Earth

4/17/2016
EarthWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
Earth
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
Earth(otherwiseknownas
TheWorld,[n5]inGreek:
Gaia,[n6]orinLatin:Terra[26])
isthethirdplanetfromtheSun,
thedensestplanetintheSolar
System,thelargestoftheSolar
System'sfourterrestrial
planets,andtheonly
astronomicalobjectknownto
harborlife.
Accordingtoradiometric
datingandothersourcesof
evidence,Earthwasformed
about4.54billionyears
ago.[27][28][29]Earth
gravitationallyinteractswith
otherobjectsinspace,
especiallytheSunandthe
Moon.Duringoneorbitaround
theSun,Earthrotatesaboutits
ownaxis366.26times,creating
365.26solardaysorone
siderealyear.[n7]Earth'saxisof
rotationistilted23.4away
fromtheperpendicularofits
orbitalplane,producing
seasonalvariationsonthe
planet'ssurfacewithaperiod
ofonetropicalyear(365.24
solardays).[30]TheMoonis
Earth'sonlypermanentnatural
satellite.Itsgravitational
interactionwithEarthcauses
oceantides,stabilizesthe
orientationofEarth'srotational
axis,andgraduallyslows
Earth'srotationalrate.[31]
Earth
"TheBlueMarble"photographofEarth,takenduringtheApollo17lunar
missionin1972
Orbitalcharacteristics
EpochJ2000[n1]
Aphelion
152,100,000km(94,500,000mi)
(1.016 73AU) [n2]
Perihelion
147,095,000km(91,401,000mi)
(0.983 2687AU) [n2]
Semimajoraxis 149,598,023km(92,955,902mi)
(1.000 001 018AU) [1]
Eccentricity
0.016 7086[1]
Orbitalperiod
365.256 363 004d[2]

(1.000 017 420 96yr)
Averageorbital 29.78km/s(18.50mi/s)[3]
speed
(107,200km/h(66,600mph))
Meananomaly 358.617
Inclination
7.155totheSun'sequator
1.57869[4]toinvariableplane
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth
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Earth'slithosphereisdivided
intoseveralrigidtectonic
platesthatmigrateacrossthe
surfaceoverperiodsofmany
millionsofyears.71%of
Earth'ssurfaceiscoveredwith
water,[32]withtheremainder
consistingofcontinentsand
islandsthattogetherhavemany
lakesandothersourcesof
waterthatcontributetothe
hydrosphere.Earth'spolar
regionsaremostlycovered
withice,includingthe
Antarcticicesheetandthesea
iceoftheArcticicepack.
Earth'sinteriorremainsactive
withasolidironinnercore,a
liquidoutercorethatgenerates
themagneticfield,anda
convectingmantlethatdrives
platetectonics.
Withinitsfirstbillionyears,[33]
lifeappearedinEarth'soceans
andbegantoaffectits
atmosphereandsurface,
leadingtotheproliferationof
aerobicandanaerobic
organisms.Sincethen,the
combinationofEarth'sdistance
fromtheSun,itsphysical
propertiesanditsgeological
historyhaveallowedlifeto
thriveandevolve.Theearliest
undisputedlifeonEartharose
atleast3.5billionyearsago.
Earlierphysicalevidenceof
lifeincludesbiogenicgraphite
in3.7billionyearold
metasedimentaryrocks
discoveredinsouthwestern
Greenland,aswellas"remains
ofbioticlife"foundin4.1
billionyearoldrocksin
WesternAustralia.[34][35]
Earth'sbiodiversityhas
expandedcontinuallyexcept
0.00005toJ2000ecliptic
Longitudeof
11.260 64[3]toJ2000ecliptic
ascendingnode
Argumentof
perihelion
114.207 83[3]
Satellites
Onenaturalsatellite
>1381operationalartificialsatellites[5][n3]
Physicalcharacteristics
Meanradius
6,371.0km(3,958.8mi)[6]
Equatorial
radius
6,378.1km(3,963.2mi)[7][8]
Polarradius
6,356.8km(3,949.9mi)[9]
Flattening
0.003 3528[10]
1/298.257222101(ETRS89)
Circumference
40,075.017km(24,901.461mi) (equatorial) [8]

40,007.86km(24,859.73mi) (meridional) [11][12]
Surfacearea
510,072,000km2(196,940,000sqmi)[13][14][n4]
(148,940,000km2(57,510,000sqmi) (29.2%)land
361,132,000km2(139,434,000sqmi) (70.8%)water)
Volume
1.083 21 1012km3(2.598 76 1011cumi)[3]
Mass
5.972 37 1024kg(1.316 68 1025lb)[15]

(3.0 106M )
Meandensity
5.514g/cm3(0.1992lb/cuin)[3]
Surfacegravity 9.807m/s2(32.18ft/s2)[16]
(1g)
Momentof
inertiafactor
0.3307[17]
Escapevelocity 11.186km/s(6.951mi/s)[3]
Sidereal
0.997 269 68d[18]
rotationperiod (23h56m4.100s)
Equatorial
1,674.4km/h(1,040.4mph)[19]
rotationvelocity
Axialtilt
Albedo
23.4392811[2]
0.367geometric[3]
0.306Bond[3]
Surfacetemp.
Kelvin
min
mean
max
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wheninterruptedbymass
184K[20]
288K[21]
330K[22]
Celsius
89.2C
15C
56.7C
extinctions.[36]Although
Fahrenheit
128.5F
59F
134F
scholarsestimatethatover99%
ofallspeciesoflife(overfive
Atmosphere
[37]
billion) thateverlivedon
Surface
101.325kPa(atMSL)
[38][39]
pressure
Earthareextinct,
there
arestillanestimated1014
Compositionby
78.08%nitrogen(N2)[3] (dryair)
[40][41]
millionextantspecies,
of
volume
20.95%oxygen(O2)
whichabout1.2millionhave
0.930%argon
beendocumentedandover
86%havenotyetbeen
0.039%carbondioxide[23]
described.[42]Over7.3billion
~1%watervapor (climatevariable)
[43]
humans liveonEarthand
dependonitsbiosphereandmineralsfortheirsurvival.Earth'shumanpopulationisdividedamongabout
twohundredsovereignstateswhichinteractthroughdiplomacy,conflict,travel,tradeandcommunication
media.
Contents
1 Chronology
1.1 Formation
1.2 Geologicalhistory
1.3 Evolutionoflife
1.4 Predictedfuture
2 Nameandetymology
3 Compositionandstructure
3.1 Shape
3.2 Chemicalcomposition
3.3 Internalstructure
3.4 Heat
3.5 Tectonicplates
3.6 Surface
3.7 Hydrosphere
3.8 Atmosphere
3.8.1 Weatherandclimate
3.8.2 Upperatmosphere
3.9 Magneticfield
3.10 Magnetosphere
4 Orbitandrotation
4.1 Rotation
4.2 Orbit
4.3 Axialtiltandseasons
5 Habitability
5.1 Biosphere
5.2 Naturalresourcesandlanduse
5.3 Naturalandenvironmentalhazards
5.4 Humangeography
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6 Moon
7 Asteroidsandartificialsatellites
8 Culturalandhistoricalviewpoint
9 Seealso
10 Notes
11 References
12 Furtherreading
13 Externallinks
Chronology
Formation
Artist'simpressionoftheearlySolar
System'splanetarydisk
Naturetimeline
The
earliest
material
foundin
the
Solar
System
isdated
to
viewdiscuss
Theprocessthatledtotheformationofthe
Moonapproximately4.53billionyearsago[46]
isthesubjectofongoingresearch.Theworking
hypothesisisthatitformedbyaccretionfrom
materialloosedfromEarthafteraMarssized
object,namedTheia,impactedwithEarth.[47]
Inthisscenario,themassofTheiawas10%of
2 I
Complexlife
Simplelife
water
SolarSystem
6 P
7
cosmicspeedup
11
Earliestoxygen
Earliestlife
EarliestEarth
(4.54)
AlphaCentauriforms
I
MilkyWaydiskforms
R
10
reproduction
NorthStarforms
8M
Earliestsexual
photosynthesis
Earliesthumans
Earliestlandlife
Atmosphericoxygen
4.5672 0.0006billionyearsago(Gya).[44]By
4.54 0.04Gya[33]theprimordialEarthhad
formed.Theformationandevolutionofthe
SolarSystembodiesoccurredalongwiththose
oftheSun.Intheory,asolarnebulapartitionsa
volumeoutofamolecularcloudby
gravitationalcollapse,whichbeginstospinand
flattenintoacircumstellardisk,andthenthe
planetsgrowoutofthatalongwiththeSun.A
nebulacontainsgas,icegrains,anddust
(includingprimordialnuclides).Innebular
theory,planetesimalsformbyaccretion.The
assemblyoftheprimordialEarthproceededfor
1020Ma.[45]
Landlife
AndromedaGalaxy
D
I
forms
cosmicexpansion
OmegaCentauriforms
12
L
13
Earliestquasar
Earliestgalaxy
Earliestuniverse
Axisscale:Billionsofyearsago.
(13.8)
Earliestlight
Earliestgravity
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alsosee{{Lifetimeline}}
thatofEarth,[48]itimpactedEarthwitha
glancingblow,[49]andsomeofitsmassmerged
withEarth.Betweenapproximately4.1and3.8Gya,numerousasteroidimpactsduringtheLateHeavy
BombardmentcausedsignificantchangestothegreatersurfaceenvironmentoftheMoon,andbyinference,
toEarth.
Geologicalhistory
Earth'satmosphereandoceansformedbyvolcanicactivityandoutgassingthatincludedwatervapor.The
originoftheworld'soceanswascondensationaugmentedbywaterandicedeliveredbyasteroids,
protoplanets,andcomets.[50]Inthismodel,atmospheric"greenhousegases"kepttheoceansfromfreezing
whenthenewlyformingSunhadonly70%ofitscurrentluminosity.[51]By3.5Gya,Earth'smagneticfield
wasestablished,whichhelpedpreventtheatmospherefrombeingstrippedawaybythesolarwind.[52]
AcrustformedwhenthemoltenouterlayerofEarthcooledtoformasolidastheaccumulatedwatervapor
begantoactintheatmosphere.Thetwomodels[53]thatexplainlandmassproposeeitherasteadygrowthto
thepresentdayforms[54]or,morelikely,arapidgrowth[55]earlyinEarthhistory[56]followedbyalong
termsteadycontinentalarea.[57][58][59]Continentsformedbyplatetectonics,aprocessultimatelydrivenby
thecontinuouslossofheatfromEarth'sinterior.Ontimescaleslastinghundredsofmillionsofyears,the
supercontinentshaveformedandbrokenupthreetimes.Roughly750mya(millionyearsago),oneofthe
earliestknownsupercontinents,Rodinia,begantobreakapart.Thecontinentslaterrecombinedtoform
Pannotia,600540mya,thenfinallyPangaea,whichalsobrokeapart180mya.[60]
Thepresentpatternoficeagesbeganabout40myaandthenintensifiedduringthePleistoceneabout3mya.
Highlatituderegionshavesinceundergonerepeatedcyclesofglaciationandthaw,repeatingevery
40100 000years.Thelastcontinentalglaciationended10,000yearsago.[61]
Evolutionoflife
Highlyenergeticchemicalreactionsarethought
tohaveproducedselfreplicatingmolecules
aroundfourbillionyearsago.Thiswas
followedahalfbillionyearslaterbythelast
commonancestorofalllife.[62]The
developmentofphotosynthesisallowedthe
Sun'senergytobeharvesteddirectlybylife
formstheresultantmolecularoxygen(O2)
accumulatedintheatmosphereanddueto
interactionwithultravioletsolarradiation,
formedaprotectiveozonelayer(O3)inthe
upperatmosphere.[63]Theincorporationof
smallercellswithinlargeronesresultedinthe
developmentofcomplexcellscalled
eukaryotes.[64]Truemulticellularorganisms
formedascellswithincoloniesbecame
Lifetimeline
viewdiscuss
P
h
a
n
500 zr
c
Flowers
Mammals
Dinosaurs
Landplants
Landanimals
Earliesthumans
Earliestlandlife
1000
P
r
1500 o
t
e
r
o
2000 z
o
Complex
multicellularlife Earliestsexual
reproduction
Eukaryotes
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increasinglyspecialized.Aidedbythe
absorptionofharmfulultravioletradiationby
theozonelayer,lifecolonizedEarth's
surface.[65]Theearliestfossilevidenceforlife
ismicrobialmatfossilsfoundin3.48billion
yearoldsandstoneinWestern
Australia,[66][67][68][69][70]biogenicgraphite
foundin3.7billionyearoldmetasedimentary
rocksinWesternGreenland,[71]aswellas,
remainsofbioticmaterialfoundin4.1billion
yearoldrocksinWesternAustralia.[34][35]
Since
the
1960s,it
has
been
2000 z
Eukaryotes
o
i
c
OxygenCrisis
Atmosphericoxygen
2500
3000 cr
photosynthesis
e
3500
a
n
Earliestoxygen
Simplelife
Meteorite
bombardment
4000
H
a
d
e
4500 an
Earliestlife
water
(4100)
Earliestwater
EarliestEarth
(4540)
Axisscale:Millionsofyearsago.
alsosee{{Naturetimeline}}
hypothesizedthatsevereglacialactionbetween750and580mya,
duringtheNeoproterozoic,coveredmuchofEarthinice.This
Speculativephylogenetictreeoflife
hypothesishasbeentermed"SnowballEarth",anditisofparticular
onEarthbasedonrRNAanalysis
interestbecauseitprecededtheCambrianexplosion,when
multicellularlifeformsbegantoproliferate.[72]Followingthe
Cambrianexplosion,about535mya,therehavebeenfivemajormassextinctions.[73]Themostrecentsuch
eventwas66mya,whenanasteroidimpacttriggeredtheextinctionofthenonaviandinosaursandother
largereptiles,butsparedsomesmallanimalssuchasmammals,whichthenresembledshrews.Overthepast
66Ma,mammalianlifehasdiversified,andseveralmillionyearsagoanAfricanapelikeanimalsuchas
Orrorintugenensisgainedtheabilitytostandupright.[74]Thisfacilitatedtooluseandencouraged
communicationthatprovidedthenutritionandstimulationneededforalargerbrain,whichallowedthe
evolutionofthehumanrace.Thedevelopmentofagriculture,andthencivilization,ledtohumanshavingan
influenceonEarthandthenatureandquantityofotherlifeformsasnootherspecieseverhas.[75]
Predictedfuture
EstimatesonhowmuchlongerEarthwillbeabletocontinuetosupportliferangefrom
500millionyears(Myr),toaslongas2.3billionyears(Ga).[76][77][78]Earth'slongtermfutureiscloselytied
tothatoftheSun.AsaresultofthesteadyaccumulationofheliumattheSun'score,theSun'stotal
luminositywillslowlyincrease.TheluminosityoftheSunwillgrowby10%overthenext1.1Gaandby
40%overthenext3.5Ga.[79]ClimatemodelsindicatethattheriseinradiationreachingEarthislikelyto
havedireconsequences,includingthelossoftheoceans.[80]
Earth'sincreasingsurfacetemperaturewillacceleratetheinorganicCO2cycle,reducingitsconcentrationto
levelslethallylowforplants(10ppmforC4photosynthesis)inapproximately500900Ma.[76]Thelackof
vegetationwillresultinthelossofoxygenintheatmosphere,soanimallifewillbecomeextinctwithin
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severalmillionmoreyears.[81]Afteranotherbillionyearsallsurfacewaterwillhavedisappeared[77]andthe
meanglobaltemperaturewillreach70C[81](158F).Earthisexpectedtobeeffectivelyhabitablefor
aboutanother500Mafromthatpoint,[76]althoughthismaybeextendedupto2.3Gaifthenitrogenis
removedfromtheatmosphere.[78]EveniftheSunwereeternalandstable,27%ofthewaterinthemodern
oceanswilldescendtothemantleinonebillionyears,duetoreducedsteamventingfrommidocean
ridges.[82]
TheSunwillevolvetobecomearedgiantinabout5Ga.ModelspredictthattheSunwillexpandtoroughly
1AU(150,000,000km),whichisabout250timesitspresentradius.[79][83]Earth'sfateislessclear.Asared
giant,theSunwillloseroughly30%ofitsmass,so,withouttidaleffects,Earthwillmovetoanorbit1.7AU
(250,000,000km)fromtheSunwhenitreachesitsmaximumradius.Earthwas,therefore,onceexpectedto
escapeenvelopmentbytheexpandedSun'souteratmosphere,thoughmost,ifnotall,remaininglifewould
havebeendestroyedbytheSun'sincreasedluminosity(peakingatabout5,000timesitspresentlevel).[79]A
2008simulationindicatesthatEarth'sorbitwilldecayduetotidaleffectsanddrag,causingittoenterthe
redgiantSun'satmosphereandbevaporized.[83]
LifecycleoftheSun
Nameandetymology
ThemodernEnglishwordEarthdevelopedfromawidevarietyofMiddleEnglishforms,[n8]whichderived
fromanOldEnglishnounmostoftenspelledeore.[84]IthascognatesineveryGermaniclanguage,and
theirprotoGermanicroothasbeenreconstructedas*er.Initsearliestappearances,eorewasalready
beingusedtotranslatethemanysensesofLatinterraandGreek(g):theground,[n9]itssoil,[n10]dry
land,[n11]thehumanworld,[n12]thesurfaceoftheworld(includingthesea),[n13]andtheglobeitself.[n14]
AswithTerraandGaia,EarthwasapersonifiedgoddessinGermanicpaganism:theAngleswerelistedby
TacitusasamongthedevoteesofNerthus,[93]andlaterNorsemythologyincludedJr,agiantessoften
givenasthemotherofThor.[94]
Originally,earthwaswritteninlowercase,andfromearlyMiddleEnglish,itsdefinitesenseas"theglobe"
wasexpressedastheearth.ByearlyModernEnglish,manynounswerecapitalized,andtheearthbecame
(andoftenremained)theEarth,particularlywhenreferencedalongwithotherheavenlybodies.More
recently,thenameissometimessimplygivenasEarth,byanalogywiththenamesoftheotherplanets.[84]
Housestylesnowvary:Oxfordspellingrecognizesthelowercaseformasthemostcommon,withthe
capitalizedformanacceptablevariant.Anotherconventioncapitalizes"Earth"whenappearingasaname
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(e.g."Earth'satmosphere")butwritesitinlowercasewhenprecededbythe(e.g."theatmosphereofthe
earth").Italmostalwaysappearsinlowercaseincolloquialexpressionssuchas"whatonearthareyou
doing?"[95]
Compositionandstructure
Shape
TheshapeofEarthapproximatesanoblatespheroid,asphere
flattenedalongtheaxisfrompoletopolesuchthatthereisabulge
aroundtheequator.[97]ThisbulgeresultsfromtherotationofEarth,
andcausesthediameterattheequatortobe43kilometres(27mi)
largerthanthepoletopolediameter.[98]Thusthepointonthe
surfacefarthestfromEarth'scenterofmassisthesummitofthe
equatorialChimborazovolcanoinEcuador.[99][100][101][102]The
averagediameterofthereferencespheroidisabout12,742
kilometres(7,918mi),whichisapproximately(40,000km)/,
becausethemeterwasoriginallydefinedas1/10,000,000ofthe
distancefromtheequatortotheNorthPolethroughParis,
France.[103]
ShapeofplanetEarth.Shownare
distancesbetweensurfacereliefand
thegeocentre.TheSouthAmerican
Andessummitsarevisibleaselevated
Localtopographydeviatesfromthisidealizedspheroid,althoughon
aglobalscalethesedeviationsaresmallcomparedtoEarth'sradius:
areas.DatafromtheEarth2014[96]
Themaximumdeviationofonly0.17%isattheMarianaTrench
globalreliefmodel.
(10,911metres(35,797ft)belowlocalsealevel),whereasMount
Everest(8,848metres(29,029ft)abovelocalsealevel)representsa
deviationof0.14%.IfEarthwereshrunktothesizeofabilliardball,someareasofEarthsuchaslarge
mountainrangesandoceanictrencheswouldfeelliketinyimperfections,whereasmuchoftheplanet,
includingtheGreatPlainsandtheabyssalplains,wouldfeelsmoother.[104]
Chemicalcomposition
Earth'smassisapproximately5.97 1024kg(5,970Yg).Itiscomposedmostlyofiron(32.1%),oxygen
(30.1%),silicon(15.1%),magnesium(13.9%),sulfur(2.9%),nickel(1.8%),calcium(1.5%),andaluminium
(1.4%),withtheremaining1.2%consistingoftraceamountsofotherelements.Duetomasssegregation,
thecoreregionisestimatedtobeprimarilycomposedofiron(88.8%),withsmalleramountsofnickel
(5.8%),sulfur(4.5%),andlessthan1%traceelements.[106]
ThegeochemistF.W.Clarkecalculatedthatalittlemorethan47%ofEarth'scrustconsistsofoxygen.The
morecommonrockconstituentsofthecrustarenearlyalloxides:chlorine,sulfurandfluorinearethe
importantexceptionstothisandtheirtotalamountinanyrockisusuallymuchlessthan1%.Theprincipal
oxidesaresilica,alumina,ironoxides,lime,magnesia,potashandsoda.Thesilicafunctionsprincipallyas
anacid,formingsilicates,andallthemostcommonmineralsofigneousrocksareofthisnature.Froma
computationbasedon1,672analysesofallkindsofrocks,Clarkededucedthat99.22%wascomposedof11
oxides(seethetableatright),withtheotherconstituentsoccurringinminutequantities.[107]
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Internalstructure
Chemicalcompositionofthecrust[105]
Composition
Compound
Formula
Earth'sinterior,likethatoftheotherterrestrial
planets,isdividedintolayersbytheirchemicalor
Continental Oceanic
physical(rheological)properties,butunlikethe
SiO2
silica
60.2% 48.6%
otherterrestrialplanets,ithasadistinctouterand
Al2O3
innercore.Theouterlayerisachemicallydistinct
alumina
15.2% 16.5%
silicatesolidcrust,whichisunderlainbyahighly
lime
CaO
5.5% 12.3%
viscoussolidmantle.Thecrustisseparatedfrom
magnesia
MgO
3.1% 6.8%
themantlebytheMohoroviidiscontinuity,and
thethicknessofthecrustvaries:averaging6km
iron(II)oxide
FeO
3.8% 6.2%
(kilometers)undertheoceansand3050kmon
Na2O
sodiumoxide
3.0% 2.6%
thecontinents.Thecrustandthecold,rigid,top
K2O
oftheuppermantlearecollectivelyknownasthe
potassiumoxide
2.8% 0.4%
lithosphere,anditisofthelithospherethatthe
Fe2O3
iron(III)oxide
2.5% 2.3%
tectonicplatesarecomposed.Beneaththe
H2O
lithosphereistheasthenosphere,arelativelylow
water
1.4% 1.1%
viscositylayeronwhichthelithosphererides.
CO2
carbondioxide
1.2% 1.4%
Importantchangesincrystalstructurewithinthe
mantleoccurat410and660kmbelowthe
TiO2
titaniumdioxide
0.7% 1.4%
surface,spanningatransitionzonethatseparates
phosphoruspentoxide P2O5
0.2% 0.3%
theupperandlowermantle.Beneaththemantle,
anextremelylowviscosityliquidoutercorelies
Total
99.6% 99.9%
[108]
aboveasolidinnercore.
Theinnercoremay
rotateataslightlyhigherangularvelocitythantheremainderoftheplanet,advancingby0.10.5per
year.[109]TheradiusoftheinnercoreisaboutonefifthofEarth's.
GeologiclayersofEarth[110]
Depth[111]
km
Density
ComponentLayer
060
Lithosphere[n15]
035
Crust[n16]
2.22.9
3560
Uppermantle
3.44.4
352890 Mantle
100700 Asthenosphere
Earthcutawayfromcoretoexosphere.Nottoscale.
g/cm3
3.45.6
28905100 Outercore
9.912.2
51006378 Innercore
12.813.1
Heat
Earth'sinternalheatcomesfromacombinationofresidualheatfromplanetaryaccretion(about20%)and
heatproducedthroughradioactivedecay(80%).[112]ThemajorheatproducingisotopeswithinEarthare
potassium40,uranium238,uranium235,andthorium232.[113]Atthecenter,thetemperaturemaybeupto
6,000C(10,830F),[114]andthepressurecouldreach360GPa.[115]Becausemuchoftheheatisprovided
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byradioactivedecay,scientistspostulatethatearlyinEarth'shistory,beforeisotopeswithshorthalflives
hadbeendepleted,Earth'sheatproductionwouldhavebeenmuchhigher.Thisextraheatproduction,twice
presentdayatapproximately3Ga,[112]wouldhaveincreasedtemperaturegradientswithradius,increasing
theratesofmantleconvectionandplatetectonics,andallowingtheproductionofuncommonigneousrocks
suchaskomatiitesthatarerarelyformedtoday.[116]
Isotope
Presentdaymajorheatproducingisotopes[117]
Heatrelease Halflife Meanmantleconcentration Heatrelease
W
kgisotope
years
kgisotope
kgmantle
W
kgmantle
238U
94.6106
4.47109
30.8109
2.911012
235U
569106 0.704109
0.22109
0.1251012
232Th
26.4106
14.0109
124109
3.271012
40K
29.2106
1.25109
36.9109
1.081012
ThemeanheatlossfromEarthis87mWm2,foraglobalheatlossof4.421013W.[118]Aportionofthe
core'sthermalenergyistransportedtowardthecrustbymantleplumesaformofconvectionconsistingof
upwellingsofhighertemperaturerock.Theseplumescanproducehotspotsandfloodbasalts.[119]Moreof
theheatinEarthislostthroughplatetectonics,bymantleupwellingassociatedwithmidoceanridges.The
finalmajormodeofheatlossisthroughconductionthroughthelithosphere,themajorityofwhichoccurs
undertheoceansbecausethecrustthereismuchthinnerthanthatofthecontinents.[120]
Tectonicplates
ThemechanicallyrigidouterlayerofEarth,thelithosphere,isbrokenintopiecescalledtectonicplates.
Theseplatesarerigidsegmentsthatmoveinrelationtooneanotheratoneofthreetypesofplate
boundaries:convergentboundaries,atwhichtwoplatescometogether,divergentboundaries,atwhichtwo
platesarepulledapart,andtransformboundaries,inwhichtwoplatesslidepastoneanotherlaterally.
Earthquakes,volcanicactivity,mountainbuilding,andoceanictrenchformationcanoccuralongtheseplate
boundaries.[122]Thetectonicplatesrideontopoftheasthenosphere,thesolidbutlessviscouspartofthe
uppermantlethatcanflowandmovealongwiththeplates.[123]
Asthetectonicplatesmigrate,theoceanfloorissubductedundertheleadingedgesoftheplatesat
convergentboundaries.Atthesametime,theupwellingofmantlematerialatdivergentboundariescreates
midoceanridges.Thecombinationoftheseprocessescontinuallyrecyclestheoceaniccrustbackintothe
mantle.Duetothisrecycling,mostoftheoceanfloorislessthan100Maoldinage.Theoldestoceanic
crustislocatedintheWesternPacific,andhasanestimatedageofabout200Ma.[124][125]Bycomparison,
theoldestdatedcontinentalcrustis4030Ma.[126]
ThesevenmajorplatesarethePacific,NorthAmerican,Eurasian,African,Antarctic,IndoAustralian,and
SouthAmerican.OthernotableplatesincludetheArabianPlate,theCaribbeanPlate,theNazcaPlateoffthe
westcoastofSouthAmericaandtheScotiaPlateinthesouthernAtlanticOcean.TheAustralianPlatefused
withtheIndianPlatebetween50and55mya.Thefastestmovingplatesaretheoceanicplates,withthe
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CocosPlateadvancingatarateof75mm/year[127]andthePacific
Platemoving5269mm/year.Attheotherextreme,theslowest
movingplateistheEurasianPlate,progressingatatypicalrateof
about21mm/year.[128]
Earth'smajorplates[121]
Surface
Earth'sterrainvariesgreatly
fromplacetoplace.About
70.8%[13]ofthesurfaceis
coveredbywater,withmuch
ofthecontinentalshelfbelow
sealevel.Thisequatesto
361.132millionkm2(139.43
millionsqmi).[129]The
submergedsurfacehas
PresentdayEarthaltimetryand
mountainousfeatures,
bathymetry.DatafromtheNational
includingaglobespanning
GeophysicalDataCenter.
midoceanridgesystem,as
wellasundersea
[98]
volcanoes, oceanictrenches,submarinecanyons,oceanicplateaus
andabyssalplains.Theremaining29.2%(148.94millionkm2,or
57.51millionsqmi)notcoveredbywaterconsistsofmountains,
deserts,plains,plateaus,andotherlandforms.
Platename
Area
106km2
PacificPlate
103.3
AfricanPlate[n17]
78.0
NorthAmericanPlate 75.9
EurasianPlate
67.8
AntarcticPlate
60.9
IndoAustralianPlate
47.2
SouthAmericanPlate 43.6
Earth'ssurfaceundergoesreshapingovergeologicaltimeperiodsduetotectonicsanderosion.Thesurface
featuresbuiltupordeformedthroughplatetectonicsaresubjecttosteadyweatheringanderosionfrom
precipitation,thermalcycles,andchemicaleffects.Glaciation,coastalerosion,thebuildupofcoralreefs,
andlargemeteoriteimpacts[130]alsoacttoreshapethelandscape.
Thecontinentalcrustconsistsoflowerdensitymaterialsuchastheigneousrocksgraniteandandesite.Less
commonisbasalt,adenservolcanicrockthatistheprimaryconstituentoftheoceanfloors.[131]
Sedimentaryrockisformedfromtheaccumulationofsedimentthatbecomesburiedandcompacted
together.Nearly75%ofthecontinentalsurfacesarecoveredbysedimentaryrocks,althoughtheyform
about5%ofthecrust.[132]ThethirdformofrockmaterialfoundonEarthismetamorphicrock,whichis
createdfromthetransformationofpreexistingrocktypesthroughhighpressures,hightemperatures,or
both.ThemostabundantsilicatemineralsonEarth'ssurfaceincludequartz,feldspars,amphibole,mica,
pyroxeneandolivine.[133]Commoncarbonatemineralsincludecalcite(foundinlimestone)and
dolomite.[134]
ThepedosphereistheoutermostlayerofEarth'scontinentalsurfaceandiscomposedofsoilandsubjectto
soilformationprocesses.Thetotalarablelandis10.9%ofthelandsurface,with1.3%beingpermanent
cropland.[135][136]Closeto40%ofEarth'slandsurfaceisusedforcroplandandpasture,oranestimated
1.3 107km2ofcroplandand3.4 107km2ofpastureland.[137]
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Theelevationofthelandsurfacevariesfromthelowpointof418mattheDeadSea,toa2005estimated
maximumaltitudeof8,848matthetopofMountEverest.Themeanheightoflandabovesealevelis
840m.[138]
BesidesbeingdescribedintermsofNorthernandSouthernhemispherescenteredonthepoles,Earthisalso
oftendescribedintermsofEasternandWesternhemispheres.Earth'ssurfaceistraditionallydividedinto
sevencontinentsandvariousseas.
Hydrosphere
TheabundanceofwateronEarth'ssurfaceisauniquefeaturethat
distinguishesthe"BluePlanet"fromotherplanetsintheSolar
System.Earth'shydrosphereconsistschieflyoftheoceans,but
technicallyincludesallwatersurfacesintheworld,includinginland
seas,lakes,rivers,andundergroundwatersdowntoadepthof
2,000m.ThedeepestunderwaterlocationisChallengerDeepofthe
MarianaTrenchinthePacificOceanwithadepthof
10,911.4m.[n18][139]
Themassoftheoceansisapproximately1.35 1018metrictons,or
ElevationhistogramofEarth's
about1/4400ofEarth'stotalmass.Theoceanscoveranareaof3.618
surface
8
2
10 km withameandepthof3682m,resultinginanestimated
volumeof1.332 109km3.[140]IfallofEarth'scrustalsurfacewas
atthesameelevationasasmoothsphere,thedepthoftheresultingworldoceanwouldbe2.7to
2.8km.[141][142]
About97.5%ofthewaterissalinetheremaining2.5%isfreshwater.Mostfreshwater,about68.7%,is
presentasiceinicecapsandglaciers.[143]
TheaveragesalinityofEarth'soceansisabout35gramsofsaltperkilogramofseawater(3.5%salt).[144]
Mostofthissaltwasreleasedfromvolcanicactivityorextractedfromcooligneousrocks.[145]Theoceans
arealsoareservoirofdissolvedatmosphericgases,whichareessentialforthesurvivalofmanyaquaticlife
forms.[146]Seawaterhasanimportantinfluenceontheworld'sclimate,withtheoceansactingasalarge
heatreservoir.[147]Shiftsintheoceanictemperaturedistributioncancausesignificantweathershifts,suchas
theElNioSouthernOscillation.[148]
Atmosphere
TheatmosphericpressureonEarth'ssurfaceaverages101.325kPa,withascaleheightofabout8.5km.[3]It
hasacompositionof78%nitrogenand21%oxygen,withtraceamountsofwatervapor,carbondioxideand
othergaseousmolecules.Theheightofthetropospherevarieswithlatitude,rangingbetween8kmatthe
polesto17kmattheequator,withsomevariationresultingfromweatherandseasonalfactors.[149]
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Earth'sbiospherehassignificantlyaltereditsatmosphere.Oxygenic
photosynthesisevolved2.7Gya,formingtheprimarilynitrogen
oxygenatmosphereoftoday.[63]Thischangeenabledthe
proliferationofaerobicorganismsand,indirectly,theformationof
theozonelayerduetothesubsequentconversionofatmosphericO2
intoO3.Theozonelayerblocksultravioletsolarradiation,
permittinglifeonland.[150]Otheratmosphericfunctionsimportantto
lifeincludetransportingwatervapor,providingusefulgases,causing
AtyphoonasseenfromlowEarth
smallmeteorstoburnupbeforetheystrikethesurface,and
orbit
moderatingtemperature.[151]Thislastphenomenonisknownasthe
greenhouseeffect:tracemoleculeswithintheatmosphereserveto
capturethermalenergyemittedfromtheground,therebyraisingtheaveragetemperature.Watervapor,
carbondioxide,methaneandozonearetheprimarygreenhousegasesintheatmosphere.Withoutthisheat
retentioneffect,theaveragesurfacetemperaturewouldbe18C,incontrasttothecurrent+15C,andlife
wouldlikelynotexist.[152]
Weatherandclimate
Earth'satmospherehasno
definiteboundary,slowly
becomingthinnerandfading
intoouterspace.Three
quartersoftheatmosphere's
massiscontainedwithinthe
first11kmofthesurface.
SatelliteimageofEarthcloudcover
Thislowestlayeriscalledthe
usingNASA'sModerateResolution
troposphere.Energyfromthe
InthisscenefromAntarctica,Earth's
ImagingSpectroradiometer
Sunheatsthislayer,andthe
southpolarcontinent,iceridges
surfacebelow,causing
contrastwithtoweringclouds
expansionoftheair.Thislowerdensityairthenrises,andisreplaced
bycooler,higherdensityair.Theresultisatmosphericcirculation
thatdrivestheweatherandclimatethroughredistributionofthermalenergy.[153]
Theprimaryatmosphericcirculationbandsconsistofthetradewindsintheequatorialregionbelow30
latitudeandthewesterliesinthemidlatitudesbetween30and60.[154]Oceancurrentsarealsoimportant
factorsindeterminingclimate,particularlythethermohalinecirculationthatdistributesthermalenergyfrom
theequatorialoceanstothepolarregions.[155]
Watervaporgeneratedthroughsurfaceevaporationistransportedbycirculatorypatternsintheatmosphere.
Whenatmosphericconditionspermitanupliftofwarm,humidair,thiswatercondensesandfallstothe
surfaceasprecipitation.[153]Mostofthewateristhentransportedtolowerelevationsbyriversystemsand
usuallyreturnedtotheoceansordepositedintolakes.Thiswatercycleisavitalmechanismforsupporting
lifeonland,andisaprimaryfactorintheerosionofsurfacefeaturesovergeologicalperiods.Precipitation
patternsvarywidely,rangingfromseveralmetersofwaterperyeartolessthanamillimeter.Atmospheric
circulation,topographicfeaturesandtemperaturedifferencesdeterminetheaverageprecipitationthatfallsin
eachregion.[156]
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TheamountofsolarenergyreachingEarth'ssurfacedecreaseswithincreasinglatitude.Athigherlatitudes
thesunlightreachesthesurfaceatloweranglesanditmustpassthroughthickercolumnsoftheatmosphere.
Asaresult,themeanannualairtemperatureatsealeveldecreasesbyabout0.4C(0.7F)perdegreeof
latitudefromtheequator.[157]Earth'ssurfacecanbesubdividedintospecificlatitudinalbeltsof
approximatelyhomogeneousclimate.Rangingfromtheequatortothepolarregions,thesearethetropical
(orequatorial),subtropical,temperateandpolarclimates.[158]Climatecanalsobeclassifiedbasedonthe
temperatureandprecipitation,withtheclimateregionscharacterizedbyfairlyuniformairmasses.The
commonlyusedKppenclimateclassificationsystem(asmodifiedbyWladimirKppen'sstudentRudolph
Geiger)hasfivebroadgroups(humidtropics,arid,humidmiddlelatitudes,continentalandcoldpolar),
whicharefurtherdividedintomorespecificsubtypes.[154]
ClimateonEarthhaslatitudinalanomalies,namelythehabitabilityoftheScandinavianpeninsulaveryfar
northinsharpcontrasttothepolarclimatesofnorthernCanadaaswellasthecoolsummersexpectedatlow
latitudesintheSouthernHemisphere(forexampleonthewestcoastofSouthAmerica).Anotheranomalyis
theimpactoflandmassontemperature,manifestedbythefactthatEarthismuchwarmerataphelion,where
theplanetisatamoredistantpositionfromtheSun.[159]WhentheNorthernhemisphereisturnedtowards
thesunlighteventheincreaseddistancetoitdoesnothindertemperaturestobe2.3C(4F)warmerthanat
perihelionwhenthemarinesouthernhemisphereisturnedtowardstheSun.[159]
Athighlatitudes,thewesternsidesofcontinentstendtobemilderthantheeasternsidesforexampleseen
inNorthAmericaandWesternEuropewhereroughcontinentalclimatesappearontheeastcoaston
parallelswithmildclimatesontheothersideoftheocean.[160]
ThehighestairtemperatureevermeasuredonEarthwas56.7C(134.1F)inFurnaceCreek,California,in
DeathValley,in1913.[161]ThelowestairtemperatureeverdirectlymeasuredonEarthwas89.2C
(128.6F)atVostokStationin1983,[162]butsatelliteshaveusedremotesensingtomeasuretemperatures
aslowas94.7C(138.5F)inEastAntarctica.[163]Thesetemperaturerecordsareonlymeasurements
madewithmoderninstrumentsfromthe20thcenturyonwardsandlikelydonotreflectthefullrangeof
temperatureonEarth.
Upperatmosphere
Abovethetroposphere,theatmosphereisusuallydividedintothe
stratosphere,mesosphere,andthermosphere.[151]Eachlayerhasa
differentlapserate,definingtherateofchangeintemperaturewith
height.Beyondthese,theexospherethinsoutintothe
magnetosphere,wherethegeomagneticfieldsinteractwiththesolar
wind.[164]Withinthestratosphereistheozonelayer,acomponent
thatpartiallyshieldsthesurfacefromultravioletlightandthusis
importantforlifeonEarth.TheKrmnline,definedas100km
aboveEarth'ssurface,isaworkingdefinitionfortheboundary
betweentheatmosphereandouterspace.[165]
Thisviewfromorbitshowsthefull
MoonpartiallyobscuredbyEarth's
atmosphere.NASAimage
Thermalenergycausessomeofthemoleculesattheouteredgeof
theatmospheretoincreasetheirvelocitytothepointwheretheycan
escapefromEarth'sgravity.Thiscausesaslowbutsteadyleakageoftheatmosphereintospace.Because
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unfixedhydrogenhasalowmolecularmass,itcanachieveescapevelocitymorereadilyanditleaksinto
outerspaceatagreaterratethanothergases.[166]Theleakageofhydrogenintospacecontributestothe
shiftingofEarth'satmosphereandsurfacefromaninitiallyreducingstatetoitscurrentoxidizingone.
Photosynthesisprovidedasourceoffreeoxygen,butthelossofreducingagentssuchashydrogenis
thoughttohavebeenanecessarypreconditionforthewidespreadaccumulationofoxygeninthe
atmosphere.[167]Hencetheabilityofhydrogentoescapefromtheatmospheremayhaveinfluencedthe
natureoflifethatdevelopedonEarth.[168]Inthecurrent,oxygenrichatmospheremosthydrogenis
convertedintowaterbeforeithasanopportunitytoescape.Instead,mostofthehydrogenlosscomesfrom
thedestructionofmethaneintheupperatmosphere.[169]
Magneticfield
ThemainpartofEarth'smagneticfieldisgeneratedinthecore,thesiteofadynamoprocessthatconverts
kineticenergyoffluidconvectivemotionintoelectricalandmagneticfieldenergy.Thefieldextends
outwardsfromthecore,throughthemantle,anduptoEarth'ssurface,whereitis,toroughapproximation,a
dipole.ThepolesofthedipolearelocatedclosetoEarth'sgeographicpoles.Attheequatorofthemagnetic
field,themagneticfieldstrengthatthesurfaceis3.05105T,withglobalmagneticdipolemomentof
7.911015Tm3.[170]Theconvectionmovementsinthecorearechaoticthemagneticpolesdriftand
periodicallychangealignment.Thiscausesfieldreversalsatirregularintervalsaveragingafewtimesevery
millionyears.Themostrecentreversaloccurredapproximately700,000yearsago.[171][172]
Magnetosphere
TheextentofEarth'smagneticfieldinspacedefinesthe
magnetosphere.Ionsandelectronsofthesolarwindaredeflectedby
themagnetospheresolarwindpressurecompressesthedaysideof
themagnetosphere,toabout10Earthradii,andextendsthenightside
magnetosphereintoalongtail.Becausethevelocityofthesolar
windisgreaterthanthespeedatwhichwavepropagatethroughthe
solarwind,asupersonicbowshockprecedesthedayside
magnetospherewithinthesolarwind.Chargedparticlesare
containedwithinthemagnetospheretheplasmasphereisdefinedby
lowenergyparticlesthatessentiallyfollowmagneticfieldlinesas
Earthrotatestheringcurrentisdefinedbymediumenergyparticles
thatdriftrelativetothegeomagneticfield,butwithpathsthatare
stilldominatedbythemagneticfield,andtheVanAllenradiation
beltareformedbyhighenergyparticleswhosemotionisessentially
random,butotherwisecontainedbythemagnetosphere.
SchematicofEarth'smagnetosphere.
Thesolarwindflowsfromleftto
right
Duringamagneticstorm,chargedparticlescanbedeflectedfromtheoutermagnetosphere,directedalong
fieldlinesintoEarth'sionosphere,whereatmosphericatomscanbeexcitedandionized,causingthe
aurora.[173]
Orbitandrotation
Rotation
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Earth'srotationperiodrelativetotheSunitsmeansolardayis86,400secondsofmeansolartime
(86,400.0025SIseconds).[174]BecauseEarth'ssolardayisnowslightlylongerthanitwasduringthe19th
centuryduetotidaldeceleration,eachdayvariesbetween0and2SImslonger.[175][176]
Earth'srotationperiodrelativetothefixedstars,calleditsstellardaybytheInternationalEarthRotationand
ReferenceSystemsService(IERS),is86,164.098903691secondsofmeansolartime(UT1),or
23h56m4.098903691s.[2][n19]Earth'srotationperiodrelativetotheprecessingormovingmeanvernal
equinox,misnameditssiderealday,is86,164.09053083288secondsofmeansolartime(UT1)
(23h56m4.09053083288s)asof1982.[2]Thusthesiderealdayisshorterthanthestellardaybyabout
8.4ms.[177]ThelengthofthemeansolardayinSIsecondsisavailablefromtheIERSfortheperiods1623
2005[178]and19622005.[179]
Apartfrommeteorswithintheatmosphereandloworbitingsatellites,themainapparentmotionofcelestial
bodiesinEarth'sskyistothewestatarateof15/h=15'/min.Forbodiesnearthecelestialequator,thisis
equivalenttoanapparentdiameteroftheSunortheMooneverytwominutesfromEarth'ssurface,the
apparentsizesoftheSunandtheMoonareapproximatelythesame.[180][181]
Orbit
EarthorbitstheSunatanaveragedistanceofabout150millionkilometres
(93,000,000mi)every365.2564meansolardays,oronesiderealyear.This
givesanapparentmovementoftheSuneastwardwithrespecttothestarsat
arateofabout1/day,whichisoneapparentSunorMoondiameterevery
12hours.Duetothismotion,onaverageittakes24hoursasolardayfor
EarthtocompleteafullrotationaboutitsaxissothattheSunreturnstothe
meridian.TheorbitalspeedofEarthaveragesabout29.8km/s
(107,000km/h),whichisfastenoughtotraveladistanceequaltoEarth's
diameter,about12,742km(7,918mi),insevenminutes,andthedistanceto
theMoon,384,000km(239,000mi),inabout3.5hours.[3]
TheMoonandEarthorbitacommonbarycenterevery27.32daysrelativeto
thebackgroundstars.WhencombinedwiththeEarthMoonsystem's
commonorbitaroundtheSun,theperiodofthesynodicmonth,fromnew
moontonewmoon,is29.53days.Viewedfromthecelestialnorthpole,the
motionofEarth,theMoon,andtheiraxialrotationsareall
counterclockwise.Viewedfromavantagepointabovethenorthpolesof
boththeSunandEarth,Earthorbitsinacounterclockwisedirectionabout
theSun.Theorbitalandaxialplanesarenotpreciselyaligned:Earth'saxisis
tiltedsome23.4degreesfromtheperpendiculartotheEarthSunplane(the
ecliptic),andtheEarthMoonplaneistiltedupto5.1degreesagainstthe
EarthSunplane.Withoutthistilt,therewouldbeaneclipseeverytwo
weeks,alternatingbetweenlunareclipsesandsolareclipses.[3][182]
ThehistoricPaleBlueDot
photo,imagedin1990by
theVoyager1spacecraft,
showsEarth(centerright)
fromnearly6.4billion
kilometers(4 109mi)
away.
TheHillsphere,orgravitationalsphereofinfluence,ofEarthisabout1.5millionkilometres(930,000mi)
inradius.[183][n20]ThisisthemaximumdistanceatwhichtheEarth'sgravitationalinfluenceisstrongerthan
themoredistantSunandplanets.ObjectsmustorbitEarthwithinthisradius,ortheycanbecomeunbound
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bythegravitationalperturbationoftheSun.
Earth,alongwiththeSolarSystem,issituatedintheMilkyWayandorbitsabout28,000lightyearsfromits
center.Itisabout20lightyearsabovethegalacticplaneintheOrionArm.[184]
Axialtiltandseasons
Earth'saxialtilt(orobliquity)andits
relationtotherotationaxisandplane
oforbit
TheaxialtiltoftheEarthisapproximately23.439281.[2]Dueto
Earth'saxialtilt,theamountofsunlightreachinganygivenpointon
thesurfacevariesoverthecourseoftheyear.Thiscausesseasonal
changeinclimate,withsummerinthenorthernhemisphere
occurringwhentheNorthPoleispointingtowardtheSun,and
wintertakingplacewhenthepoleispointedaway.Duringthe
summer,thedaylastslongerandtheSunclimbshigherinthesky.In
winter,theclimatebecomesgenerallycoolerandthedaysshorter.In
northerntemperatelatitudes,theSunrisesnorthoftrueeastduring
thesummersolstice,andsetsnorthoftruewest,reversinginthe
winter.TheSunrisessouthoftrueeastinthesummerforthe
southerntemperatezone,andsetssouthoftruewest.
AbovetheArcticCircle,anextremecaseisreachedwherethereis
nodaylightatallforpartoftheyear,uptosixmonthsattheNorthPoleitself,apolarnight.Inthesouthern
hemispherethesituationisexactlyreversed,withtheSouthPoleorientedoppositethedirectionoftheNorth
Pole.Sixmonthslater,thispolewillexperienceamidnightsun,adayof24hours,againreversingwiththe
SouthPole.
Byastronomicalconvention,thefourseasonscanbedeterminedbythesolsticesthepointsintheorbitof
maximumaxialtilttowardorawayfromtheSunandtheequinoxes,whenthedirectionofthetiltandthe
directiontotheSunareperpendicular.Inthenorthernhemisphere,wintersolsticecurrentlyoccursaround
21December,summersolsticeisnear21June,springequinoxisaround20Marchandautumnalequinoxis
about22or23September.Inthesouthernhemisphere,thesituationisreversed,withthesummerandwinter
solsticesexchangedandthespringandautumnalequinoxdatesswapped.[185]
TheangleofEarth'saxialtiltisrelativelystableoverlongperiodsoftime.Itsaxialtiltdoesundergo
nutationaslight,irregularmotionwithamainperiodof18.6years.[186]Theorientation(ratherthanthe
angle)ofEarth'saxisalsochangesovertime,precessingaroundinacompletecircleovereach25,800year
cyclethisprecessionisthereasonforthedifferencebetweenasiderealyearandatropicalyear.Bothof
thesemotionsarecausedbythevaryingattractionoftheSunandtheMoononEarth'sequatorialbulge.The
polesalsomigrateafewmetersacrossEarth'ssurface.Thispolarmotionhasmultiple,cyclicalcomponents,
whichcollectivelyaretermedquasiperiodicmotion.Inadditiontoanannualcomponenttothismotion,
thereisa14monthcyclecalledtheChandlerwobble.Earth'srotationalvelocityalsovariesina
phenomenonknownaslengthofdayvariation.[187]
Inmoderntimes,Earth'sperihelionoccursaround3January,anditsaphelionaround4July.Thesedates
changeovertimeduetoprecessionandotherorbitalfactors,whichfollowcyclicalpatternsknownas
Milankovitchcycles.ThechangingEarthSundistancecausesanincreaseofabout6.9%[n21]insolar
energyreachingEarthatperihelionrelativetoaphelion.Becausethesouthernhemisphereistiltedtoward
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theSunataboutthesametimethatEarthreachestheclosestapproachtotheSun,thesouthernhemisphere
receivesslightlymoreenergyfromtheSunthandoesthenorthernoverthecourseofayear.Thiseffectis
muchlesssignificantthanthetotalenergychangeduetotheaxialtilt,andmostoftheexcessenergyis
absorbedbythehigherproportionofwaterinthesouthernhemisphere.[188]
Habitability
Aplanetthatcansustainlifeistermedhabitable,eveniflifedidnotoriginatethere.Earthprovidesliquid
wateranenvironmentwherecomplexorganicmoleculescanassembleandinteract,andsufficientenergy
tosustainmetabolism.[189]ThedistanceofEarthfromtheSun,aswellasitsorbitaleccentricity,rateof
rotation,axialtilt,geologicalhistory,sustainingatmosphereandprotectivemagneticfieldallcontributeto
thecurrentclimaticconditionsatthesurface.[190]
Biosphere
Aplanet'slifeformsinhabitecosystems,whosetotalissometimes
saidtoforma"biosphere".Earth'sbiosphereisthoughttohave
begunevolvingabout3.5Gya.[63]Thebiosphereisdividedintoa
numberofbiomes,inhabitedbybroadlysimilarplantsandanimals.
Onland,biomesareseparatedprimarilybydifferencesinlatitude,
heightabovesealevelandhumidity.Terrestrialbiomeslyingwithin
theArcticorAntarcticCircles,athighaltitudesorinextremelyarid
areasarerelativelybarrenofplantandanimallifespeciesdiversity
reachesapeakinhumidlowlandsatequatoriallatitudes.[191]
Coralreefandbeach
Naturalresourcesandlanduse
Earthhasresourcesthathavebeenexploitedbyhumans.Those
termednonrenewableresources,suchasfossilfuels,onlyrenew
overgeologicaltimescales.
LargedepositsoffossilfuelsareobtainedfromEarth'scrust,
consistingofcoal,petroleum,andnaturalgas.Thesedepositsare
usedbyhumansbothforenergyproductionandasfeedstockfor
chemicalproduction.Mineralorebodieshavealsobeenformed
withinthecrustthroughaprocessoforegenesis,resultingfrom
actionsofmagmatism,erosionandplatetectonics.[193]These
bodiesformconcentratedsourcesformanymetalsandother
usefulelements.
Estimatedhumanlanduse,2000[192]
Landuse
Mha
Cropland
1,5101,611
Pastures
2,5003,410
Naturalforests
3,1433,871
Plantedforests
126215
Urbanareas
66351
Unused,productiveland
356445
Earth'sbiosphereproducesmanyusefulbiologicalproductsforhumans,includingfood,wood,
pharmaceuticals,oxygen,andtherecyclingofmanyorganicwastes.Thelandbasedecosystemdepends
upontopsoilandfreshwater,andtheoceanicecosystemdependsupondissolvednutrientswasheddown
fromtheland.[194]In1980,5,053Mha(50.53millionkm2)ofEarth'slandsurfaceconsistedofforestand
woodlands,6,788Mha(67.88millionkm2)wasgrasslandsandpasture,and1,501Mha(15.01millionkm2)
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wascultivatedascroplands.[195]Theestimatedamountofirrigatedlandin1993was2,481,250square
kilometres(958,020sqmi).[14]Humansalsoliveonthelandbyusingbuildingmaterialstoconstruct
shelters.
Naturalandenvironmentalhazards
LargeareasofEarth'ssurfacearesubjecttoextremeweathersuchas
tropicalcyclones,hurricanes,ortyphoonsthatdominatelifeinthose
areas.From1980to2000,theseeventscausedanaverageof11,800
humandeathsperyear.[196]Manyplacesaresubjecttoearthquakes,
landslides,tsunamis,volcaniceruptions,tornadoes,sinkholes,
blizzards,floods,droughts,wildfires,andothercalamitiesand
disasters.
Avolcanoinjectinghotashintothe
atmosphere
Manylocalizedareasaresubjecttohumanmadepollutionoftheair
andwater,acidrainandtoxicsubstances,lossofvegetation
(overgrazing,deforestation,desertification),lossofwildlife,species
extinction,soildegradation,soildepletionanderosion.
AccordingtotheUnitedNations,ascientificconsensusexistslinkinghumanactivitiestoglobalwarming
duetoindustrialcarbondioxideemissions.Thisispredictedtoproducechangessuchasthemeltingof
glaciersandicesheets,moreextremetemperatureranges,significantchangesinweatherandaglobalrisein
averagesealevels.[197]
Humangeography
Cartography,thestudyandpracticeofmapmaking,and
geography,thestudyofthelands,features,inhabitants
andphenomenaonEarth,havehistoricallybeenthe
disciplinesdevotedtodepictingEarth.Surveying,the
determinationoflocationsanddistances,andtoalesser
extentnavigation,thedeterminationofpositionand
direction,havedevelopedalongsidecartographyand
geography,providingandsuitablyquantifyingthe
requisiteinformation.
Earth'shumanpopulationreachedapproximatelyseven
billionon31October2011.[199]Projectionsindicatethat
theworld'shumanpopulationwillreach9.2billionin
2050.[200]Mostofthegrowthisexpectedtotakeplace
indevelopingnations.Humanpopulationdensityvaries
widelyaroundtheworld,butamajorityliveinAsia.By
2020,60%oftheworld'spopulationisexpectedtobe
livinginurban,ratherthanrural,areas.[201]
ThesevencontinentsofEarth[198]
North
Europe
Asia
America
Africa
Oceania
South
America
Antarctica
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ItisestimatedthatoneeighthofEarth'ssurfaceissuitableforhumanstoliveonthreequartersofEarth's
surfaceiscoveredbyoceans,leavingonequarterasland.Halfofthatlandareaisdesert(14%),[202]high
mountains(27%),[203]orotherunsuitableterrain.Thenorthernmostpermanentsettlementintheworldis
Alert,onEllesmereIslandinNunavut,Canada.[204](8228N)ThesouthernmostistheAmundsenScott
SouthPoleStation,inAntarctica,almostexactlyattheSouthPole.(90S)
Independentsovereignnationsclaimtheplanet'sentirelandsurface,exceptforsomepartsofAntarctica,a
fewlandparcelsalongtheDanuberiver'swesternbank,andtheoddunclaimedareaofBirTawilbetween
EgyptandSudan.Asof2015,thereare193sovereignstatesthatarememberstatesoftheUnitedNations,
plustwoobserverstatesand72dependentterritoriesandstateswithlimitedrecognition.[14]Historically,
Earthhasneverhadasovereigngovernmentwithauthorityovertheentireglobealthoughanumberof
nationstateshavestrivenforworlddominationandfailed.[205]
TheUnitedNationsisaworldwideintergovernmentalorganizationthatwascreatedwiththegoalof
interveninginthedisputesbetweennations,therebyavoidingarmedconflict.[206]TheU.N.servesprimarily
asaforumforinternationaldiplomacyandinternationallaw.Whentheconsensusofthemembership
permits,itprovidesamechanismforarmedintervention.[207]
ThefirsthumantoorbitEarthwasYuriGagarinon12April1961.[208]Intotal,about487peoplehave
visitedouterspaceandreachedorbitasof30July2010,and,ofthese,twelvehavewalkedonthe
Moon.[209][210][211]Normally,theonlyhumansinspacearethoseontheInternationalSpaceStation.The
station'screw,madeupofsixpeople,isusuallyreplacedeverysixmonths.[212]Thefarthestthathumans
havetravelledfromEarthis400,171km,achievedduringtheApollo13missionin1970.[213]
Moon
TheMoonisarelativelylarge,terrestrial,planetlikenaturalsatellite,
withadiameteraboutonequarterofEarth's.Itisthelargestmoonin
theSolarSystemrelativetothesizeofitsplanet,althoughCharonis
largerrelativetothedwarfplanetPluto.Thenaturalsatellitesofother
planetsarealsoreferredtoas"moons",afterEarth's.
ThegravitationalattractionbetweenEarthandtheMooncausestides
onEarth.ThesameeffectontheMoonhasledtoitstidallocking:its
rotationperiodisthesameasthetimeittakestoorbitEarth.Asa
result,italwayspresentsthesamefacetotheplanet.AstheMoon
orbitsEarth,differentpartsofitsfaceareilluminatedbytheSun,
leadingtothelunarphasesthedarkpartofthefaceisseparatedfrom
thelightpartbythesolarterminator.
Duetotheirtidalinteraction,theMoonrecedesfromEarthattherate
ofapproximately38mm/yr.Overmillionsofyears,thesetiny
modificationsandthelengtheningofEarth'sdaybyabout23s/yr
adduptosignificantchanges.[214]DuringtheDevonianperiod,for
example,(approximately410mya)therewere400daysinayear,with
eachdaylasting21.8hours.[215]
Characteristics
Diameter
3,474.8km
Mass
7.349 1022kg
Semimajoraxis 384,400km
Orbitalperiod
27d7h43.7m
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DetailsoftheEarthMoonsystem,
showingtheradiusofeachobjectand
theEarthMoonbarycenter.The
Moon'saxisislocatedbyCassini's
thirdlaw.
TheMoonmayhavedramaticallyaffectedthedevelopmentoflife
bymoderatingtheplanet'sclimate.Paleontologicalevidenceand
computersimulationsshowthatEarth'saxialtiltisstabilizedbytidal
interactionswiththeMoon.[31]Sometheoriststhinkthatwithoutthis
stabilizationagainstthetorquesappliedbytheSunandplanetsto
Earth'sequatorialbulge,therotationalaxismightbechaotically
unstable,exhibitingchaoticchangesovermillionsofyears,as
appearstobethecaseforMars.[216]
ViewedfromEarth,theMoonisjustfarenoughawaytohavealmost
thesameapparentsizeddiskastheSun.Theangularsize(orsolid
angle)ofthesetwobodiesmatchbecause,althoughtheSun's
diameterisabout400timesaslargeastheMoon's,itisalso400
timesmoredistant.[181]Thisallowstotalandannularsolareclipses
tooccuronEarth.
ThemostwidelyacceptedtheoryoftheMoon'sorigin,thegiantimpacttheory,statesthatitformedfrom
thecollisionofaMarssizeprotoplanetcalledTheiawiththeearlyEarth.Thishypothesisexplains(among
otherthings)theMoon'srelativelackofironandvolatileelements,andthefactthatitscompositionis
nearlyidenticaltothatofEarth'scrust.[217]
Asteroidsandartificialsatellites
Earthhasatleastfivecoorbitalasteroids,including3753Cruithne
and2002AA29.[218][219]Atrojanasteroidcompanion,2010TK7,is
libratingaroundtheleadingLagrangetriangularpoint,L4,inthe
Earth'sorbitaroundtheSun.[220][221]
ThetinynearEarthasteroid2006RH120makescloseapproachesto
theEarthMoonsystemroughlyeverytwentyyears.Duringthese
approaches,itcanorbitEarthforbriefperiodsoftime.[222]
TheInternationalSpaceStationisan
artificialsatelliteinorbitaround
Earth.
AsofSeptember2015,therewere1,305operational,humanmade
satellitesorbitingEarth.[5]Therearealsoinoperativesatellites,
includingVanguard1theoldestsatellitecurrentlyinorbit,andover
300,000piecesofspacedebris.Earth'slargestartificialsatelliteistheInternationalSpaceStation.
Culturalandhistoricalviewpoint
ThestandardastronomicalsymbolofEarthconsistsofacrosscircumscribedbyacircle,
representingthefourquadrantsoftheworld.
,[223]
Humancultureshavedevelopedmanyviewsoftheplanet.Earthissometimespersonifiedasadeity.In
manyculturesitisamothergoddessthatisalsotheprimaryfertilitydeity,[224]andbythemid20thcentury
theGaiaPrinciplecomparedEarth'senvironmentsandlifeasasingleselfregulatingorganismleadingto
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broadstabilizationoftheconditionsofhabitability.[225][226][227]
CreationmythsinmanyreligionsinvolvethecreationofEarthbya
supernaturaldeityordeities.[224]
Scientificinvestigationhasresultedinseveralculturally
transformativeshiftsinourviewoftheplanet.IntheWest,beliefin
aflatEarth[228]wasdisplacedbytheideaofsphericalEarth,credited
toPythagorasinthe6thcenturyBC.[229]Earthwasfurtherbelieved
tobethecenteroftheuniverseuntilthe16thcentury,whenscientists
firsttheorizedthatitwasamovingobject,comparabletotheother
planetsintheSolarSystem.[230]Duetotheeffortsofinfluential
ChristianscholarsandclericssuchasJamesUssher,whosoughtto
"Earthrise",thefirstphotographof
determinetheageofEarththroughanalysisofgenealogiesin
Earthasacelestialbody,takenby
Scripture,Westernerspriortothe19thcenturygenerallybelieved
astronautsonboardApollo8.
Earthtobeafewthousandyearsoldatmost.Itwasonlyduringthe
19thcenturythatgeologistsrealizedEarth'sagewasatleastmany
millionsofyears.[231]LordKelvinusedthermodynamicstoestimatetheageofEarthtobebetween20
millionand400millionyearsin1864,sparkingavigorousdebateonthesubjectitwasonlywhen
radioactivityandradioactivedatingwerediscoveredinthelate19thandearly20thcenturiesthatareliable
mechanismfordeterminingEarth'sagewasestablished,provingtheplanettobebillionsofyears
old.[232][233]TheperceptionofEarthshiftedagaininthe20thcenturywhenhumansfirstvieweditfrom
orbit,andespeciallywithphotographsofEarthreturnedbytheApolloprogram.[234]
Seealso
Celestialsphere
Earthphysicalcharacteristicstables
Earthscience
Earthsystemscience
Timelineofthefarfuture
Notes
1.Allastronomicalquantitiesvary,bothsecularlyandperiodically.Thequantitiesgivenarethevaluesattheinstant
J2000.0ofthesecularvariation,ignoringallperiodicvariations.
2.aphelion=a(1+e)perihelion=a(1e),whereaisthesemimajoraxisandeistheeccentricity.The
differencebetweenEarth'sperihelionandaphelionis5millionkilometers.
3.UnitedStatesStrategicCommandtracksabout15,000otherartificialobjects,mostlydebris.See:
"USSTRATCOMSpaceControlandSpaceSurveillance".January2014.Retrieved17July2015.
4.Duetonaturalfluctuations,ambiguitiessurroundingiceshelves,andmappingconventionsforverticaldatums,
exactvaluesforlandandoceancoveragearenotmeaningful.BasedondatafromtheVectorMapandGlobal
Landcover(http://www.landcover.org/)datasets,extremevaluesforcoverageoflakesandstreamsare0.6%and
1.0%ofEarth'ssurface.TheiceshieldsofAntarcticaandGreenlandarecountedasland,eventhoughmuchofthe
rockthatsupportsthemliesbelowsealevel.
5.Particularlyasthesettingforhumancivilizationandexperience.[24]
6.FromthenameoftheGreekearthgoddess,butnowparticularlyusedfortheglobalecosystem.[25]
22/35
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7.ThenumberofsolardaysisonelessthanthenumberofsiderealdaysbecausetheorbitalmotionofEartharound
theSuncausesoneadditionalrevolutionoftheplanetaboutitsaxis.
8.Includingeore,ere,erde,anderthe.[84]
9.AsinBeowulf(153133):
Wearpawundelmlwrttumgebunden
yrreoretta,thitoneoranlg,
stiondstylecg.[84][85]
"Hethrewtheartfullywoundswordsothatitlayupontheearth,firmandsharpedged."[85]
10.AsintheOldEnglishglossesoftheLindisfarneGospels(Luke13:7):
Succiditeergoillamutquidetiamterramoccupat:hrendasuelscearfaforonailcauelhiatohuonuutedlice
eorogionetauelgemerras.[84]
"Removeit.Whyshouldituseupthesoil?"[86]
11.Asinlfric'sHeptateuch(Gen.1:10):
OndGodgecygdeadrignysseeoranondrewteragegaderungehehets.[84][87]
"AndGodcalledthedrylandEarthandthegatheringtogetherofthewaterscalledheSeas."[88]
12.AsintheWessexGospels(Matt.28:18):
Meisgesealdlcanwealdonheofonan&oneoran.[84]
"Allauthorityinheavenandonearthhasbeengiventome."[89]
13.AsintheCodexJunius'sGenesis(11216):
herrestgesceopecedrihten,
helmeallwihta,heofonandeoran,
rodorarrdeandisrumeland
gestaelodestrangummihtum,
frealmihtig.[84][90]
"HerefirstwithmightypowertheEverlastingLord,theHelmofallcreatedthings,AlmightyKing,madeearth
andheaven,raiseduptheskyandfoundedthespaciousland."[91]
14.Asinlfric'sOntheSeasonsoftheYear(Ch.6,9):
Seoeorestentongelicnysseanrepinnhnyte,&seosunneglitonbutanbeGodesgesetnysse.[84]
"Theearthcanbecomparedtoapinecone,andtheSunglidesarounditbyGod'sdecree.[92]
15.Locallyvariesbetween5and200km.
16.Locallyvariesbetween5and70km.
17.IncludingtheSomaliPlate,whichisbeingformedoutoftheAfricanPlate.See:Chorowicz,Jean(October2005).
"TheEastAfricanriftsystem".JournalofAfricanEarthSciences43(13):379410.
Bibcode:2005JAfES..43..379C.doi:10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2005.07.019.
18.ThisisthemeasurementtakenbythevesselKaikinMarch1995andisconsideredthemostaccurate
measurementtodate.SeetheChallengerDeeparticleformoredetails.
19.Theultimatesourceofthesefigures,usestheterm"secondsofUT1"insteadof"secondsofmeansolartime".
Aoki,S.Kinoshita,H.Guinot,B.Kaplan,G.H.McCarthy,D.D.Seidelmann,P.K.(1982)."Thenew
definitionofuniversaltime".AstronomyandAstrophysics105(2):35961.Bibcode:1982A&A...105..359A.
20.ForEarth,theHillradiusis
,wheremisthemassofEarth,aisanastronomicalunit,and
MisthemassoftheSun.SotheradiusinAUisabout
21.Aphelionis103.4%ofthedistancetoperihelion.Duetotheinversesquarelaw,theradiationatperihelionis
about106.9%theenergyataphelion.
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365.256 363 004d[2]

40,075.017km(24,901.461mi) (equatorial) [8]

1.083 21 1012km3(2.598 76 1011cumi)[3]

5.972 37 1024kg(1.316 68 1025lb)[15]

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