3103-450

Spatial data analysis with

Geographical Information Systems
(GIS)
Thilo Streck
Biogeophysics

Digital Terrain Modelling

In this lesson, you will learn:
what a Digital Elevation Model (DEM) is
how elevations are represented in a GIS
that attributes can be derived from a DEM which help
to analyze the structure of a landscape - and how this
is done

Definitions
Digital Elevation Model (DEM)
- ordered array of numbers that represent the spatial

distribution of elevations in a landscape

Digital Terrain Model (DTM)

- ordered array of numbers that represent the spatial
distribution of terrain attributes

Tasks in Digital Terrain Modeling

Application

- Generation
Visualization

Interpretation

- Manipulation
- Interpretation
- Visualization

Manipulation

- Application

DTM

Generation

Weibel and Heller (1991)

Reality

Collection of digital elevation data

Ground survey

high accuracy
time-consuming
limited to small areas

Photogrammetry

areal photographs or satellite

imagery (e.g., SPOT)
medium to high accuracy
efficient

Cartographic sources

manual or automated digitization

of topographic maps
used by national mapping agencies
cannot be more accurate than the
original map

Radar, laser or sonar

altimetry

used occasionally
Weibel and Heller (1991)

DEM representation in a GIS

Rectangular grid
(elevation matrix)

Triangulated Irregular Network (TIN)

Digital line graphs (DLG)

Moore et al. (1991)

Vector and raster data models

Recall
There are two basic models for storing geographic data:
the vector and raster data models.
The vector data model
stores positional
coordinates for each shape

The raster format uses a

grid of square cells to
represent real-world
entities.

Vector and raster data models

es, the points become nodes to a face, and the

es of faces are called edges.
(x,y,z)

(x,y,z)

node

mass
points

(x,y,z)

face

triangulation

(x,y,z)

edge
(x,y,z)

,z)

ch face in a TIN is a part of a plane in threemensional space. All of the faces in a TIN meet
eir neighbors precisely at each node and along
ch edge. Faces cannot intersect each other.

Triangular Irregular Networks (TINs)

z

node

facet

edge
x

One triangle from a

Triangular Irregular Network

angulation and topology

Triangular
a surface is modeled from a set of points
ven a set of points, many possible
triangulations
from which
triangles are formed
n be created. ArcInfo uses an algorithm called the
Irregular
triangles
arefaces
formed from sets of points that
launay triangulation
to optimize
how
occur at irregular locations
odel a surface.

Network
each
e basic idea
of this algorithm
is triangle
to create stores
trianglestopological information
its neighbors
t collectively are as close from
to equilateral
shapes as
Zeiler (1999)
ssible. This keeps the interpolation of elevations at
w points in closer proximity to the known input

Characterization of Raster and TIN models

Surface model Raster

TIN

Properties

Rasters sample the z-values of

surface features on a regular
grid. Features such as peaks
and ridges cannot be located
to a position more accurate
than the grid resolution.

TINs are designed to capture

and represent surface features
such as streams, ridges and
peaks. These features are stored
with precise coordinates, and
slope discontinuities are
modeled with breaklines.

Accuracy

The accuracy of a raster

surface model is determined
by the cell dimensions. To
increase the accuracy of a
raster surface model the
entire raster must be
resampled at a higher
resolution.

A TIN surface model has a

variable point density that
varies on the degree of change
of slope. To make a TIN more
accurate, mass points,
breaklines, and polygons can
be added.
Zeiler (1999)

Delaunay triangulation
The Delaunay triangulation is one method to triangulate
a set of points.
A triangulation is a Delaunay
triangulation if, and only if, the
circumcircle of any of its
triangles does not contain any
other point in its interior.

Moore et al. (1991)

Surface features in a TIN

Zeiler (1999)

Example TIN

Colouring: elevation
Zeiler (1999)

Topographic attributes
Primary attributes

elevation
slope
aspect or azimuth
profile curvature
plan curvature
specific catchment area

Secondary attributes
(compound attributes)

Indices that characterize the

spatial variability of specific
processes occurring in the
landscape

Topographic attributes
Attribute

Definition

Hydrol. significance

Altitude

Elevation

Climate, vegetation

Upslope height

Mean height of upslope area

Potential energy

Aspect

Slope azimuth

Solar irradiation

Slope

Elevation gradient

Flow velocity

Upslope slope

Mean slope of upslope area

Runoff velocity

Upslope area

Catchment area above a short

length of contour
Area draining to catchment
outlet
Upslope area per unit width of
contour

Runoff volume

Catchment area*
Specific catchment
area
Upslope length
Profile curvature
Planar curvature

Runoff volume
Runoff volume, steady
state runoff rate

Mean length of flow paths to a Flow acceleration,

point in the catchment
erosion rate
Flow acceleration,
Slope profile curvature
erosion/deposition
Contour curvature

* only defined at catchment outlet

Flow divergence
Speight (1974, 1980), Moore et al. (1991)

Window operations on raster data

Burrough and McDonnell (2000)

Using low-pass and high-pass filters

Burrough and McDonnell (2000)

Derivatives calculated from

raster data

Z1

Z2

Z3

Z4

Z5

Z6

Z3 + Z6 + Z9 Z1 Z4 Z7
Z7 Z8
6p
Z1 + Z2 + Z3 Z7 Z8 Z9
x
6p
Z1 + Z4 + Z7 + Z3 + Z6 + Z9 2(Z2 + Z5 + Z8)
3p2
Z1 + Z2 + Z3 + Z7 + Z8 + Z9 2(Z4 + Z5 + Z6)
3p2
Z3 + Z7 Z1 Z9
4p2

Z9

y
f
x
f
y
2f
x2
2f
y 2
2f
xy

=
=
=
=
=

Pennock et al. (1987)

Primary topographic attributes

Slope and aspect
slope
aspect

Primary topographic attributes

Slope
(gradient of the elevation)
@z
@x

@z
@y

Y
2

(compass direction of the slope)

=

@z/@y
6

rz =

Aspect
tan

tan =

dz

10

@z/@y
@z/@x

@z
@x
@z
@y

@z/@x
2
0
0

10

The contour lines are defined such that the elevation z is constant
along them. z is the gradient of elevation. It points into the direction
of steepest descent, which is perpendicular to the contour lines. The
modulus of z is the slope, its direction the aspect.

Example from the Tatra mountains

Topography

Aspect
Slope

Tatry EU project NR IC15-CT98-0151

Curvatures
Profile Curvature
- perpendicular to the contour lines
- Water flow is accelerated on the convex forms and
decelerated on the concave forms.
- large impact on erosion
Planar Curvature
- perpendicular to the slope
- Water flow converges on the concave forms and
diverges on the convex forms.

Example from the Tatra mountains

Profile Curvature

Planar Curvature
Tatry EU project NR IC15-CT98-0151

Determining the upslope area

Hengl et al. (2003)

Characterisation of water catchments

Mae Sa watershed, SFB 564, Thailand

Compound attributes
Soil wetness index
w=

As
tan

"

or

w = ln

As
tan

"

Stream power index

sp = As tan
Upslope area
As
tan Slope
Moore and Burch (1986)

Sediment transport index

Sediment transport can be related to the lengthslope (LS) factor of the Wischmeier equation
LS = (n + 1)

Wischmeier
equation:

A=RKLSCP
Average annual soil
loss per unit area

R
K
L
S
C
P

As
22.13

"n !

sin
0.0896

"m

Rainfall factor
Soil erodibility factor
Slope length factor
Slope steepness factor
Crop management factor
Erosion control practice factor
Moore and Burch (1986)

Climatic attributes
Potential solar radiation
Ro =

24I
cos cos (sin cos )
r2

Solar constant

Ratio of earth-sun distance to its mean

Solar declination
Functions of terrestrial latitude, slope and aspect

Moore et al. (1991)

Example from the Tatra mountains

Potential solar radiation in July

(yellow-highest, blue-lowest)
Tatry EU project NR IC15-CT98-0151

Climatic characteristics
derived from a DEM
Slope insolation (sun at 45o)

Mean annual temperature

Shadow (sun at 15o)

Wind exposition

Hengl et al. (2003)

Simple analysis of the effect of

rainstorm location using a DEM
Run-off =
Precipitation
- Interception
- Evaporation
- Storage
+ Run-on

Burrough and McDonnell (2000)