatomy includes internal and external structures.

What are the external reproductive structures?
Most of the male reproductive system is located outside of the mans body. The external
structures of the male reproductive system are the penis, the scrotum and the testicles.
Penis The penis is the male organ for sexual intercourse. It has three parts: the root, which
attaches to the wall of the abdomen; the body, or shaft; and the glans, which is the cone-shaped
end of the penis. The glans, which also is called the head of the penis, is covered with a loose
layer of skin called foreskin. (This skin is sometimes removed in a procedure called
circumcision.) The opening of the urethra, the tube that transports semen and urine, is at the tip
of the glans penis. The penis also contains a number of sensitive nerve endings.
The body of the penis is cylindrical in shape and consists of three internal chambers. These
chambers are made up of special, sponge-like erectile tissue. This tissue contains thousands of
large spaces that fill with blood when the man is sexually aroused. As the penis fills with blood,
it becomes rigid and erect, which allows for penetration during sexual intercourse. The skin of
the penis is loose and elastic to accommodate changes in penis size during an erection.
Semen, which contains sperm, is expelled (ejaculated) through the end of the penis when the
man reaches sexual climax (orgasm). When the penis is erect, the flow of urine is blocked from
the urethra, allowing only semen to be ejaculated at orgasm.
Scrotum The scrotum is the loose pouch-like sac of skin that hangs behind the penis. It
contains the testicles (also called testes), as well as many nerves and blood vessels. The scrotum
has a protective function and acts as a climate control system for the testes. For normal sperm
development, the testes must be at a temperature slightly cooler than the body temperature.
Special muscles in the wall of the scrotum allow it to contract and relax, moving the testicles

closer to the body for warmth and protection or farther away from the body to cool the
temperature.
Testicles (testes) The testes are oval organs about the size of large olives that lie in the
scrotum, secured at either end by a structure called the spermatic cord. Most men have two
testes. The testes are responsible for making testosterone, the primary male sex hormone, and for
generating sperm. Within the testes are coiled masses of tubes called seminiferous tubules. These
tubules are responsible for producing the sperm cells through a process called spermatogenesis.
Epididymis The epididymis is a long, coiled tube that rests on the backside of each testicle. It
functions in the transport and storage of the sperm cells that are produced in the testes. It also is
the job of the epididymis to bring the sperm to maturity, since the sperm that emerge from the
testes are immature and incapable of fertilization. During sexual arousal, contractions force the
sperm into the vas deferens.
What are the internal reproductive organs?
The internal organs of the male reproductive system, also called accessory organs, include the
following:

Vas deferens The vas deferens is a long, muscular tube that travels from the
epididymis into the pelvic cavity, to just behind the bladder. The vas deferens transports
mature sperm to the urethra in preparation for ejaculation.

Ejaculatory ducts These are formed by the fusion of the vas deferens and the seminal
vesicles. The ejaculatory ducts empty into the urethra.

Urethra The urethra is the tube that carries urine from the bladder to outside of the
body. In males, it has the additional function of expelling (ejaculating) semen when the
man reaches orgasm. When the penis is erect during sex, the flow of urine is blocked
from the urethra, allowing only semen to be ejaculated at orgasm.

Seminal vesicles The seminal vesicles are sac-like pouches that attach to the vas
deferens near the base of the bladder. The seminal vesicles produce a sugar-rich fluid
(fructose) that provides sperm with a source of energy and helps with the sperms motility
(ability to move). The fluid of the seminal vesicles makes up most of the volume of a
mans ejaculatory fluid, or ejaculate.

Prostate gland The prostate gland is a walnut-sized structure that is located below the
urinary bladder in front of the rectum. The prostate gland contributes additional fluid to
the ejaculate. Prostate fluids also help to nourish the sperm. The urethra, which carries the
ejaculate to be expelled during orgasm, runs through the center of the prostate gland.

Bulbourethral glands The bulbourethral glands, or Cowpers glands, are pea-sized

structures located on the sides of the urethra just below the prostate gland. These glands

produce a clear, slippery fluid that empties directly into the urethra. This fluid serves to
lubricate the urethra and to neutralize any acidity that may be present due to residual
drops of urine in the urethra.

Seminiferous tubules these produce sperm

How does the male reproductive system function?

The entire male reproductive system is dependent on hormones, which are chemicals that
stimulate or regulate the activity of cells or organs. The primary hormones involved in the
functioning of the male reproductive system are follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), luteinizing
hormone (LH) and testosterone.
FSH and LH are produced by the pituitary gland located at the base of the brain. FSH is
necessary for sperm production (spermatogenesis), and LH stimulates the production of
testosterone, which is necessary to continue the process of spermatogenesis. Testosterone also is
important in the development of male characteristics, including muscle mass and strength, fat
distribution, bone mass and sex drive.
Note: See pr 199 figure 18.3 for a diagram of the male reproductive system
As mentioned above the scrotum contains the testes, each testis is composed of coiled tubules
called seminiferous tubules, spermatozoa are formed inside of these. They are stored in the
epidiymis. During intercourse the sperms move out of the epididymis, pass through the vas
deferens on the way to the penis. Fluid made in the prostate gland and the seminal vesicles mix
with the sperm to form semen. During ejaculation semen containing 200 500 million sperms is
released.

THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

The female reproductive system contains two main parts: the vagina and uterus, which act as
the receptacle for the male's sperm, and the ovaries, which produce the female's ova. All of these
parts are always internal; the vagina meets the outside at the vulva, which also includes the labia,
clitoris and urethra. The vagina is attached to the uterus through the cervix, while the uterus is
attached to the ovaries via the Fallopian tubes. At certain intervals, the ovaries release an ovum,
which passes through the fallopian tube into the uterus.
If, in this transit, it meets with sperm, the sperm penetrate and merge with the egg, fertilizing it.
The fertilization usually occurs in the oviducts, but can happen in the uterus itself. The zygote
then implants itself in the wall of the uterus, where it begins the processes of embryogenesis and
morphogenesis. When developed enough to survive outside the womb, the cervix dilates and
contractions of the uterus propel the fetus through the birth canal, which is the vagina.
The ova are larger than sperm and are generally all created by birth. Approximately every month,
a process of oogenesis matures one ovum to be sent down the Fallopian tube attached to its ovary

in anticipation of fertilization. If not fertilized, this egg is flushed out of the system through
menstruation.
The vagina is the tubular tract leading from the uterus to the exterior of the body in female
mammals, or to the cloaca in female birds and some reptiles. Female insects and other
invertebrates also have a vagina, which is the terminal part of the oviduct. The vagina is the place
where semen from the man is deposited into the woman's body during sexual intercourse.
The cervix is the lower, narrow portion of the uterus where it joins with the top end of the
vagina. It is cylindrical or conical in shape and protrudes through the upper anterior vaginal wall.
Approximately half its length is visible; the remainder lies above the vagina beyond view. The
uterus or womb is the major female reproductive organ of humans. One end, the cervix, opens
into the vagina; the other is connected on both sides to the fallopian tubes.
The uterus mostly consists of muscle, known as myometrium. Its major function is to accept a
fertilized ovum which becomes implanted into the endometrium, and derives nourishment from
blood vessels which develop exclusively for this purpose. The fertilized ovum becomes an
embryo, develops into a fetus and gestates until childbirth. The Fallopian tubes or oviducts are
two very fine tubes leading from the ovaries of female mammals into the uterus.
On maturity of an ovum, the follicle and the ovary's wall rupture, allowing the ovum to escape
and enter the Fallopian tube. There it travels toward the uterus, pushed along by movements of
cilia on the inner lining of the tubes. This trip takes hours or days. If the ovum is fertilized while
in the Fallopian tube, then it normally implants in the endometrium when it reaches the uterus,
which signals the beginning of pregnancy.
The ovaries are the place inside the female body where ova or eggs are produced. The process
by which the ovum is released is called ovulation. The speed of ovulation is periodic and impacts
directly to the length of a menstrual cycle. After ovulation, the ovum is captured by the oviduct,
where it travelled down the oviduct to the uterus, occasionally being fertilised on its way by an
incoming sperm, leading to pregnancy.
The Fallopian tubes are often called the oviducts and they have small hairs (cilia) to help the egg
cell travel.
Note: See pg 199 for a diagram of the female reproductive system

THE MENSTRUAL CYCLE

Menstruation is the vaginal bleeding that occurs in adolescent girls and women as a result of
hormonal changes. It normally happens in a predictable pattern, once a month and begins at the
onset of puberty and ends at menopause (at age 45 50 years).
Each month an ovum is released from the female ovary, this is known as ovulation, this is one
part of the menstrual cycle. A "normal" menstrual period usually occurs every 28 days, from the
first day of a period to the first day of the next. However, this can vary from 22 to 36 days. Each
period usually lasts from three to seven days, with the average being five. It may take several
years from the start of menstruation for periods to settle into a pattern. Irregular periods are
common in early adolescence. Even after adolescence, many factors can throw off the timing of

menstruation. These include weight changes, starting a new job or school, and relationship
problems.
Menstruation is part of the menstrual cycle, which helps a woman's body prepare for the
possibility of pregnancy each month. The parts of the body involved in the menstrual cycle
include the uterus and cervix, the ovaries, fallopian tubes, the brain and pituitary gland, and the
vagina. Certain body chemicals known as hormones rise and fall during the month, causing the
menstrual cycle to occur.
The cycle starts with menstruation, this lasts for about 5 days. In the first half of the menstrual
cycle, oestrogen levels rise, causing the lining of the uterus to grow and thicken. This lining is
called the endometrium (must have a good blood supply) by the 14 day it has thickened
considerably. This is called the follicular phase. The events are synchronized the ovaries respond
to a rise in follicle-stimulating hormone and cause one of the eggs to mature, so by the 14 th day
the fully developed ovum called the Graafian follicle, under the influence of luteinizing hormone
is released this is known as ovulation at this time the levels of oestrogen are highest. When the
egg is released it travels through one of the two fallopian tubes and down towards the uterus. If
the ovum is fertilized by a sperm at this time, pregnancy occurs. However, if a sperm does not
fertilize the egg, the body no longer needs the uterine lining to support the fertilized egg.
Estrogen and progesterone levels then drop, triggering the uterine lining to gently fall away from
the wall of the uterus, and to be shed through the vagina. The discharge of this lining is the
menstrual flow and the cycle starts again. The entire process is called menstruation.
If however fertilization occurs the zygote (fusion of nuclei of sperm and egg) implants itself into
the lining of the uterus, which remains built to nourish the embryo. So no menstruation occurs
for nine months (gestation period) during this time progesterone levels remain high to maintain
the lining of the uterus, oestrogen levels must remain low so no more ovulation will occur for the
nine month period.
Just after fertilization the zygote begins to divide and moves slowly to the uterus. After several
hours a ball of cells is formed and is referred to as the embryo, when it reaches the uterus it
implants itself, by 8 weeks the embryo develops tissues and organs and is now clearly human, as
the embryo grows it develops a placenta which connects it very closely with the wall of the
uterus, at this point it is called a fetus. This placenta allow exchange of material between the
mother and the fetus, it brings their blood systems close together without mixing of the blood, so
oxygen, amino acids, glucose, and minerals diffuse through the placenta to the blood of the fetus
and carbon dioxide, urea and other waste products diffuse from the fetus to the mothers blood.
The placenta also protects the embryo by preventing many pathogens and chemicals from
crossing it. Some things like German measles, HIV, nicotine, alcohol and heroin can still cross. It
also allows the blood pressure of the fetus and the mother to operate at different levels, since the
mothers blood pressure needs to be higher to get around a larger system. It also produces
hormones which are necessary for a successful pregnancy.

The fetus is surrounded by a membrane called the amnion, inside of this is amniotic fluid which
helps maintain a constant environment for the fetus, it also helps support the fetus and protects it
from mechanical shock.
After 40 weeks birth occurs, the process of giving birth is called paturation. The birth process is
controlled by hormones, oxytocin causes contractions (labour pains). These pains cause the
amniotic sac to burst, the fluid pours out of the uterus and the baby is pushed out. The umbilical
cord is then cut. After a few minutes the placenta separates from the uterus wall and passes out
the body, this is called the after birth. Pre natal care is very important for the health of the mother
and baby, so the mother should eat a balanced diet. Not smoke or use drugs. Post natal care is
care of the child from birth to teens, and it involves physical, mental and emotional care required
for healthy growth. Immediately after birth the hormone prolactin begins to stimulate the
production of breast milk. The first secretion is called colostrums it contains antibodies and
protects the newborns from pathogens. The mothers diet while lactating should include foods
which provide energy, proteins, vitamins and minerals necessary for good health of the baby.
Mothers who breast feed longer or have more children are less likely to develop breast cancer
later in life.
ADVANTAGES OF BREAST MILK

easily available

clean, uncontaminated and sterile

available at a correct temperature for the baby's needs

It contains anti-infective factors which shield the baby from external infections

It contains what controls viral and bacterial infections in the baby's initial months.

In rural areas, breast milk is used as eye drops in viral conjunctivitis and minor eye
infections as a first aid

A healthy lactating mother secretes about 500ml of milk per day, and it might increase
increase upto 700ml in the first year of lactation.The calorific value of breast milk is 70
per 100ml of milk and this fully meets the requirements of the infant.

Lactoferrin, a protein in breast milk, provides considerable protection against intestinal

and respiratory infections.This lactoferrin acts as a strong bacteriostatic so that the breast
milk remains sterile for hours

Human milk has less protein and hence, is more easily digestible than cow's milk.The
intestinal mucosa of the baby during the first 2-3 months is very vulnerable to
infections.During this early stage, if the baby is fed cow's milk, then due to its higher
content of protein the baby might develop allergy to cow's milk

Breast milk also helps absorption of calcium and promotes brain growth.It has been
proved that breast-fed children have higher IQ's than the deprived ones

It promotes an emotional bond between the mother and the child.The child recognises the
mother through the sense of touch and this makes the baby feel more secure.

EFFECTS OF DRUG ABUSE BY A PREGNANT WOMAN ON HER OFFSPRING

use of marijuana during pregnancy may slow fetal growth and slightly decrease the
length of pregnancy (possibly increasing the risk of premature delivery). These effects are
seen mainly in women who use marijuana regularly (six or more times a week)
After delivery, some babies who were regularly exposed to marijuana before birth appear
to undergo withdrawal-like symptoms, including excessive crying and trembling
Women who use heroin during pregnancy greatly increase their risk of serious pregnancy
complications. These risks include poor fetal growth, premature rupture of the
membranes (the bag of waters that holds the fetus breaks too soon), premature delivery
and stillbirth.
As many as half of all babies of heroin users are born with low birthweight (6). These
babies, many of whom are premature, often suffer from serious health problems during
the newborn period, including breathing problems, and are at increased risk of lifelong
disabilities.
Use of heroin in pregnancy also may increase the risk of a variety of birth defects
See text book for other effects
THE ROLE OF CONTRACEPTION
Contraception is important in lowering the worlds population growth rate, and in poverty
reduction. There are many possible methods of contraception which can be used.
NOTE: See table 18.1 on page 205 for methods of contraception