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ABSTRACT
This project work is on the construction of an F.M transmitter this system
consists of four discrete modules namely the audio frequency (AF) amplifier
(class A) the modulator the master oscillator and the radio frequency (RF)
amplifier (ClassC) these formed the conventional events for building FM
transmitter here the signal (from the microphone) is fed into the (AF) for
amplification then to the modulator which combines the modulating signal
with the carrier wave transports the modulated signal through (RF) for final
amplification to the antenna via the resonance circuit for propagation the
transmitter was tested using radio receiver it transmitted clearly at the
frequency of 108 MH3 and the coverage was to metres.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title page
Approval page
Dedication
Acknowledgement
Abstract
Table of content
Chapter one
Introduction
Concept of modulation and demodulation
Objective of the project
Significance of the project.
Chapter two
Literature review
Historical background of the project
Theories and models relevant to the construction
System component description
Chapter three
Hardware construction and implementation
Block diagram and system specification
Construction of audio frequency (Af) amplifier stage
Construction of radio frequency (RF) amplifier stage
Circuit diagram of FM transmitter
Circuit component analysis
Component list
Chapter four
Methodology packaging testing and results
Methodology
Packaging of the system
Testing and results
Chapter five
Cost analysis problems encountered
Recommendation and conclusion
Cost analysis
Problems encountered
Recommendation
Conclusion
References
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
Information transmission is very vital to human life just as the early men used
sticks to produce sound which indicates the location of each other as they
wander about also down to the middle era when town crises come into play for
the same information propagation to be transmitted from one point to another
with the aid of radio communication which necessities the application of radio
transmitter and receive.
A radio transmitter is device whose major function is to send information
(intelligence) from one point to another in most cases the information to be
transmitted are voice music and code signals. However the transmission of
radio signal is done with the aid of electrical resonance this is when the
frequency of the receiver is equal to the incoming one from the transmitter
resonance is observed which is the totality of radio communication I personally
decided to work on frequency modulation (FM) transmitter because it
transmitted radio signal which is less distorted than other wave bands like
amplitude modulation and short wave band. The frequency on the tuning dial
ranges from 88MHZ to 108MH3.
2.
3.
3.
CHAPTER TWO
Transmitter
Audio Amplifier
Receiver
VCO
PLL
Channel
Parts List
Description
Resistor
Resistor
Resistor
Resistor
ID
Value
R4, R6, R7, R8, R9 5.1k
R2
18k
R1, R3, R5
1k
R10
22k
Capacitor
Capacitor
Capacitor
Capacitor
C2, C3
C1
C4
C5
U2, U3
U1
9V battery
62pF
470uF
1.8nF
220uF
9V
Transmitter
Quantity
3
1
3
Receiver
Quantity
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
1
1
1
$0.10
$0.20
$0.10
$0.20
$0.20
$0.20
$0.10
$0.20
1
1
2
1
$0.53
$0.84
$1.06
$0.84
$4.29
$12.87
$4.00
$4.00
1
Total:
Total
Quantity
5
1
3
1
14
22
$19.57
*Note - only the MC14046B was purchased while all other components were provided by the school, therefore unit prices were estimated.
To design the FM transmitter and receiver from the beginning we estimate that 25 manhours would be needed. The majority of those man-hours would be devoted to discovering
the frequency characteristics of the transmitters VCO (VCO voltage input vs. VCO
frequency output) by changing the resistor and capacitor components that determine it.
However, we estimate that only 5 hours would be needed to produce the printed circuit
boards and install all the components of the transmitter and receiver.
FM Transmitter
Description
The FM Transmitter uses FM waves (frequency modulated waves) to send sound. Frequency
modulation transmits data (in our case an audio signal) over a carrier wave by changing the
frequency of the carrier wave, where the frequency of the carrier wave corresponds to the
voltage level of the audio signal. In order to use electromagnetic transmission, the audio
signal must first be converted into an electric signal. The conversion is accomplished by a
transducer, in our case the microphone. After conversion, the audio signal is used to
modulate a carrier signal.
The process of modulation means to systematically use the information signal (what you
want to transmit) to vary some parameter of the carrier signal. The carrier signal can be a
sinusoidal, as shown above, but in our case the carrier signal will be a square-wave that is
generated by a voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO).
Design
Amplifier
In our circuit we used an amplifier in order to amplify the audio signal and increase the
amplitude of the VCO input. We chose an LM741 operational amplifier that was readily
available in our lab, and configured it for use as a non-inverting amplifier. Our amplifier
was designed to have gain of 20, therefore if the input signal is 100mV the output of
amplifier will be 2V.
applied voltage, while in our case signals will be fed into the VCO to cause frequency
modulation (FM).
A voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO) provides a periodic signal where the frequency of the
signal is related to the level of an input voltage control signal supplied to the VCO.
We collected data to plot the voltage-frequency characteristics of the VCO of the
MC14046B.
Due to limitation of the frequency response of the LED and photodiode, we limited our
frequency range to a maximum of approximately 1MHz. Therefore we chose the
characteristics of the pink line, which reaches 1MHz at approximately 5.9V.
For the choice of the center frequency, we considered the capture frequency range of the
receiver. We believed that the PLL would safely be able to lock onto a frequency range of
300kHz. This meant a frequency range of the VCO between approximately 700kHz and
1MHz. We chose a center frequency of 860kHz which corresponds to a VCO input voltage
of 4.9V.
FM Receiver
Description
For the FM receiver our team is using the Phase-Locked Loop (PLL) chip which receives an
amplified signal from the photodiode circuit and is able to demodulate the signal. The
demodulated signal is the reproduced audio signal.
Design
Phase locked Loop
A PLL is a circuit that causes a particular system to track with another one. PLL
synchronizes its output signal (generated by oscillator (VCO)) with a reference or input
signal in frequency as well as phase. In the synchronized, often called locked, state the phase
error between the oscillators output signal and the reference signal is zero, or remain
constant.
If a phase error builds up, a control mechanism acts on the oscillator in such a way that the
phase error is again reduced to minimum. In such a control system the phase of the output
signal is actually locked to the phase of the reference signal. This is why it is referred to as a
phase locked loop.
The PLL consists of three basic functional blocks:
1) A Voltage-Controlled Oscillator (VCO)
2) A Phase Detector
3) A Low Pass Filter
If the phase error (error signal) is not zero, the phase detector develops a nonzero output
signal. After some delay the loop filter would also produce the signal. The signal would
cause the VCO to change its operating frequency in such a way that the phase error finally
vanishes.
For PLL, we use the MC14046B chip, which contains two phase comparators, a
voltagecontrolled oscillator (VCO), and a source follower. The VCO has been already
described. For our design purpose we use Phase Comparator 1. Phase comparator 1 (an
exclusive OR gate) provides a digital error signal PC1out, and maintains 90 phase shift at
the center frequency between PCAin and PCBin signals. The following figure shows the
inside structure of the MC24046B chip, and input and output signals to the phase
comparator. (for more information please refer to Appendix)
Figure 6) PLL Circuit design and Phase comparator (Source: MC14046B datasheet from
ON Semiconductor)
Pspice Design
FM Receiver Circuit (Not including photodiode circuit)
U 3
62p
C 3
5 .1 k
S IG _ IND E M O _ O U T
C O M P _ IN
VC O _O U T
C 1
C O M P1_O U T
C 2
C O M P2_O U T
R 1
PH _PU LSE
R 2
V C O _ IN
IN H
VSS*
R 8
14
3
4
6
7
11
12
5
ZEN ER
VD D *
15
V2
9Vdc
16
10
2
13
1
9
R 9
5 .1 k
C 4
1 .8 n F
R 10
510
C D 4046
0
0
CHAPTER THREE
5. Inductor Coil The inductor used in the circuit is a hand made coil using 22 SWG
(Standard Wire Gauge) enameled copper wire. The length, inner diameter, number of turns
etc are the important parameters to be considered while making the inductor. Then only the
inductor resonates in the 88-108 band FM frequency. For this circuit, the coil radius was
selected as 0.26 inches (outer diameter) and 0.13 inner diameter. Coil can be wound around
a screw driver (with same diameter) to get a 5 turn coil of 0.2 inch long. Remove the coil
from the screw driver and use the 5 turn Air core coil. Remove the enamel from the tips and
solder close to the transistor. The inductance of the coil can be calculated using the formula
L = n2 r2 / 9r + 10 x Where r is the inner radius of the coil, x is the length of the coil and n,
number of turns. The resulting value is in Micro Henry.
6. Trimmer capacitor A small button type variable capacitor with a value of 22 pF can be
used to adjust the resonant frequency of the tank circuit. The variable capacitor and the
inductor coil form the Tank circuit (LC circuit) that resonates in the 88-108 MHz. In the tank
circuit, the capacitor stores electrical energy between its plates while the inductor stores
magnetic energy induced by the windings of the coil. The resonant frequency can be
calculated using the formula
f = 1 / 2 x LC = Hz Where f is the frequency in hertz, x is the coil length, C is the
capacitance of trimmer in Farads, and L is the inductance of coil in Hendry.
Tank Circuit Every FM transmitter needs an oscillator to generate the radio Frequency (RF)
carrier waves. The name 'Tank' circuit comes from the ability of the LC circuit to store
energy for oscillations. The purely reactive elements, the C and the L simply store energy to
be returned to the system. In the tank (LC) circuit, the 2N 2222 A transistor and the feedback
4.7 pF capacitor are the oscillating components. The feedback signal makes the base-emitter
current of the transistor vary at the resonant frequency. This causes the emitter-collector
current to vary at the same frequency. This signal fed to the aerial and radiated as radio
waves.
Assembling and Testing The circuit can be assembled on a Dot type common PCB or Perf
board. The following tips should be considered while assembling the circuit 1. Assemble the
components as close as possible, especially the transistor, trimmer and coil to prevent
unwanted oscillation. 2. Lead length of capacitors, resistors, transistor should be as small as
possible. 3. Solder the MIC directly on the PCB ( use the trimmed leads of the resistors to
connect MIC) 4. Observe the polarity of MIC. 5. Check the pins of 2N 2222 A. The pin
assignment is E-B-C (Emitter Base Collector) from the front side (Flat side on which the
number is printed). 6. Coil should stand horizontally above the Emitter of transistor. 7. Coil
should be closely wound.
How to test After assembling the circuit, connect 9 volt battery. A battery operated FM
pocket radio is necessary for testing. AC powered FM players will give lesser performance
than the battery powered FM receivers due to noise. Tune the FM receiver to a Dead Air
space (around 108 MHz where there is no station). Place the FM radio 2 feet away from the
transmitter. Gently tap on the MIC. If the tank circuit is properly tuned, tapping sound will
be heard in the radio. If no sound is heard, slightly pull the coil to separate the windings.
Adjust the shaft of the Trimmer slowly with a preset screwdriver. Check again. If the sound
is clear, move the FM radio and assess the range. Try again by adjusting the trimmer and
position of aerial of both transmitter and FM radio. If the sound clarity is good and there is
sufficient range, stick the coil with nail polish or glue to avoid frequency change. The FM
transmitter is ready to use.
CHAPTER FOUR
Ground
Amplifier
(Transmitter Side)
VCO chip
(Transmitter Side)
LM741
MC14046B)
Audio input
-9V
Transmitter
Output
FM Receiver
Ground
+9V
Receiver unit
Receiver
output
Receiver
Input
Conclusion
Increase the input impedance of the speakers power amplifier stage to reduce the
current sinked by that circuit.
Lower the center frequency and utilize the VCO configured with a less steep frequencyvoltage input curve.
Improve techniques on soldering wires. For instance, wires soldered onto the PC board
have a tendency to detach if the soldering was not sufficient.
References
3)
1) http://www.bpm-music.com/SiteFiles/Image/Grafica/Frequency-modulation.png
2) http://www.ami.ac.uk/courses/ami4428_ahdl/u03/images/ad_ma_img03.gif
www.onsemi.com/pub/Collateral/MC14046B-D.PDF