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The"new"NewBrutalismbyMichaelJ.Lewis

TheArt&ArchitectureBuildingatYaleUniversity.
Isthereanythingsoinvisibleasthatwhichwasfashionablethedaybeforeyesterday?Thisisthe
blindspotthroughwhicheveryworkofartandliteraturemustpassbeforereemergingasadistinct
entityinhistorysrearviewmirror.Ornot,asthecasemaybeformuchpopularart,theblindspot
meanspermanentoblivion.SuchIthoughtwouldbethecasewithBrutalism,thatpostwar
architecturalmovementdistinguishedbyitsrawconcrete,burlymasses,andgeneralairofinsolence.
Itsheydaywasthemid1960s,afterwhichpointBrutalismbegantofallfromfavorbythetimeI
enteredaGermanschoolofarchitecturein1980,itwasasdeadascouldbeunlovely,irrelevant,a
universallyacknowledgedhistoricalblunder.BrutalismwouldbelikethenovelsofBulwerLytton:
popularinhisday,andunreadabletilltheendoftime.
Icouldnothavebeenmorewrong.TherevivalofscholarlyinterestinBrutalismthatbeganaboutfive
yearsagohasjustburstintopublicviewwithaspateofexhibitions,books,blogs,andamajor
televisiondocumentary.TheseincludeTimothyM.RohansTheArchitectureofPaulRudolph,a
monographonthecreatorofYalescontroversialArt&ArchitectureBuildingRawConcrete,
BarnabasCaldersforthcomingsurveyofBritishBrutalismandConcretopia:AJourneyAroundthe
RebuildingofPostwarBritain,byJohnGrindrod(itselfawonderfullyBrutalistname).Amongthe
exhibitionsisNewBrutalistImage19491954,onviewattheTateBritainthroughOctober2015.
CappingitallisBunkers,Brutalism,Bloodymindedness:ConcretePoetry,anambitioustwopartBBC
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documentarywrittenandhostedbythecriticJonathanMeades.Itseemssafetosaythatthereisno
topicinarchitectureatpresentthatisofgreaterinterestandcuriositythanBrutalism.
Aswithallhistoricalrevivals,thequestiontoaskisWhynow?Whatisitabouttheculturalmoment
thatmakesBrutalismresonatewithustodayinawaythatotherarchitecturalartifactsofthe1960s
(forexample,thegeodesicdomesofBuckminsterFuller,orthecellulararchitectureofMoshe
SafdiesHabitat)donot?Fordiscardedstylesarerevivedonlywhentheycanbemadetospeak
againtothepresent,whentheyoffersomequalitythatislackingfromthecurrentscene.Ifthatisthe
case,thentheBrutalistvogueshouldbewatchedclosely,forthescholarlyfadislikelytobe
expressedsoonintangiblebuilding.
TheNewBrutalismasthetermwasfirstcoinedhastheunlikeliestofetymologies,foritwasbotha
SwedishjokeandaCommunistinsult.InJanuary1950,theSwedisharchitectHansAsplund,sonof
thecelebratedGunnarAsplund,sawhiscolleaguesdrawingsforanuncommonlybluntand
unsentimentalhouseinUppsalaandjokedthattheywereNeoBrutalists,atermheinvented.
AsplundpassedonhisbonmottosomeEnglishfriends(includingMichaelVentristheEnglish
polymathwhodecipheredtheGreekLinearBalphabet)andtheyinturnintroduceditintoEnglish
usage.ItseemstohavefirstappearedinprintinDecember1953,whenitwasclaimedbytheyoung
architectsPeterandAlisonSmithsonintheirpublicationofanunbuilthouseinLondon:[H]adthis
beenbuiltitwouldhavebeenthefirstexponentoftheNewBrutalisminEngland.Itischaracteristic
oftheSmithsonsstraightforwardnessthattheywroteouttheirintentionsforthecontractorswho
wouldbidonthehouseItisourintentioninthisbuildingtohavethestructureexposedentirely,
withoutinteriorfinisheswhereverpracticableperhapstheonlytimethatprintedspecificationshave
beenusedasaplatformforarchitecturalphilosophy.
TheNewBrutalism,ReynerBanhamsmonographof1966,proposesasecondetymology.Duringthe
immediatepostwarera,officialarchitecturalpolicyintheSovietUnionanditssatellitesinsistedon
neotraditionalism,asinformedbyregionalandlocalusage.JustasStalinhadmandatedSocialist
Realisminpainting,architecturewastobemadelucidandaccessibleforthemasses,somethingthat
esotericmodernismcouldnotdo.Thispolicyremainedineffectuntiltheendof1954,when
KhrushchevabruptlycommittedSovietarchitecturetofunctionalismandprefabricatedconstruction.
Asithappened,therewasagreatdealofCommunistsympathyamongtheyoungarchitectswho
workedfortheLondonCountyCouncil,theoneplacetheycouldfindajobinthehardscrabble
postwaryears.Withadeferencethatseemsstrangetoday,theseyoungarchitectsfaithfullyfollowed
theSovietline,designinghousingblocksthatwerereassuringlydomesticinscaleandevensporting
pitchedroofs.ViewingthemselvesasrepresentativesofTheNewHumanism,acatchphraseinthose
yearsinarchitecturalcircles,theycontrastedtheirworkwiththeflagrantlyuncozyandundomestic
formsoftheSmithsonswhichtheylampoonedasTheNewBrutalism.Andsothetermthat
misleadinglysuggestsarevivalofsomepreviousOldBrutalismisnothingmorethanaburlesqueof
TheNewHumanism.
Ineachcase(bothetymologiesseemtrue),theNewBrutalistsbeganlifeasawitticismandnotasa
coherentarchitecturalprogram.Butitdidseemtoencapsulateacertainbrashattitude,onestrikingly
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similartothatofthosecontemporarynovelistsandplaywrightsthatwouldshortlybecomeknownas
theangryyoungmen.Andsothetermmighthaveremained,aloosegenerationalmarkerwithout
specificarchitecturalmeaning,wereitnotforalinguisticcoincidence.TheFrenchtermforroughcast
concreteisbtonbrut,amaterialthatLeCorbusierhadjustusedtostrikingeffectinhisUnit
dhabitationatMarseille(19471952).ThatbuildingencouragedtheSmithsonsandotheryoung
architectstodispensewithsmoothsurfacesandfinishes,andtouseothermaterialssuchaswood
andmetalintheirrawform,i.e.,unpolished,unsanded,andunpainted.ToassociatetheirBrutalism
withthebrutofLeCorbusierwastodrainthetermofitsflippantoriginsandgiveitanimpeccable
modernistpedigree.
InitiallytheNewBrutalistsdidnotviewthemselvesaschallengingthemodernmovement,asithad
beenformulatedduringthe1920sbyLeCorbusier,Rietveld,Gropius,MiesvanderRohe,and
others.TheyrathersawthemselvesasbringingatlonglasttoEnglandaninternationalmodernism
thathadbeendelayedbytheDepression,worldwar,andbyEnglandsincorrigibleprovincialism.
And,incomparisontothemodernismofthe1920s,theirearlybuildingsdonotlookradicalinthe
slightest.Wereitnotfortheabsenceofelegantfinishes,onemightthinkthattheSmithsons
rigorouslymodernHunstantonSecondarySchool(19491954)wastheworkofMieshimselfandnot
oftheSmithsons.
ThebelatedarrivalinBritainoffullydevelopedcontinentalmodernismsoonexposedaparadox.That
architecturehadachieveditsdefinitiveformby1932,whenPhilipJohnsonandHenryRussell
HitchcockdubbedittheInternationalStyleintheirpioneeringexhibitionattheMuseumofModern
Art.Buttheinterveningtwentyyearshadbeenperhapsthemostconvulsiveinallhumanhistory,and
thepictorialartshadbeentransformedradically,notonlybythewaritself,butbytheaccelerating
internationalexchangeofideasbetweenrefugees,thenewinsightsofpsychology,andthesimple
factoftheatomicbomb.Paintingandsculpturehadbeenmadetoconfrontthesameenduring
themesthatallarchaicartponders:creation,life,violence,anddeath.Butnoneofthishadasyetleft
anyappreciablemarkonarchitecture,whichcontinuedinthesamechannelasithadinthetwenties:
laconic,Platonic,andcoollyfunctionalist.TheriseoftheNewBrutalismwasanexpressionofthis
discrepancyinsensibilities,andthenewappetiteforcoarsetexturesandrawmaterialsasopposed
tothesleekmachinefinishessoughtduringthe1920swasatentativefirststeptowardbringing
architectureintoharmonywiththeotherarts.ThecriticReynerBanhammadethispointinan
important1955articleintheArchitecturalReviewpublishedinDecember1955:Inthelastresort
whatcharacterizestheNewBrutalisminarchitectureasinpaintingispreciselyitsbrutality,itsje
menfoutisme,itsbloodymindedness.
TheoriginalNewBrutalism,then,wastheproductofaparticulartimeandplace,andthepeculiar
moodoftheimmediatepostwarerawithitsprivationandausterity.Therewasalsoaheightened
awarenessofallthingsAmerican,notmerelythehundredsofthousandsofsoldierswhopassed
throughBritainduringthewar,buttheoverwhelmingpresenceoftheAmericaneconomyafterwards,
itscarsandadvertising,filmsandmusic.Thisproducedacomplicatedmixtureofenvy,longing,and
resentment,whichintheirtotalityaveragedoutasaformofchagrin,andwhichmadeitselffeltacross
allthearts.NowhereisthismoreclearlydisplayedthanintheParallelofLifeandArt,the
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groundbreakingexhibitionorganizedbytheIndependentGroupin1953.Withitsenlarged
photographicpanelsthatfoundcuriouscorrespondencesbetweendifferentkindsofimage,the
exhibitionbroughttogetherthebasiccomponentsofPopArt:snappygraphicpresentation,avisual
cluttersuggestiveofglossymagazineadvertisements,andanoveralltoneofdeadpanirony.Among
itscurators(althoughtheypreferredtobecallededitors)werePeterandAlisonSmithson,along
withthetroubadourofNewBrutalismhimself,ReynerBanham.
Thegreatironyofthis,ofcourse,isthattheSmithsonswerenotawarethatevenastheybelieved
theywereworkingtokeeporthodoxmodernismvitalandrelevanttheyweresimultaneouslyhelping
setintomotioncertaintendenciesthatinadecadewouldservetoundercuttheauthorityof
modernism.
Alreadyby1954,theNewBrutalismwasadiscussiontopicintheUnitedStates,whereitsoonshed
theprefixNew(evidentlyarchitectsgrewtiredofexplainingthattherewasnoOldBrutalism).
Removedfromthepeculiarlocalcircumstancesofitscreation,thestylebecamesomethingquite
differentfromthemodestpragmatismoftheSmithsons.Itdidnottakelongbeforeanybuilding
sportingrawconcretewaslabeledBrutalist,especiallythosethatemphasizedorflauntedit.Inthe
process,theironyimplicitintheoriginalnamewaslost.ThusthemostconspicuousofNorth
AmericanBrutalistbuildings,suchasPaulRudolphsconvolutedArt&ArchitectureBuildingatYale
(19591963)orKallmannMcKinnell&WoodsstrangelytopheavyBostonCityHall(19621968),are
characterizedbyanearnestandoverwhelmingmonumentality,fromwhichtheslightestparticleof
whimsyseemstohavebeensurgicallyextracted.
Butthis,afterall,isthehabitualpatternofAmericanart.Europebringsforthastylisticmovement
afteranagonizedgestationyearsofardenttheoreticaldebate,intenseandprotracted
experimentationinsmallcellsofartists,furiousoppositionfromtheentrenchedforcesofthe
academyonlytocrosstheAtlanticasafashionableandappealingsetofvisualforms,purgedof
controversyandideology.SoitwasthatImpressionism,forexample,arrivedinthe1880sasapretty
decorativemoderequiringnodeepcommitmenttoprinciple.Orthatdiametricallyopposed
ideologicalcampssuchasSurrealismandCubism,antagonisticinEuropetothepointofviolence,
contendedbenignlywhentransplantedtoNewYork.Likewise,Brutalism,whicharrivedinthemid
1950sasanovelandarrestingvisuallanguagethatreveledinpreciselythosequalitiesinwhichthe
InternationalStylewasmostdeficient:weightiness,bulkymass,andpalpabletexture.
Yalesburly,bafflingArt&ArchitectureBuildingiseasilythetoughestofthebunch.Rudolphplaceda
ruggedtowerlikeelementateachofthefourcornerstoactasanarmatureforhisconcretefloor
slabs,whichheslottedintopositionlikeicecubetraysinthefreezer.Theresultwasaspatial
processionofbewilderinginscrutability,throughthirtysevendifferentmezzanines,platforms,and
halflevels,and,notuntilonearrivesatthevastopenhallconcealedwithinthelabyrinthofconcrete,
canitslogicbegrasped.(Rudolphwasoneofthoserarearchitectswhothoughtvertically,andwhose
buildingsaremorecomprehensibleinsectionthaninplan.)Insteadofthefluidcontinuousspaceof
modernism,theA&Aofferedplungingverticalshaftsandunexpecteddiagonalvistas.Oneveteranof
thebuildinginitsoriginalformconfessedtomethatitwasdifficulttoconcentrateonhisarchitectural
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draftingwhenhehadanobliquebutenticinglydirectviewofanudemodelinalifedrawingclass
conductedseverallevelsaway.
RudolphsachievementattheA&Awastorecapitulatethestrenuousenergyofhiscompositionin
thewayhedetaileditswalls.Usuallybtonbrutderivesitstexturefromitsformwork,thetracesleft
bythegrainofthewoodformintowhichtheconcreteispoured.ForRudolphthiswasnotaggressive
enough.Hehadhiscorrugatedconcretepanelsbeatenwithhammers,leavingaviolentlyscoredand
fracturedsurface,capableofrendingthefleshinthesamemannercausedbykeelhauling.Orsothe
historianandcriticVincentScullysuggestedina1964review,althoughhecountedthisasoneofthe
buildingsstrengths:
Thebuildingthusrepelstouchithurtsyouifyoutry.Thesenseisofbitterpride,acridacerbity
risingperhapstoakindoftragicgloom,sincethelightfallsacrossthegashedridgesinlongdusky
veils,allbrightnesseatenbythebrokensurfaces,noreflectionspossible,insteadsombre
absorptioneverywhere.
Itisofthegreatestironythatthismanifestoofacerbityandgloomshouldbebuiltdirectlyacrossfrom
LouisI.KahnsYaleArtGallery(195153),abuildingthatwashailedinitsdaybecauseofits
exposedconcreteceilingsasthefirstAmericanexemplaroftheNewBrutalism.Nowhereelsecan
onestandandseesoclearanillustrationoftheleapfromtheantiheroicNewBrutalismtothe
portentousnessofhighBrutalism.YetforScullyin1964,theportentouswasexactlyappropriateto
thehistoricalmoment,thosefraughtyearsattheapogeeoftheColdWar,justaftertheCubanMissile
CrisisandtheassassinationofPresidentKennedy:Howrawandviolentitisthatis,wearehow
resourceful,determined,anduneveninstrengthallthissotruly,openly,withsomuchtalent,Ithink
bravely,statedhere.
EnglishcriticsliketosaythatBrutalismisthenaturalarchitecturalexpressionofthewelfarestate.To
theextentthatitiscolossal,pitiless,anddistressinglypermanent,thisistrue,althoughitmightbe
morepropertodescribeitasthevernacularexpressionthatis,aconvenientsetofformulaeand
practicesthatcanbeappliedtoanyarchitecturalproblemwithoutarduousthought,muchlike
Palladianarchitectureintheeighteenthcentury.ThetruthisthatBrutalismnevercaughtonwiththe
public,whocouldnotbemadetoseethattheproblemwithmodernarchitecturewasthatitwas
insufficientlysurly.Nordidcommercialorcorporateclientsembraceit.Onlyinstitutionalclientsinthe
academyandingovernmentclientsinordinatelysusceptibletotheauthorityofexpertopiniontake
Brutalismtoheart.Butthe1960swastheirmoment,andtheirBrutalistlegacyiseverywhere:inthe
monumentalgovernmentbuildingsandcivicplazasthatfollowedinthewakeofurbanrenewal,in
highwaybuilding,inthenewcampusesacrossthecountrycreatedbytheexpansionofhigher
education,andinthecountlesshousingprojectsthatarethephysicalmanifestationoftheGreat
Society.
ThepublicenthusiasmforBrutalism,neverkeen,wanedoverthecourseofthe1960s.Itflickeredon
withdiminishingvigorforanotherdecadeorso,butasthegreatrunofgovernmentsponsoredurban
renewalprojectstrickledtoahalt,itdroppedfromsight,alongwiththeoverweeningconfidenceand
swaggerthatmarkedtheNorthAmericanversionofBrutalism.WhenRudolphsA&ABuildingburned
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onJune14,1969,itwaswidelybuterroneouslybelievedthatithadbeensetonfirebythe
disgruntledstudentarchitectswhowereforcedtouseit.Thisdatecanserveasasymbolicendofthe
Brutalistmoment,theinstantwhereitsprestigecollapsed.
Thatthisoncediscreditedstyleisnowintheprocessofacomprehensiverehabilitationremindsus
thatallhistoricaljudgmentsaretentative.Alreadymycolleaguesinschoolsofarchitecturetellme
thattheirstudentprojectsarebeginningtolookdistinctlyBrutalist,especiallyintheirbulkymassing.It
isnothardtoseewhy.Formorethanagenerationnow,architecturehasaspiredtoastateof
absolutesleekness,inwhichmaterialshavenoweightandsurfacesnotexture.Thepracticeof
designingbycomputernotonlypreparingdrawingsbutconceivingthemonthecomputerscreen,
andgaugingtheirvisualqualitiestherehasacceleratedtheprocesstothepointwheremost
buildingsgivetheimpressionofhavingbeenputtogetherthroughacold,analyticalprocess,without
anyfeelingforthephysicalityofmaterials.Perhapsthisiswhythosefewarchitectswhorevelinthe
tactilepoetryoftheirmaterialsonethinksofTodWilliamsandBillieTsienhavebeensomuchin
demandlately.
WhetherthisNewNewBrutalismwillamounttomorethanamerenostalgicrevivalresurrectedbya
boredcultureatanimpasseorifitwillhaveabeneficialeffectonthearchitectureofourday,itistoo
earlytotell.Forallitsexcessesduringitsheyday,ithaswithinittheseedsofagenuinearchitectural
renewalafeelingforthedramaofweightandgravity,forthemournfuldignityoflargepermanent
forms,fortherecognitionthatwehavefingersaswellaseyes,andanawarenessofthatancient
struggleofflawedbutpassionatemanwithhislimitedrepertoryofstubbornmaterials.Ifitcapitalizes
onthesequalities,andactstoreinvigoratetheglitteringbutsterilearchitecturallandscapeofthe
present,thesecondBrutalistmomentwillhaveleftamorepreciouslegacythanthefirst.
MichaelJ.LewisistheauthoroftheforthcomingCityofRefuge:Socialists,Separatists,andUtopian
TownPlanning(PrincetonUniversityPress).
ThisarticleoriginallyappearedinTheNewCriterion,Volume33Number4,onpage19
Copyright2016TheNewCriterion|www.newcriterion.com
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