Earthing123 Yes

Category - A
EARTHING
Reliance Industries Limited

Patalganga Training System
Manual No
CMN - EL - E 16-17-18
CONTENTS
Sr. No.
TOPIC
Page No
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
Introduction.
Terminology.
General Requirements.
System Grounding.
Floating / Ungrounded Neutral
Grounded Neutral
Advantages of Grounded Neutral over Ungrounded system
System Characteristics with various grounding methods
How to Ground the System
Calculation of Ground Fault Currents
Equipment Grounding
Earthing of Miscellaneous Equipment
Earth Electrodes
Electrode Material
Current Loading of Earth Electrodes
Location & Number of Earth Electrodes
Salt Treatment
Voltage Gradient around Earth Electrodes
Types of Earth Electrodes
Maintenance of Earth Electrodes
Measurement of Earth Electrode Resistance
Design Considerations
No of Connections
System Resistance
Effect of Temperature on Earth Resistance
Soil Selection
Effect of Moisture content on Earth Resistivity
Artificial Treatment of Soil
Representative Values of Soil Resistivity in various parts of India
Potential Gradients
Effect of Corrosion
Earth Bus and Earth Wires
Size of Earth Bus and Earth Wire
Grounding System Calculations
Design Basis
Determination of Size of Earthing Conductor for Sub-station Grid
Determination of Size of Earthing Conductor for Plant Grid
Calculation of Earth Resistance
Questionnaire for Validation
References
1
2
4
5
5
8
10
13
14
16
17
17
23
23
23
23
24
24
24
27
27
29
29
29
29
30
30
31
31
32
33
33
33
35
35
35
36
37
39
40
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
5.0
5.1
6.0
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6
6.7
6.8
7.0
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.7
7.8
7.9
7.10
7.11
8.0
8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
9.0
Prepared By : U. Vinod Kumar

Rev. : 00
Reviewed By : T.K. Ghosh

Date : 02.10.97
Approved By : T.B.V.S. Rao

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Category - A
EARTHING

Manual No
CMN - EL - E 16-17-18
1.0
INTRODUCTION
The word Earthing / Grounding is very familiar to power system work to cover
both System and Equipment grounding also the users of electrical equipment in
the domestic and industrial front.
The basic definition of Earthing / Grounding is intentional low resistance

connection to earth / ground which is assumed to be at zero potential.
To avoid confusion or possible misunderstanding, this training manual is devoted

exclusively to the subjects of system and equipment earthing.
This training manual also covers various aspects like - Terminology used, General
requirements as per Indian Electricity Rules : 1956, Various types of system
grounding, Advantages of grounded system over ungrounded system, System
characteristics with various grounding methods, How to ground the system,
Objectives of equipment grounding, Calculation of ground fault currents, How do
ground faults occur & how to sense them, Design considerations like - Number of
connections, system resistance, effect of temperature on earth resistance, soil
selection, effect of moisture content on earth resistivity, artificial treatment of soil,
potential gradients & effect of corrosion, Earth electrodes - types, material, current
loading, location & number of electrodes, maintenance of electrodes, Size of earth
bus & earth wires, Earthing practices for industrial, domestic appliances, electro
medical apparatus, transformers, overhead lines, sub-stations, Measurement of earth
electrode resistance / loop impedance.
Apart from all the above aspects, an example on grounding system is given which
shows how to determine the size of earthing conductors for sub-station and plant
grids in this manual.
Since the distribution of LT power, by and large, is done through the 3 Phase, 4 Wire
system, the earthing practice associated with it needs much attention. It has been
observed that in several installations earthing of the neutral has not been effective.
The end result of this is a shift in neutral potential beyond the permissible limits in the
event of any unbalanced power supply or during variations in load impedance. This
shift in neutral potential reflects on all the equipment connected and may cause an
electrical hazard.

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Date : 02.10.97

Page : 2 of 2
Category - A
EARTHING

Manual No
CMN - EL - E 16-17-18
2.0
TERMINOLOGY
As per IS:3043 - 1966, the various definitions of terms applicable to earthing are
alphabetically listed below :
Bond - To connect together electrically two or more conductors or metal parts.
Earth - A connection to the general mass of earth by means of an earth electrode.
Earth Electrode - A metal plate, pipe or other conductor or an array of

conductors electrically connected to the general mass of the earth.
Earth Fault - Live portion of a system getting accidentally connected to earth.
Earthing Terminal - A terminal provided on a piece of apparatus for the purpose

of making a connection to earth.
Earthed system - A system in which the neutral or any one conductor is

deliberately connected to earth directly or through impedance.
Earthing Ring - A ring or bus formed by connecting earth electrodes.
Fault Current - A current flowing from one conductor to earth, or to another

conductor, owing to failure of the insulation between line and earth or line and
line.
Leakage Current - A fault current of relatively small value, as distinguished from

that due to a short circuit, due to the leakage through the insulation.
Neutral Point of a System - The point which has the same potential as the point of junction of a
group of equal resistance, connected at their free ends to the appropriate main
terminals or lines of the system. The number of such resistances is 2 for singlephase, 4 for two-phase (applicable to 4-wire systems only) and 3 for three
phase systems.
- The point with respect to which the potential of the
conductors is symmetrical. It is usually connected to earth.
of a Symmetrical System
- The term neutral is used in relation to single-phase

systems to denote that conductor which is connected with earth at one or more
points.
of a Single-phase System
Step Potential - The maximum value of the potential difference possible of being
shunted by a human body between two accessible points on the ground separated
by the distance of one pace which may be assumed to be one metre.

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Touch Potential - The maximum value of the potential difference between a

point on the ground and a point on an object likely to carry fault current such that
the points which can be touched by a person, which may be assumed to be one
metre.
Mesh Potential - It is the potential difference in volts from grid conductor to

ground surface at the centre of mesh grid.

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Manual No
CMN - EL - E 16-17-18
3.0
GENERAL REQUIREMENTS
Earthing shall generally be carried out in accordance with requirements of

Indian Electricity Rules, 1956 as amended from time to time and the relevant
regulations of the Electricity Supply Authority concerned.
All medium voltage equipment shall be earthed by two separate and distinct
connections with earth through an earth electrode. In the case of high and
extra high voltages the neutral points shall be earthed by not less than two
separate and distinct connections with earth each having its own electrode at
the generating station or substation and may be earthed at any other point
provided no interference is caused by earthing. If necessary, the neutral may be
earthed through a suitable impedance.
In cases where direct earthing may prove harmful rather than provide safety,
for example, high frequency and mains frequency coreless induction furnaces,
special precautions are necessary. The metal of the furnace charge is earthed
by electrodes connected at the bottom of the charge, and the furnace coils are
connected to the mains supply but are unearthed. A relay is connected by a
detection circuit which itself is earthed to the coils. The object is to prevent
dangerous break through of hot metal through the furnace lining, the earth
detection circuit giving a continuous review of the conditions for the furnace
lining. When leakage current attains a certain set maximum it becomes
necessary to take the furnace out of service and to re-line.
Earth electrodes shall be provided at generating stations, sub-stations and

consumer premises in accordance with the requirement.
As far as possible all earth connections shall be visible for inspection.
All connections shall be carefully made; if they are poorly made or inadequate
for the purpose for which they are intended, loss of life or serious personal
injury may result.
Each earth system shall be so devised that the testing of individual earth
electrode is possible. The earth resistance shall not be more than 5 ohms.

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Category - A
EARTHING

Manual No
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4.0
SYSTEM GROUNDING
As defined by the National Electrical Code, a system ground is a connection to
ground from one of the current-carrying conductors of a distribution system or of an
interior wiring system.
This is also known as neutral earthing. A set of conductors in which at least one
conductor or point (usually middle point or neutral point of a distribution system or
transformer or generator) is intentionally connected to earth either solidly or through
an impedance in series is known as system / neutral grounding. This practice of
earthing / grounding is there ever since the beginning of electrical power system.
This is provided to obtain sufficiently low neutral to ground resistance, to limit
system over voltage and to help in the operation of the protective relays.
Most of our present mode of power distribution is 3 Phase system and particularly 3
Phase, 4 Wire system. The 4 Wire system further has the choice of operating with
either a Floating Neutral (unconnected to earth) or with a Grounded Neutral.
4.1
Floating / Ungrounded Neutral :

As per AIEE (Association of International Electrical Engineers) standard no.32,
ungrounded means without an intentional connection to ground except through
potential indicating or measuring devices.
In any practical system where there is no grounding, a capacitive coupling between
the system conductors and the ground will take place as shown in the Figure-4.1a.
Consequently so-called ungrounded system in reality becomes a Capacitive ground
system by virtue of the distributed capacitance from the system conductors to the
ground.
Ib
Iy
Ir
Figure-4.1a
Earth Potential

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Manual No
CMN - EL - E 16-17-18
A line to ground fault on this system causes a very small ground fault current to flow
through the cables, transformers and other electrical equipment on the system. This
current may have a magnitude of less than 5 Amps in system voltage up to 415 Volts
and may reach up to 25 Amps on larger systems. This fault current in general being
quiet low remains unidentified without the conventional overcurrent protective
equipment in the system reacting to the fault. Hence uninterrupted power supply
continues on the other two healthy lines. The advocates of the free neutral system
thus claimed its superiority on the basis of this sustained continuity of supply on the
two healthy lines while an earth fault occurred on the third line. This argument for
continuity of supply seemed true and valid particularly for an overhead system where
a fault of one phase to earth is unlikely to develop into a fault of two or more lines.
But actually when the neutral of a system is not grounded, destructive transient over
voltages of several times normal (6 to 8 times) can appear from the line to ground
during normal switching of a circuit having line to ground fault. Over voltages by
repeated restrikes of the arc during interruption of a line to ground fault also occur
particularly in low voltage systems. These over voltages may cause insulation failure
at other locations on the system than the point of fault as indicated in Figure-4.1b.
Healthy Circuit
Ungrounded Power Source
C
.
B
C
.
B
Transient Overvoltage may

cause fault here
Earth Potential
C
.
B
Single line to earth fault
Figure-4.1b
A ground fault of one phase causes full line to line voltage to appear throughout the
system between ground and two unfaulted phases. This voltage is 73% greater than
normal and is indicated in Figure-4.1c. If this excess voltage persists for too long,
insulation failures compounded by age, severe working condition and contamination
due to moisture, dust, etc. would take place. Particularly since distribution by
underground cable system is more widely adopted, overheating & burning of
insulation is likely, later culminating in a fault between two lines. Thus a line to
ground fault on one circuit may result in damage to equipment and interruption of
service on the other circuits. Further situations get worse if a second line to ground
fault occurred in addition to the existing ground fault. By and large double faults are
not uncommon simply because the first fault is left on hoping to be cleared while the
second fault occurs in all probability on the same circuit. Although several devices
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Manual No
CMN - EL - E 16-17-18
could be made available for detecting the location of the fault, it does not prevent the
occurrence of the fault and if at all the fault could be corrected it would be at the
cost of high downtime and considerable loss of production. Thus eventually a short
circuit of two lines is inevitable, causing major damages and interruptions in power
supply.
Line-Earth Voltage
Line
Line-Earth Voltage During Fault = LineVoltage
Earth Potential
Neutral floats at Earth
Potential
Figure-4.1c
4.1.1 Arcing Grounds :

The phenomena of arcing grounds is commonly experienced with ungrounded
systems. A temporary fault caused by falling on a branch, lightning surge, etc. creates
an arc between an overhead line and ground. The arc extinguishes and restrikes in a
repeated, regular manner. This phenomena is called arcing grounding. A simple
explanation is illustrated below.
R
EB
+
-
ER
-
E
+ Y
Y
F
B
Earth Fault
Ground
Phenomena of Arcing Grounds (Distributed Capacitance - Line to Ground - gets
discharged through the earth fault. Figure-4.1.1.
From the Figure-4.1.1, each line has an inherent distributed capacitance with respect
to earth. Consider an earth fault on line B. The distributed capacitance discharges

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CMN - EL - E 16-17-18
through the fault when the gap between F and ground breaks down. The capacitance,
again gets charged and again discharged. Such repeated charging and discharging of
line to ground capacitance resulting in repeated arcs between line and ground is
called arcing grounds. These arcing grounds produce severe voltage oscillations
reaching three to four times normal voltage. Secondly, a temporary fault grows into a
permanent fault due to arcing grounds. The problem of arcing grounds can be solved
by earthing the neutral through a coil called Peterson Coil or Arc suppression coil
connected between neutral and earth. Thereby the arc is extinguished.
4.2
Grounded Neutral :
A grounded system is a system of conductors in which at least one conductor or
point (usually the middle wire or neutral point of a transformer or generator
windings) is intentionally grounded, either solidly or through a current-limiting
device.
Most of the problems which are mentioned in Floating Neutral could be eliminated
by earthing the neutral. In the earthed neutral system, a return path for the fault
current is made available at the neutral point. This can be utilised to bring about
discriminative operation of the protection equipment such as the earth fault relays or
the Residual Current Circuit Breakers / Earth Leakage Circuit Breakers (RCCB /
ELCB) depending upon the level of protection required and the protected entity.
Thus the fault gets localised and isolated from the healthy parts of the system which
in turn continues to power the loads. Service reliability is high with the faults located
quickly and corrected with ease.
Further chances of multiple earth faults are rare in grounded systems.
Earthed neutral system limits the voltage on the healthy parts of the system to its line
to neutral voltage. In the event of an earth fault in an effectively earthed system the
voltage to earth of the healthy lines does not exceed 80% of the line to line voltage.
Further earth faults in control wiring can cause 58% of line-line voltage on contactor
connected between two lines.
In addition it suppresses the transient overvoltages occurring due to earth fault arcs
which can be damaging to the system insulation as a whole.
Further, static charges induced are conducted to earth without any disturbance. The
transient overvoltages and static charges are detrimental to installations related to
electronic, communication equipment and computers which are ever on the rise.
Hence it is important to protect these kinds of installations.
Neutral grounding also results in improved protection against lightening surge on
equipment and noise interference in the instrumentation system.
Sometimes it is necessary to determine how solidly the system is grounded. this

could be determined by comparing the magnitude of earth fault current with the
system three phase fault currents.
4.2.1 Solid Grounding :

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Solidly grounded means grounded through an adequate ground connection in which

no impedance has been inserted intentionally. This is also known as directly
grounded.
In the case of all solidly grounded systems as in Figure-4.2.1 it is necessary that the
ground fault current be in the range of 25 - 100% of the three phase fault current to
prevent the occurrence of high transient over-voltages. For 50 kA fault levels the
symmetrical RMS current shall be at least 12.5 kA. In the case of solidly grounded
systems the protection equipment should be set to avoid damage at the fault point
because of the higher fault levels.
Solid Earthing
Resistance Earthing
Figure-4.2.2a
Figure-4.2.1
4.2.2 Resistance Grounding :
Resistance grounding means grounding by series connected resistance as shown in

Figure-4.2.2a and Figure-4.2.2b limits the fault current to a lower value just enough
to activate the over current devices.
Single Line-Earth Fault

Neutral Potential
Line-Line
Voltage
Earthed by Resistor
Unearthed Neutral
Earth Potential
Voltage Drop in faulted phase due to Earth Current
Figure-4.2.2b
4.2.3 Reactance Grounding :

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Reactance grounding means grounding by series connected reactance as shown in

Figure-4.2.3 is usually used for protection of generator windings where direct
grounding may result in fault currents exceeding the short circuit current.
Reactance Earthing ( Figure-4.2.3 )
Earth Fault Neutralizer ( Figure-4.2.4 )
4.2.4 Resonant Grounding :

Resonant grounding means reactance grounded through such values of reactance
that, during a fault between one of the conductors and earth, the rated-frequency
current flowing in the grounding reactances and the rated-frequency capacitance
current flowing between the unfaulted conductors and earth shall be substantially
equal. In the fault, these two components of the fault current will be substantially
1800 out of phase.
Sometimes, a tuned inductance as indicated in Figure-4.2.4 is connected in the
neutral circuit to neutralise the capacitive currents of the system. This is also called
as a ground fault neutralizer.
4.3
Advantages of Grounded neutral over Ungrounded system :

Based on the experience of operators who have used both grounded and ungrounded
neutral systems that the failure rate is substantially lower and the time the system is
out of service is less on the grounded system. This results from the fact that the
transient overvoltages are greatly reduced on a grounded neutral system. As the
grounding reduces these overvoltages, the life of electric insulation will be increased
and service interruptions will be minimised. Even though the overvoltages of an
ungrounded neutral system may not be high enough to cause multiple failures, every
time a ground fault occurs, the repeated application of these overvoltages will
weaken the insulation and cause a higher failure rate than in a grounded neutral
system. A summary of advantages of the grounded neutral over ungrounded neutral
system of various voltage levels are :
440 Volt System (Low Voltage System) :

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CRITERIA

Grounded-neutral system
Manual No
CMN - EL - E 16-17-18
Ungrounded system
Safest - Only 254 V to ground at any time Normally 254 V to ground when no
(assume good ground and 440 V ground on system. 440 V to ground on
maximum line to line).
two conductors when one phase is
grounded.
Safety
Service
reliability
Safest - Voltage on system limited to

about 254 V when primary to secondary
failure occurs in transformer supplying
system.
Voltage on secondary system may be as

high as primary voltage for breakdown
between
primary
and
secondary
transformer windings.
Safest - Ground fault in control wiring

can put 58% line voltage on line-to-line
connected contactor closing coils.
Highest - Ground faults are readily
located and repaired; system need not be
taken out to find ground faults.
Control circuit ground fault likely to put

full voltage on contactor closing coils.
Part or all of system must be taken out of
service to find ground faults subject to
service transient overvoltages.
Highest - Ground faults are localised and

trip off immediately.
Ground faults if not removed may upon

occurrence of a second ground fault cause
two circuits to go out at once, thus
Highest - Minimizes transient over- causing a loss of twice as much
voltages on the system.
production equipment.
Highest - Floating grounds are very Floating or arcing grounds likely.

unlikely.
Lowest - Ground faults are easily located. Time must be spent hunting ground
Maintenance
faults.
cost
About
same
as
delta
connected
subCapital cost
station and ground detector.
High
voltage Provides 254 V for direct operation of Must use step-down transformers from
fluorescent lights, resulting in a cost 440 V to 254 V or lower.
fluorescent
saving by the elimination of lighting
lighting
transformers and a reduction in copper.

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2.4 to 15 KV System (Medium Voltage System) :
CRITERIA
Safety
Service
reliability
Maintenance
cost
Capital cost
Grounded-neutral system
Ungrounded system
Safest - Single line-to-line faults are Subject to severe transient overvoltages.

tripped off immediately.
Highest - Ground faults are readily Part or all of system must be taken out of
located and repaired.
service to find faults.
Highest - Limited fault current causes a Ground faults, if not removed, may upon
minimum of damage to equipment (with occurrence of a second ground fault cause
conventional resistance grounding).
two circuits to go out at once, thus
causing a loss of twice as much
Highest - Minimizes transient over- production equipment.
voltages on the system.
High fault current associated with two
line-to-ground faults may result in more
damage to equipment.
Lowest - Ground faults are easily located. Time must be spent hunting ground
faults.
About same; Adds cost of resistor and Requires ground detector and fault
neutral relaying.
locator equipment to be comparable.

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4.4

Manual No
CMN - EL - E 16-17-18
System Characteristics with various Grounding methods :
Ungrounded
Reactance
_ grounding
Low value Reactor High value reactor
Essentially grounded
Solid
Current for phaseto-ground fault in

% of three-phase
fault current.
Transient
overvoltages
Automatic
segregation of
faulty zone
Less than 1%
Varies, may be
100% or more
Very High
No
Resistance
Grounding
Nearly zero fault

current
5 to 20%
Not Excessive
Usually designed
to produce
25 to 100%
Not Excessive
Very High
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
Ungrounded
neutral type
Ungrounded
neutral type
Ungrounded
neutral type
Ungrounded
neutral type
Remarks
Ground-fault
Neutralizer
Grounded neutral Grounded neutral

type
type if current is
60% or more
Not recommended
Generally used on systems are :
due
to
over(1) 600 V and below
voltages
and
(2) Over 15 KV
segregation
of
faults

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5 to 25%
Not used due to

excessive
overvoltages
Not Excessive Not Excessive
Best suited for Generally used

on industrial
high voltage
overhead lines systems of 2.4
where faults
to 15 KV
may be selfhealing

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4.5 How to Ground the system :

Depending upon the conditions, various types of grounding systems which are in practice are illustrated
with respect to the Low and Medium Voltage systems.
Low Voltage Systems - Typical Voltages : 208, 240, 480, 600 Volts.
Condition
Grounding Practice
Diagram
generator
1.If Y- connected Ground
generators on syst- neutral through low
value reactance.
em.
Remarks
1.Total capacity of generators
should be adequate for
grounding (refer Table-4. 5).
2.Grounding reactance should
pass ground currents equal to
at least 25% of three phase
value.
transformer
2.If low voltage Ground
system is supplied neutrals solidly.
by
transformer
having Y-connected secondaries.
1.Total
capacity
of
transformers
should
be
adequate for grounding (refer
Table-4. 5).
3.No
Y-connected Use grounding transgenerators or transformer solidly grounformer secondaries ded.
on system.
1.Grounding
transformer
should pass ground fault
currents equal to at least
25% of three phase value.
Check adequacy of this fault
current for tripping circuit
breakers and any fuses on
system.
Table-4. 5 :
Minimum ratings of Generators & Power Transformer banks for Grounding :
Max. System Short-circuit
KVA
1,000,000
500,000
250,000
150,000
100,000
50,000
25,000

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Min. Rating
KVA
7500
3750
1750
1000
750
375
187

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Medium Voltage Systems - Typical Voltages : 2.4, 4.16, 4.8, 6.9, 11, 13.8 KV.
Condition
Grounding Practice
Diagram
4.If Y- connected Use resistance groundgenerators on syst- ing. Do not ground

directly.
em.
Remarks
1.Total capacity of generators
should be adequate for
2.When
severe
exposure
is
generator may be
through low vakue
to permit use of
neutral
type
arresters.
lightning
present,
grounded
reactance
grounded
lightning
3.Small systems, where the

resulting ground fault current
would not be excessive, may
be reactance grounded, if
desired, in the interest of
economy.
5.If
Y-connected Use resistance groundtransformers
on ing.
system (use transformers
which
supply power to the
system,
avoid
transformers which
are loads on the
system).
1.Total capacity of transformers should be adequate for

2.Small systems, where the
would not be excessive, may
be solidly grounded, If
desired, in the interest of
economy.
6.If no Y-connected Use one or more

generators or trans- grounding
transformers with resistors.
former on system.
1.In small systems, where the

would not be excessive, the
grounding transformer may
be solidly grounded in the
interest of economy.
7.Solidly ground neutrals of all systems above 15 KV (no rotating equipment assumed operating directly at
these voltages).

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4.6 Calculation Of Ground Fault Currents :

The value of the current in the event of an earth fault on a solidly grounded system is quantified
by the impedance of the grounded apparatus plus the impedance of the lines and cables leading to
the fault and the impedance of the ground return path. For interconnected systems the calculations
may be rather complicated. In the case of a single line to earth fault for resistance or solid
grounding the fault current may be computed from the simplified formula given below :
Igf = VL/(1.732 x R) where VL is line to line voltage and R is the resistance of the soil, cables,
joints plus grounding resistance if any.
In case of a neutral earthed through a reactor the fault current Igf can be determined by the
formula as given below :
Igf
3 x E [X1 + X2 + Xo + 3 (Xn + Xg)]
Where,
X1 = System +ve sequence reactance.
X2 = System -ve sequence reactance.
Xo = system zero sequence reactance (Zero for solidly grounded system).
Xn = Reactance of neutral reactor.
Xg = Reactance of earth return path.
E = Line to Neutral voltage
4.6.1 How do ground faults occur ?
Usually the cause is a failure for whatever reason, in the insulation system. The problems are
created by damaged conductors, loose connections, moisture and dust. In lower voltages
fortunately the character voltages fortunately the characteristics of the voltage drop across the arc
and low levels of fault current self extinguishes the arc, but on higher voltages and larger systems
the arc may not be self extinguishing the considerable damages to equipment, property and
personnel are not ruled out.

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5.0
EQUIPMENT GROUNDING
An equipment grounding refers to the permanent and continuous connecting together of all noncurrent carrying metal parts of equipment enclosures, such as conduit, boxes, cabinets, housings,
frames of motors and lighting fixtures to a system grounding electrode located at the service
equipment or on the source side. This is also known as Protective Grounding.
The basic objectives of equipment earthing are :
To ensure freedom from dangerous electric shock voltages exposure to persons in the area.
To provide current carrying capability, both in magnitude and duration, adequate to accept the
ground fault current permitted by the overcurrent protective system without creating a fire or
explosive hazard to building or contents.
To contribute a better performance of the electrical system.
5.1
Earthing of Miscellaneous Equipment :

5.1.1 Electrically Driven Machine Tools :
Irrespective of the size or type of the machine tool, the bed plate of the machine should be earthed
by means of a strip or conductor not less than 6.5mm2 cross-sectional area if of copper, 10mm2 if
of aluminium and 16mm2 if of galvanized iron or steel. The strip conductor should be securely
fastened to the bed plate by means of bolting.
5.1.2 Industrial Electronic Equipment :
Any industrial electronic equipment which derives its supply from two pin plugs incorporates
small capacitors connected between the supply and the metal case of the instrument to cut down
interference. This capacitor must be properly earthed.
In case of an Oscilloscope, which is used for examining the wave-form of a high frequency
source, the Oscilloscope should be earthed by a conductor entirely separate from that used by the
source of high frequency power. In case when an Oscilloscope is used on a circuit where the
negative is above earth potential and also connected to its metallic case, proper care should be
taken as earthing is not possible.
In case of high frequency induction heaters, earthing should be provided by means of separate
earth wire by as direct a route as possible. In cases where direct earthing proves harmful than
safety, e.g. Coreless Induction Furnaces, the metal of the furnace charge should be earthed by
electrodes connected at the bottom of the charge, and the furnace coils are connected to the mains
supply but are unearthed.
5.1.3 Electric Arc Welding Equipment :

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All components should be effectively bonded and connected to earth. The transformers and
separate regulators forming multi-operator sets and capacitors for power factor correction, if
used, should be included in the bonding. In case of double wound welding transformer sets, an
Earth & Work terminal should be provided. In case of single-phase, this terminal should be
connected to one end of the secondary winding (referFfigure-5.1.3) and in case of three-phase
sets, this should be connected to the neutral point of the secondary winding.
Main Switch
Supply
Welding Transformer
Primary
Secondary
Uninsulated
Terminal
B Mild Steel Tank
Note : If the return cable A

is not connected to
the work piece,
welding current will
return via cable B.
Earth & Work Connection for Welding

Figure-5.1.3
5.1.4 Electro Medical Apparatus :
Since most of the medical apparatus like electro-cardiographs (ECG), electro-encephalographs
(EEG), etc. are connected to a patients body by means of electrodes having a very low contact
resistance, special care should be taken in design and installation of these apparatus. They should
be connected to a good low resistance earth. In case of X-Ray apparatus, the metallic shield in
which the tube is enclosed should be connected to earth to avoid potential of the shield rising and
thus protect both the operator and the patient from possible contact with voltages of the order of
100 KV.
5.1.5 Elevators / Lifts :
Frames of motor, winding machine, control panel, and cases and covers of tappet switch and
similar electrical apparatus which normally carry the current should be properly earthed. The sizes
of wires and earth-continuity conductors should be not less than 1.5 mm2 for copper and 2.5 mm2
for aluminium and need not be greater than 70 mm2 for copper and 120 mm2 for aluminium.
5.1.6 Domestic Appliances :

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Earthing of domestic appliances arises in case they have only functional insulation. Appliances
having reinforced / double insulation need not be earthed. In case of plugs & sockets, three pin
type should be used, one of the pins being connected to earth. In case of lighting fittings, if the
bracket type holders are of metallic construction, they should be earthed properly. In case of fans
& regulators, cooking ranges, electric water heaters, washing machines, refrigerators, electric
irons, air conditioners, coolers, etc. may be earthed by use of three pin plugs.
5.1.7 Transformers :
The earthing for various types of transformers can be provided in the following manner :
Generator transformers - The neutral points of these transformers should be directly earthed.
Sub-station transformers - Resistance earthing may be used in order to limit the fault current. as
the fault current is expected to be too high.

Distribution Transformers - Neutral point should be directly connected to the earth.
Transformers with Delta Windings - Earthing transformer may be used. This provides a star point
which may be either directly or through a resistance, if desired.

Instrument Transformers - The secondary windings and as well as the cases & frames of Current &
Potential transformers should be earthed.

5.1.8 Lightning Arresters :
The bases of lightning arresters should be directly connected to the earth by conductors as short
as straight as possible to ensure minimum impedance. In addition, there should be as direct
connection as possible from the earth side of the lightning arresters to the frame of the apparatus
being protected. However, surge counters may be inserted in the circuit, provide lightning arrester
is mounted on an insulated base.
In case of station type lightning arrester, individual earth electrode should be provided and where
as for distribution type, one electrode for a set of lightning arresters may be provided. If the
lightning arresters are mounted near transformers, earthing conductors should be located bit far
from the tank and coolers in order to avoid possible oil leakage caused by arcing. The earth
connection should not pass through iron pipes as it would increase the impedance of the
connection.
5.1.9 Generators :
Three-phase Generators - The neutral points of three-phase high-voltage generators should be
earthed either by Direct earthing / Resistance earthing / Reactance earthing.

Single Generator - The earthing may be done without any impedance in the circuit. If a resistance
is inserted between neutral and earth, quick acting protective devices should be used so that on
the occurrence of a fault, the generator and its field shall automatically be disconnected. If a

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reactance earthing is used, the fault current should be considered to a maximum of three-phase
short-circuit current.
Generators in Parallel - When more than one generator are operating in parallel, all the generator
neutrals should be earthed through an isolating switch. In order to limit the earth fault current and
also to avoid circulating currents between generators, at any time, only one earth isolating switch
should be kept on if more than one generator are in service.
Generators connected to Overhead lines - If the generators are directly connected to overhead lines,
they get subjected to the effects of travelling waves or impulses due to lightning. In such a case if
the neutral is earthed through a reactance, positive reflection of the waves can take place and may
cause damage to the winding insulation. To prevent this, the reactor should be shunted by a nonlinear resistance which can limit the surge voltage to such a value which the machine can
withstand. The same can also be achieved by connecting surge arresters to the machine terminals.
5.1.10 Overhead Power Lines :
While designing, following points should be taken care :
- Avoiding danger from a broken line conductor or from leakage due to insulation
breakdown, and to ensure that in such circumstances the protective gear will operate
effectively.
- Should ensure that the current in an earth wire or to support metal work due to lightning
stroke shall be conveyed to earth without causing back flashover.
- Minimizing inductive interference with communication circuits.
High-Voltage Lines - If the metal work bonded and earthed at each support, it provides protection
against the danger of pole top fires from leakage, provided the resistance to earth support is
sufficiently low to permit protective gear to operate in the event of contact between a line
conductor and earthed metal work. The same can be adopted in case of wooden poles also.
If metal work bonded and connected to an aerial earth wire, the earth wire should be connected to
neutral of the transformer or generator and should be earthed at least on four towers in every 1.6
KM. This method also provides protection against lightning if the earth wire is run above the line
conductors.
Low-Voltage Lines - In case of low-voltage power lines, an earth wire may be run either above or
below the phase conductors with suitable cradles or safety device from pole to pole so that in the
event of breakage of any one of the phase conductors, it will make contact with the earth wire.
If wooden poles are used, a bonding wire should be connected to all the metal work on the pole
including the supporting metal work of all insulators.
All the stay wires other than those which are connected with earth by means of a continuous earth
wire should be insulated at a height of not less than 3 M from the ground to prevent danger from
leakage.
5.1.11 Sub-stations :

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Sub-stations giving no External Low-Voltage Supply - Common earth electrodes should be used for
both system and equipment earthing.

Sub-stations giving an External Low-Voltage Supply - Neutral should be connected to the station
earth system.
Sub-stations giving an External High-Voltage Supply - It is recommended to have common earthbus for both high & low-voltage systems, where as the manual operating lever handles should be
connected to the system earth electrode.
Carrier-Current Equipment - A separate earth electrode (Rod or Pipe) should be provided
immediately adjacent to the structure supporting the coupling capacitors.

Cables - Metal pipes or conduits in which the cables have been installed should be properly
bonded or earthed. At specified points on the route where the presence of stray currents is
suspected, the joints, the metal sheath armour, if any, of the cables should be bonded to the
earthing system and connected to one or more earth electrodes.
Disconnecting Switches - In the case of isolated-phase systems, disconnecting switches tied to the
main bus-bar should have their bases earthed with connections equal in cross-section to the earth
bus.
Power Circuit Breakers - The earth connection is limited to the amount of current that can be
passed through the frames of the breakers to the point where suitable earth connection can be
made. The size of earthing conductor is determined by considering voltage-drop & temperature
rise. Under fault conditions the voltage drop between two normally earthed parts with which any
one is likely to be in simultaneous contact should not exceed 32 Volts. The temperature rise in
case of swatted and riveted joints is limited to 2500 C and for brazed joints to 4500 C.
Rods / Handles of Outdoor Gang-Operated Isolators - The operating rods or handles of all
outdoor gang-operated isolators should be connected to earth either directly or through steel
mounted structure.
Casings of Instruments, Meters and Relays (Operating Voltage < 650 Volts) - If the current
carrying parts are less than or up to 650 Volts, and these are not situated on switchboards, and
accessible to other than qualified persons, their casings and other exposed metal parts should be
earthed. If they are situated on switchboards having no live parts on the front of the panels, their
casings should not be earthed. If they are situated on switchboards having exposed live parts on
the front of panels, their casings should not be earthed but rubber mats or other suitable insulation
should be provided for the operator.
Casings of Instruments, Meters and Relays (Operating Voltage > 650 Volts) - If the current
carrying parts are over 650 Volts, they should be isolated and be elevated or protected by suitable
barriers, such as earthed metal or insulating covers or guards. Their cases should not be earthed,
except in electrostatic earth detectors where the internal earth segments of the instrument are
connected to the instrument casing and earthed.

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A typical Earthing arrangement for an Outdoor Sub-station (Figure-5.1.11)

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6.0
EARTH ELECTRODES
The earth electrodes should have low resistance, depending on the system voltage and fault
current envisaged under all climatic conditions. The rise potential between the earth system and
the general body of the earth should be kept as low as possible. The earth electrodes should be
capable of carrying such currents as may arise in normal operation and during fault and surge
conditions without increase in resistance.
6.1
Electrode Material :
Though the electrode material does not affect initial earth resistance, proper care should be taken
to select a material, which is resistant to corrosion. Normally the material is of Copper, Iron or
Mild Steel. If the soil is of excessive corrosive in nature, Copper electrode or Copper clad
electrode or Galvaniszed Iron electrode (Zinc coated) should be used. In case of DC system, only
Copper electrodes should be used. The electrodes should be kept free from grease, paint &
enamel, etc. It is always better to use similar material for earth conductors & earth electrodes.
6.2
Current Loading of Earth Electrodes :

An earth electrode should be designed to have an adequate loading capacity for the system for
which it forms a part, should be capable of dissipating without failure under any circumstances of
the operation of the system. The two conditions of operation require - Long duration overloading
as with normal system operation and Short time overloading as under fault conditions in directly
earthed system. The time taken by an earth electrode to fail on short time overloading is inversely
proportional to the specific loading.
The maximum permissible current density, I = 7.57 x 103
t
2
A/m
Where, t = Duration of earth fault in seconds.

= Resistivity of the soil in Ohm metre.
6.3
Location & Number of Earth Electrodes :

The earth electrodes should be so placed that all lightning protective earths may be brought to the
earth electrode by as short and straight a path possible to minimise the surge impedance. As far as
possible earth electrodes for generating stations and indoor sub-stations should be within and
adjacent to the perimeter fence. The approximate number of earth electrodes required for a given
area can be seen from the Figure-6.3.

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Approximate Number of Rod Earth Electrodes Required in a Given Area

Figure-6.3
6.4
Salt Treatment :
In the case of pipe electrodes it is recommended to perforate these and to treat the soil by pouring
salt solution down them. If the electrodes are installed in a trench, use salt as a top dressing left to
percolate through the soil with the surface moisture. Although substantial reduction of earth
resistance can be achieved by the use of coke around the earth electrode for a distance of 2.5cm,
this method is not recommended, as it results in rapid corrosion not only of the electrode but also
of cable sheaths, water pipes or steel frame work, etc., to which it is bonded.
6.5
Voltage Gradient Around Earth Electrodes :

Voltage gradients around earth electrodes under fault conditions may reach such values as to
damage telephone and pilot cables in the vicinity. The area over which such injurious voltages
occur is dependent on whether the feeders are overhead lines or buried cables. It is recommended
that steps should be taken to protect any pilot or light current carrying lines within the area over
which a dangerous voltage may be expected to exist, either by applying suitable sheath insulation
to such lines where they are in cable trench or by running them overhead within the danger area.
6.6
Types of Earth Electrodes :

1.
2.
3.
4.
Rod & Pipe Electrodes.

Strip or Conductor Electrodes.
Plate Electrodes.
Cable Sheaths.
6.6.1 Rod & Pipe Electrodes :

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Where the fault current is envisaged to be low and the soil resistivity is high, it is recommended
to make use of rod electrodes. Dimensionally they should be at least 16mm dia in case of steel or
galvanized iron and 12.5mm in case of Copper. Refer Figure-6.6.1.
Pipe electrodes should be dimensionally at least 38mm internal dia in case of galvanized iron or
steel and 100mm in case of cast iron.
Length of Rod and Pipe electrodes should not be less than 2.5m.
Where the soil resistivity decreases with depth, deeply driven pipes and rods are effective.
To reduce the depth of burial of an electrode without increasing the resistance, a number of rods
or pipes should be connected together in parallel. The distance between two electrodes should be
preferably not less than twice the length of the electrode.
If necessary, rod electrodes shall have a galvanized iron pipe buried in the ground adjacent and
parallel to the electrode itself. Its one end shall be at least 5cm above the surface of the ground
and not be more than 10cm . The difference between the lengths of the electrode and pipe under
the earths surface shall not be more than 30cm and in no case the length of the pipe exceed that
of the electrode.
The resistance may be calculated from the following formula :
R =
100 loge 4l Ohms.

2l
d
Where,
= Soil resistivity in ohm-mtr.
l = Length of rod or pipe in cm.
d = Diameter of rod or pipe in cm.
Pipe Earth Electrode (Figure-6.6.1 )

6.6.2 Strip or Conductor Electrodes :

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Where the fault current is envisaged to be high and the soil resistivity is high, it is recommended
to use earthing mat or bare strip or round conductor. Dimensionally, the strip electrode should
not be smaller than 25 x 1.60mm in case of copper and 25mm x 4mm in case of galvanized
steel.
If round conductors are used, their cross-sectional area shall not be less than 3.0mm2 in case of
copper and 6.0mm2 in case of iron or steel.
The length of buried conductor shall not be less than 1.5m. and shall be buried in trenches not
less than 0.5m deep.
If it is necessary to use more than one strip, they shall be laid either in parallel trenches or in
radial trenches.
R =
100 loge 2l2 Ohms.

2l
wt
Where,
= Soil resistivity in ohm-mtr.
l = Length of strip in cm.
w = Depth of burial of electrode in cm.
t = Width (in case of strip) or twice the dia (in case of round conductor) in cm.
6.6.3 Plate Electrodes :
Plate type of electrode is used where the current carrying capacity is the prime consideration.
E.g. Generating stations and sub-stations.
Dimensionally, it should not be less than 6.30mm in thickness in case of steel or galvanized iron
and 3.15mm in case of copper. The size should be at least 60cm x 60cm. Refer Figure-6.6.3.
These plate electrodes shall be buried such that its top edge is at a depth not less than 1.5m from
the surface of the ground.
If the resistance of one plate electrode is higher than the required value, two or more plates
should be used in parallel and should be separated from each other by not less than 8.0m.
Preferably, the plates should be set vertically.
If necessary, plate electrodes shall have a galvanized iron pipe buried vertically and adjacent to
the electrode. One end of the pipe should be at least 5cm above the surface of the ground and
not more than 10cm. The internal dia of the pipe should be at least 5cm and not more than
10cm. The length should be such that it should be able to reach the centre of the plate, however,
it should not be more than the depth of the bottom edge of the plate.

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R =
Ohms.
4A
Where,
= Soil resistivity in ohm-mtr. and
A = Area of both sides of plate in m2.
Plate Earth Electrode (Figure-6.6.3 )

6.6.4 Cable Sheaths :
Where an extensive underground cable system is available, lead sheathed and steel armoured
cables may be used as earth electrodes provided the bond across the joints is at least of
of the
the same
same
conductivity as of the sheath. The resistance of such an electrode is generally less than 1Ohm.
6.7
Maintenance of Earth Electrodes :

Periodical check tests of earth electrodes should be carried out and values should be recorded. If
Earth-Leakage Circuit Breakers are installed, it should be tested by operating the test device
periodically. The surrounding soil to the earth electrode should be kept moist, where necessary,
by pouring water through a pipe where fitted along with it.
6.8
Measurement of Earth Electrode Resistance :

In order to measure the resistance of earth electrode, two auxiliary earth electrodes and one test
electrode are placed at suitable distances as shown in the Figure-6.8. A measured current is
passed between the electrode A to be tested and an auxiliary current electrode C and the potential
difference between the electrode A and the auxiliary potential electrode B (value should be less
than 20,000 Ohms )is measured. This method is known as Fall of Potential method. The resistance
of the test electrode A is :
R=V/I
Where,
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R = Resistance of the test electrode in Ohms.

V = Voltmeter reading in Volts.
I = Ammeter reading in Amps.
Current Source
Ammeter
Voltmeter
A
t
Test
Electrode
B
t
1m
Potential
Current
Electrode
Electrode
Measurement of Earth Electrode Resistance

Figure-6.8
At the time of testing, the test electrode should be separated from the earthing system. The
auxiliary electrodes usually consist of 12.5mm dia mild steel rod up to 1m into the ground. All the
test and current electrodes should be so placed that they are independent of the resistance area of
each other.
If the test electrode is in the form of rod, pipe or plate, the auxiliary current electrode C should be
placed at least 30m away from it and the auxiliary potential electrode B should be placed midway
between them.
If three consecutive readings of test electrode resistance with different spacings of electrodes do
not match, the test should be repeated by increasing the distance between A and C up to 50m and
each time placing the electrode B midway between them.

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7.0
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
As mentioned in General Requirements, the system, which shall be earthed should be carried out
in accordance with the Indian Electricity Rules, 1956. Earthing may not give protection against
faults which are not essentially earth faults.
7.1
No of Connections :
Every medium, high and extra high voltage equipment shall be earthed by not less than two
separate and distinct connections with earth is designed primarily to preserve the security of the
system by ensuring that the voltage on each live conductor is restricted to such a value wrt the
potential of the general mass of earth as is consistent with level of insulation applied.
7.2
System Resistance :
The earth system resistance should be such that when any fault occurs against which earthing is
designed to give protection, the protective gear will operate to make the faulty portion harmless.
The resistance to earth of an electrode of given dimensions is dependent on the electrical
resistivity of the soil in which it is installed.
7.3
Effect of Temperature on Earth Resistance :

The soil temperature also has some effect on soil resistivity, the fundamental nature and properties
of a soil in a given area cannot be changed, can be made of purely local conditions in choosing
suitable electrode sites and of methods of preparing the site selected, to secure optimum
resistivity. These measures may be summarised as :
1.
Wet marshy ground and grounds containing refuse, such as ashes, cinders and brine
waste.
2.
Clayey soil or loam mixed with small quantities of sand.
3.
Clay & loam mixed with varying proportions of sand, gravel and stone.
4.
Damp and Wet sand pit.
The temperature coefficient of resistivity for soil is negative, but is negligible for temperatures
above freezing point. At about 20oC, the resistivity change is about 9% per oC. Below 00C the
water in the soil begins to freeze and introduces a tremendous increase in the temperature
coefficient, so that as the temperature becomes lower, the resistivity rises enormously. It is
therefore, recommended that in areas where the temperature is expected to be quite low, the earth
electrodes should be installed well below the frost line.
7.4
Soil Selection :
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A site should be chosen which is normally not well drained. A water logged situation, however, is
not essential unless the soil be sand or gravel as in general no advantage results from an increase
in moisture content above 15% to 25%. Perennial wells may also be used as sites for earth
electrodes with advantage where the bottom of the earth is rocky.
Electrodes should preferably situated in a soil which has a fine texture and is packed by watering
and ramming as tightly as possible. Where practicable, the soil should be shifted and lumps should
be broken up and stones removed in the immediate vicinity of the electrodes.
In places where the soil conditions appear to be extensively corrosive, the soil may be chemically
examined before deciding the material of the earth electrode.
7.5
Effect of Moisture content on Earth Resistivity :

Moisture content is one of the controlling factors in earth resistivity. Figure-7.5 shows the
variation of resistivity of red clay soil with percentage of moisture, expressed in percent by weight
of the dry soil. Dry soil weighs about 1440 Kg./M3 and thus 10% moisture content is equivalent
to 144 Kg of water/M3 of dry soil. From the figure, above 20% moisture the resistivity is very
little affected, below 20% the resistivity increases very abruptly with decrease in moisture content.
The normal moisture content of soils ranges from 10% in dry seasons to 35% in wet seasons, and
an approximate average may be perhaps 16 to 18%.
Variation of Soil Resistivity with Moisture Content Figure-7.5
7.6
Artificial Treatment of Soil :

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Multiple rods even in large number may sometime fail to produce an adequately low resistance to
earth. This condition arises in installations involving high resistivity. The alternative is to reduce
the resistivity of the soil surrounding the earth electrode. This can be achieved by adding the
substances like Sodium Chloride (NaCl), Calcium Chloride (CaCl2), Sodium Carbonate (Na2CO3),
Copper Sulphate (CuSO4), Salt and Soft coke and Charcoal in suitable proportions. The curve in
Figure-7.6 shows the reduction in soil resistivity effected by salt. The salt content is expressed in
% by weight of the contained moisture. The effect of salt is different for different soils.
Decreasing the soil resistivity causes a corresponding decrease in the resistance of a driven
electrode.
Variation of Soil Resistivity with Salt (NaCl) Content, Clay-soil having 3% Moisture
Figure-7.6
7.7
Representative Values of Soil Resistivity in Various Parts of India :

The type of soil largely determines its resistivity and representative values for soils found in India
are tabulated in Table-7.7. Earth conductivity is, however, essentially electrolytic in nature and is
affected therefore by moisture content of the soil and its chemical composition and concentration
of salts dissolved in the contained water. Grain size and distribution and closeness of packing are
also contributory factors since they control the manner in which the moisture is held in soil. Many
of these factors vary locally and some seasonally and, therefore, the values given in Table-7.7
should be taken only as a general guide. Local values should be verified by actual measurement
and this is specially important where the soil is stratified, as owing to disposition of earth current,
the effective resistivity depends not only on the surface layers but also on the underlying
geological formation.
Table-7.7 :

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S.No

Locality
Type of Soil
1
2
3
4
5
6
Kakarapar, Surat(Dist.), Gujrat

Taptee Valley
Narmada Valley
Purna Valley (Deogaon)
Dhond, Bombay
Bijapur dist., Karnataka
Garimenapenta,
Andhra Pradesh
Kartee
8
9
10
Manual No
CMN - EL - E 16-17-18
Nellore
Resistivity
(
-metre)
Clayey black soil

Alluvium
Alluvium
Agricultural
Alluvium
a) Black Cotton Soil
b) Moorm
dist., Alluvium (Highly Clayey)
a) Alluvium
b) Alluvium
Cossipur, Calcutta
Delhi
a) Najafgarh
11
b) Chhatarpur
Korba, Madhya Pradesh
12
13
Trivendrum dist., Kerala

Bhagalpur, Bihar
14
15
16
17
18
19
Bharatpur
Kalyadi, Mysore
Kolar Gold Fields
Wajrakarur, Andhra Pradesh
Koyna, Satara dist.,
Maharashtra
Kutch-Kandla (Amjar area)
20
21
22
Villupuram, Madras
Ambaji, Banaskantha (Gujrat)
Ramanathapuram dist., Madras
Alluvium
a) Alluvium(dry sandy soil)
b) Loamy to Clayey soil
c) Alluvium (saline)
Dry Soil
a) Moist Clay
b) Alluvium Soil
Lateritic Clay
a) Alluvium
b) Top Soil
Sandy loam (saline)
Alluvium
Sandy surface
Alluvium
Lateritic
a) Alluvium (Clayey)
b) Alluvium (Sandy)
Clayey sands
Alluvium
a) Alluvium
b) Lateritic soil
6 - 23
6 - 24
4 - 11
3-6
6 - 40
2 - 10
10 - 50
2
3-5
9 - 21
25 approx.
75 - 170
38 - 50
1.5 - 9
36 - 109
2-3
10 - 20
2-5
9 - 14
24 - 46
6 - 14
60 - 150
45 - 185
50 - 150
800 - 1200
(Dry)
40 - 50
60 - 200
11
170
2-5
300 approx.
7.8
Potential Gradients :
7.9
In case of large electrical installations, it is necessary to ensure that when a person walking on
the ground or touching an earthed object, in or around the premises shall not have large
dangerous potential differences impressed across his body in case of a fault within or outside the
premises. Such danger may arise if step potential gradients exist within the premises or between
boundary of the premises and an accessible point outside. For this, step & touch potential should
be investigated and kept within safe limits. The step & touch potentials can be lowered to any
value by reducing the mesh interval of the grid.
Effect of Corrosion :

Rev. : 00

Date : 02.10.97

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CMN - EL - E 16-17-18
The resistivity of the soil varies at different places, degree of corrosiveness affects the resistivity
and the size of the conductor. However, the practical results have shown that the average
corrosion maximum penetration for steel can be taken as 61 mils for 12 years, for next 8 years can
be taken at half of the rate. i.e. for a period of 20 years, it will be 81 mils ~ 2mm.
7.10 Earth Bus and Earth Wires :
7.10.1 Earth Bus :
These are either stranded or solid bars or flat rectangular strips of copper, galvanised iron or steel
or aluminium, may be bare, provided due care is taken to avoid corrosion and mechanical damage
to it. The interconnections should be reliable and good electrical connections are permanently
ensured. Welding, bolting & clamping are permissible.
7.10.2 Earth Wires :
All earth wires should be of copper, galvanised iron or steel or aluminium. They should be
protected against mechanical damage and possibility of corrosion particularly at the point of
connection to earth electrode or earth continuity conductor. The minimum allowable size of the
wire is determined principally by mechanical consideration for they are more liable to mechanical
injury and should therefore be strong enough to resist any strain that is likely to be put upon them.
The path of the earth wire shall, as far as possible, be out of reach of any person.
If the metal sheath or armour are used as earth electrode, the armour should be bonded to the
metal sheath and the connection between earth wires and earthing electrode should be made to the
metal sheath. In no case, neutral conductor should be used as earth wire.
7.11 Size of Earth Bus and Earth Wire :
The minimum sizes of earth bus (continuity conductor) and earth wires for buildings, industrial
locations, miscellaneous electrical installations, generating stations and sub-stations shall be done
based on various factors like,
7.11.1 Earth-continuity conductors & Earth wires not contained in the cables :
The size of the earth-continuity conductors should be co-related with the size of the current
carrying conductors, that is, the sizes of earth-continuity conductors should not be less than half
of the largest current carrying conductors, provided the minimum size of earth-continuity
conductors is not less than 1.5 mm2 for copper and 2.5 mm2 for aluminium and need not be
greater than 70 mm2 for copper and 120 mm2 for aluminium. As regards the sizes of galvanized
iron and steel, they may be equal to the size of the current-carrying conductors with which they
are used. In case of aluminium current-carrying conductors should be calculated on the basis of
equivalent size of copper current-carrying conductors.
7.11.2 Earth-continuity conductor & Earth wires containing in the cables :
For flexible cables, the size of the earth-continuity conductors should be equal to the size of the
current carrying conductors.
7.11.3 Voltage drop and Temperature rise :

Rev. : 00

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Manual No
CMN - EL - E 16-17-18
While determining the size of the conductor, one should consider the voltage drop and
temperature rise also. Under fault conditions, the voltage drop between two normally earthed
parts with which any one is likely to be in simultaneous contact should not exceed 32 Volts.
The thermal rating should be based on the short-time current rating of the associated switchgear
and a maximum temperature which will not cause damage to the earth connections or to
apparatus with which they may be in contact. This can be determined by the amount of current
flow and its duration, based on a maximum allowable temperature rise, which in the case of
swatted and riveted joints is limited to 2500 C and for brazed joints to 4500 C.

Rev. : 00

Date : 02.10.97

Page : 35 of 35
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Manual No
CMN - EL - E 16-17-18
8.0
GROUNDING SYSTEM CALCULATIONS
The intent of this topic is to determine the number of ground electrodes, size of main earthing
conductor in order to have safe and reliable grounding system for a project.
8.1
Design Basis :
For a substation grounding calculations following parameters are considered -a)
Fault Level
50 KA
b)
Duration
1 Sec.
c)
Max. Soil Resistivity
100 Ohm.mtr.
d)
Material of ground electrode :
8.2
Hard-drawn copper
For plant area grounding calculations following parameters are considered -a)
Largest drive
110 KW.
b)
Cable size
4 Core x 240 mm2 .
c)
Length of cable
175 mtr.
d)
Duration of fault
0.5 Sec.[ considering that instantaneous protection

device (MCCB or Fuse) is provided in MCC for
shot circuit protection which trips within max. 40
m-sec (i.e. 0.04 sec).
Determination of size of earthing conductor for sub-station grid :

The size of earth grid conductor is decided on mechanical, thermal & electrical considerations.
As per IEEE - 80, 1976,
I=A
log
10
Tm - Ta
234 + T
a
33 S

Rev. : 00

Date : 02.10.97

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Manual No
CMN - EL - E 16-17-18
Where,
I = Max. Fault current in Amps = 50000
A = Cross-sectional Area in Circular Mils
S = Duration of fault in Sec = 1 Sec.
Tm = Max. allowable temp. in oC for bolted joints = 250 oC (As per IEEE 80)
Ta = Max. Ambient Temp. = 50o C
Substituting all these values, we get
A = 596933.75 Cm
= 596933.75 x 0.0005067 mm2
= 302.5 mm2
Therefore size of earthing conductor for substation is 300 mm2 [Min. As per ITB (International
Testing Bureau) is 70 mm2 ].
8.3
Determination of size of earthing conductor for plant grid :

As considered earlier,
Largest drive rating
110 KW
Cable Size
40 x 240 Sq. mm.
Cable length
175 Mr.
Fault current for fault at motor terminals,
If
0.8 x V x Aph x T
r x L x (1 + m)
where ,
r
= Resistivity at normal operating temp. = 22.5 x 10 3 Ohm - mm 2 / Mtr.
= Phase to Earth Voltage = 440/ \/3 = 254 Volts.

Rev. : 00

Date : 02.10.97

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Manual No
CMN - EL - E 16-17-18
Aph = Phase conductor size = 240 mm2

L
= Length = 175 Mtr.
APE =
Earth Conductor Size
APH / APE
No. of runs of cables = 1
Therefore, If = 6192 Amps.

In above formula considering m = O i.e. assuming that return path for fault current is through
earth grid & not 4th core of cable, we get
If = 12385 Amps.
Using the above value of fault current (12385 Amps) in following formula,
log
10
I=A
Tm - Ta
234 + T
a
33 S
Taking S = 0.5, Tm = 2500C and Ta = 500C,
We get,
A = 109322.84 Cm (Cir. Mils)
= 109322.84 x 0.0005067 mm2
= 55.39 mm2
Therefore, Size Selected is 70 mm2 which is in line with Minimum size indicated in ITB.
8.4
Calculation of Earth Resistance :

As per IEEE 142, earth resistance of pipe earth electrode is given as,
R=
2L
Ln 4L _ 1
a
Where,
Rev. : 00

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Manual No
CMN - EL - E 16-17-18
= Soil resistivity = 100 ohm - Mtr.

L = Length of Rod = 3 Mtr. = 300 Cm.
a = Dia of Rod
= 25 mm = 2.5 Cm.
Therefore, R = 27.45 Ohms.

In order to get station earth resistance < 1 Ohm min 28 rods are required.
No.of Rods used = 30 Nos. & Effective Resistance, R= 27.45 / 30 = 0.91 Ohms. (Min0.5 as per
ITB)

Rev. : 00

Date : 02.10.97

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Manual No
CMN - EL - E 16-17-18
9.0
QUESTIONNAIRE FOR VALIDATION
1.0
1.
2.0
Introduction :
Define Earthing.
Terminology :
1.
2.
Define Step Potential

Define Touch Potential
3.0
General Requirements :
1.
2.
4.0
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
5.0
1.
2.
3.
4.
6.0
1.
2.
7.0
1.
2.
Earthing shall be carried out in accordance with ______________ Rules.

What is the maximum permissible value of earth resistance ?
System Earthing :
What is System Earthing ?
What is the necessity of system earthing ?
What do you mean by Floating Neutral ?
What is the effect of ground fault in ungrounded system ?
What is Arcing Ground ?
What is the effect of arcing ground in electrical power system ?
Solid grounding is used in
.
Equipment Grounding :
.
Equipment grounding is done for
In case of generator transformer the neutral points should be directly earthed : TRUE / FALSE
The secondary windings, casings & frames of current and potential transformers should not be
earthed
TRUE / FALSE.
In case of generators in parallel, only one earth isolating switch should be kept on if more
than one generator are in service. Why ?
Earth Electrodes :
What are the various types of earthing electrodes ?
How do you measure the earth electrode resistance ?
Design Considerations :
What is the procedure for carrying out artificial treatment of soil ?
What are the factors affecting earth wire and earth bus size ?

Rev. : 00

Date : 02.10.97

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Manual No
CMN - EL - E 16-17-18
REFERENCES
1.
Code of Practice for Earthing, IS : 3043 - 1966.
2. Industrial Power System Hand Book, By : Donald Beeman.

3. National Electrical Code (NEC)
<<<>>><<<>>>

Rev. : 00

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Manual No
CMN - EL - E 16-17-18
ANSWERS FOR THE UESTIONNAIRE

1.0
Introduction :
1. Define Earthing.
The basic definition of Earthing / Grounding is intentional low resistance connection to earth /
ground which is assumed to be at zero potential.
2.0
1.
Terminology :
Define Step Potential
Step Potential - The maximum value of the potential difference possible of being shunted by a
human body between two accessible points on the ground separated by the distance of one
pace which may be assumed to be one metre.
2.
Define Touch Potential

Touch Potential - The maximum value of the potential difference between a point on the
ground and a point on an object likely to carry fault current such that the points which can be
touched by a person, which may be assumed to be one metre.
3.0
1.
General Requirements :
Earthing shall be carried out in accordance with ______________ Rules.
Indian Electricity Rules.

2.
What is the maximum permissible value of earth resistance ?

The earth resistance shall not be more than 5 Ohms.
4.0
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
5.0
1.
2.
3.
System Earthing :
What is System Earthing ?
What is the necessity of system earthing ?
What do you mean by Floating Neutral ?
What is the effect of ground fault in ungrounded system ?
What is Arcing Ground ?
What is the effect of arcing ground in electrical power system ?
.
Solid grounding is used in
Equipment Grounding :
Equipment grounding is done for
.
In case of generator transformer the neutral points should be directly earthed : TRUE / FALSE
The secondary windings, casings & frames of current and potential transformers should not be
earthed
TRUE / FALSE.

Rev. : 00

Date : 02.10.97

Page : 42 of 42
Category - A
EARTHING
4.
6.0
1.
2.
7.0
1.
2.

Manual No
CMN - EL - E 16-17-18
In case of generators in parallel, only one earth isolating switch should be kept on if more
than one generator are in service. Why ?
Earth Electrodes :
What are the various types of earthing electrodes ?
How do you measure the earth electrode resistance ?
Design Considerations :
What is the procedure for carrying out artificial treatment of soil ?
What are the factors affecting earth wire and earth bus size ?

Rev. : 00

Date : 02.10.97

Page : 43 of 43

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The basic definition of Earthing / Grounding is intentional low resistance

To avoid confusion or possible misunderstanding, this training manual is devoted

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Reliance Industries Limited

Bond - To connect together electrically two or more conductors or metal parts.

Earth - A connection to the general mass of earth by means of an earth electrode.

Earth Electrode - A metal plate, pipe or other conductor or an array of

Earth Fault - Live portion of a system getting accidentally connected to earth.

Earthing Terminal - A terminal provided on a piece of apparatus for the purpose

Earthed system - A system in which the neutral or any one conductor is

Earthing Ring - A ring or bus formed by connecting earth electrodes.

Fault Current - A current flowing from one conductor to earth, or to another

Leakage Current - A fault current of relatively small value, as distinguished from

- The term neutral is used in relation to single-phase

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Touch Potential - The maximum value of the potential difference between a

Mesh Potential - It is the potential difference in volts from grid conductor to

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Earthing shall generally be carried out in accordance with requirements of

Earth electrodes shall be provided at generating stations, sub-stations and

As far as possible all earth connections shall be visible for inspection.

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Floating / Ungrounded Neutral :

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Transient Overvoltage may

Single line to earth fault

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Line-Earth Voltage During Fault = LineVoltage

4.1.1 Arcing Grounds :

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Sometimes it is necessary to determine how solidly the system is grounded. this

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Solidly grounded means grounded through an adequate ground connection in which

Resistance grounding means grounding by series connected resistance as shown in

Single Line-Earth Fault

Voltage Drop in faulted phase due to Earth Current