Form 5 Biology Chapter 1 Transport (D)

Form 5 Biology Chapter 1 Transport (d)
The Transport of Substances in Plants

The vascular tissues in stems, roots and leaves
1. The vascular tissues transport substances in plants.
2. There are two types of vascular tissues: xylem and phloem.
a) Xylem transports water and dissolved mineral salts absorbed by the roots up
the stems and to the leaves. In woody plants, the xylem tissue also provides
mechanical support to the plant.
b) Phloem transports organic substances from the leaves down to the storage
organs and from the storage organs such as the roots up to the growing regions
such as the buds.
The Stem
1. The stem has an epidermal layer that helps maintain the shape of the stem.
a) In young plants, the epidermal cells secrete a waterproof cuticle.
b) In order plants, the epidermis may be absent, and is replaced by bark.
2. Inside the epidermis is the cortex layer. The cortex layer is made up of
collenchyma cells which provide support and flexibility to the stem and
parenchyma cells which store food.
3. The inner parts of the stems consist of vascular bundle and the pith which is the
central region of a stem.
a) The pith is used for food storage in young plants.
b) The pith may be absent in order plants making them hollow.
The root
1. The outermost layer is the epidermis. The epidermis of the roots does not have
waxy cuticles.
2. The epidermis absorbs water and dissolved mineral ions from the soil.
3. Specialized epidermal cells grow outwards to form root hairs.
4. Root hairs increase the surface area for water absorption.
5. The region between the epidermis and the vascular cylinder is the cortex. The
cortex is made up of parenchyma cells which store starch grains.
6. Located immediately after the cortex is a single layer of cells called the
endodermis.
7. Next to the endodermis is the pericycle. The pericycle consists of sclerenchyma
tissue which provides mechanical support for the roots.
8. In the roots, the vascular tissue is located in the vascular cylinder. A vascular
cylinder consists of vascular tissue and the pericycle.
9. The vascular tissues of roots are continuous with the vascular tissues of stems.
10.
In a dicotyledonous plant, the xylem has a star-shaped form, while the
phloem fills the areas between the xylem (Figure 1.41),

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The leaf
1. The leaf consists of a broad portion called the lamina (leaf blade).
2. The blade is connected to the stem by a stalk called the petiole.
3. Inside the petiole are the vascular tissue of xylem and phloem that are
continuous with those in the stem, root and lamina.
4. The leaf blade contains leaf veins. Vascular tissues are found in the leaf veins.
5. Xylem forms the upper part of a vascular bundle in the leaf while phloem forms
the lower part of the vascular bundle (Figure (b)).
a) The xylem transports water and mineral salts to the leaves.
b) The phloem transports sucrose and other products of photosynthesis from the
leaves.
The structure of xylem in relation to transport
1. Xylem contains four types of cells:

a) Xylem vessels
b) Tracheids
c) Fibres (a type of sclerenchyma)
d) Parenchyma
2. The parenchyma stores food substances while the fibres provide support to
the xylem.
3. Xylem vessels and tracheids are water-conducting cells.
How are xylem vessels and tracheids adapted to their functions?
1. Xylem vessels are elongated cells arranged end to end.
The end walls of the xylem vessels are open so that the cells join end to end to
form a long continuous hollow tube.
This arrangement allows water to flow upwards continuously from one cell to
the next.
During growth, the walls of the xylem vessels and tracheids are thickened with
lignin deposits, making them strong and hardy so that they do not collapse
under the tension created by the upward pull of water during transpiration.
The lignin also prevents the entry of food substances. Hence, the cytoplasm
of these cells disintegrates, leaving a cavity in the centre of the cells. As a
result, mature xylem vessels and tracheids are hollow and dead.
2. Tracheids are longer and have a smaller diameter compared to xylem vessels.
They are pointed at the ends. The end walls break down in the pits and this
allows water to pass from cell to cell.
Explain the adaptation of xylem in performing its function. (7 marks)
The structure of phloem in relation to transport

1. Phloem tissue is composed of four types of cells: sieve tubes, companion cells,
parenchyma and fibres.
2. Organic substances such as sucrose and amino acids are transported along the
sieve tubes of the phloem.
a) The sieve tube is a cylindrical column comprising long cells arranged end to
end.
b) The sieve tube is a living cell.
c) When mature, it has no nucleus and its cytoplasm is pushed to the sides of the
cell.
d) The end walls of each cell are perforated by pores to form sieve plates. Long
strands of cytoplasm pass through the pores in the sieve plates to allow
substances to pass from once cell to another.
e) Each sieve tube cell is kept alive and its function is supported by one or more
companion cells.
3. A companion cell is a normal cell with a nucleus and a large number of
mitochondria, indicating that it has active metabolism.
4. The function of the parenchyma is to store food substances while the function of
the fibres is to provide support.
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The Transport of Organic Substances and Water in Plants

Transport of organic substances in plants
1. Sugars such as glucose and fructose are produced by photosynthetic cell in the
leaves during the day time.
2. These sugars need to be transported (as sucrose) to the storage parts or growing
parts of the tree.
3. These sugars may be converted into amino acids and lipids by the target cells.
4. Translocation is the transport of dissolved organic substances by the phloem
from the leaves to the storage organs or from the storage organs to the growing
regions.
5. Organic substances are transported in the phloem by diffusion and active
transport which are assisted by the sieve tubes. Translocation occurs
downwards and upwards.
6. Storage organs such as roots, tubers, fruits or nodules store organic substance
in the form of starch, lipids and proteins.
7. Growing organs such as flowers, young shoots, root tips and leaves use these
substances for building new cells and organic compounds.
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Transport of water in plants

1. In plants, water is lost through a process called transpiration.
2. Transpiration is the loss of water vapour through evaporation from the
surface of plants.
3. Only 1% of this water is used by plant cell for photosynthesis and to remain
turgid. The remaining 99% evaporates from the leaves and is lost to the
atmosphere through transpiration.
4. About 90% of transpiration takes place through the stomata of the leaves.
Transpiration also takes place through the lenticels of woody stems.
5. Transpiration
a) Helps in the absorption and transport of water and mineral ions from the
roots to the different parts of the plants.
b) Produces a cooling effect in plants
c) Help to supply water to all plant cells for metabolic processes
d) Helps to prevent plants from wilting by maintaining cell turgidity.
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The movement of water from soil to leaves

Movement of water through the roots
1. The cytoplasm of root hair cells is usually hypertonic to the surrounding soil
water.
2. This means that root cells have a higher concentration of solutes than the water
in the surrounding soil
3. Hence, water enters the root hair cells via osmosis.
4. The root hair cell is now hypotonic to the adjacent cells
5. Water then diffuses into the adjacent cells by osmosis.
6. In this way, water moves inwards from cell to cell in the cortex until eventually it
reaches the xylem vessels in the root.
7. The gradient of water concentration which exists across the cortex creates a
pushing force that results in the inflow of water into the xylem.
8. At the same time, ions from the soil are actively secreted into the xylem and
this causes osmotic pressure to increase.
9. As a result, water flows continuously into the xylem. This generates a pressure
known as root pressure.
10.
Root pressure results in an upward push of water and mineral ions into
the xylem of the stem.

11.
Root pressure can be demonstrated when a stem is cut at soil level. After
some time, water can be seen flowing out from the cut surface.
12.
Root pressure causes an upward movement of water in plants but it is
insufficient to overcome the force of gravity to push water upward to the

maximum heights of many trees. The water also moves too slowly to account for
the rapid transport of minerals from the roots to the leaves.
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13.
Hence, the upward movement of water through the xylem vessels in the
stems is helped by the adhesive and cohesive properties of the water

molecules.
Water flows through the cytoplasm, vacuoles and cell walls of the parenchyma
cells in the cortex until it reaches the endodermis.
Once it reaches the endodermal cells, the water moves through the cytoplasm and
vacuoles instead of the cell walls.
This is because the endodermal cells have special features called the Casparian
strips which line the sides of the endodermal cells.
Since the Casparian strip is impermeable to water, this means that the water
movement through the cell walls is blocked.
Instead, the water moves from the cytoplasm and the vacuole in the endodermal
cells to the xylem vessels.
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Guttation
1. At night, the roots of some small plants continue to actively transport ions and
water into the xylem.
2. This causes root pressure to increase.
3. Because the transpiration rate is low during the night, root pressure can push
water all the way up the stem and out of special pores called hydathodes at the
edges of the leaves.
4. This natural process is called guttation.
5. Guttation also occurs on cool humid mornings when the air is too saturated for
water droplets to evaporate from the leaves.
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Movement of water through the stem

1. The continuous upward movement of water through the xylem vessels in the
stems can be attributed to capillarity
2. Capillarity, or capillary action, is the result of the cohesive and adhesive forces
which enable water to enter and move along the very narrow columns.
a) The water molecules adhere to one another by cohesive forces. This ensure the
water to form a continuous water column.
b) The water molecules adhere to the walls of the xylem vessels by adhesive
forces. This is to prevent the water from sliding down through the xylem tube.
c) The cohesion and adhesion of water molecules are due to hydrogen bonding.
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Movement of water from the leaves to the atmosphere

1. The water on the external surfaces of the mesophyll cells evaporates, saturating
the air spaces in the mesophyll with water vapour.
2. The air in the atmosphere is less saturated.
3. This means that the concentration of water vapour in the atmosphere is lower
than the concentration of water vapour in the air spaces of the leaf.
4. Hence, the water vapour in the air spaces evaporates and diffuses through the
stomata.
5. The movement of air carries water vapour away from the stomata.
6. The loss of water from a mesophyll cell makes the cell hypertonic to an adjacent
cell.
7. Water from the adjacent cell diffuses into mesophyll cell by osmosis. Water
continues to diffuse from the neighbouring cells into the adjacent cells.
8. Eventually, water is drawn from the xylem vessels in the veins.
9. A tension or pulling force is thus created to pull water up the xylem vessels as a
result of the evaporation of water vapour from the mesophyll cells.
10.
This transpiration in the leaves forces the movement of water from the soil
up the stem.
11.
The pulling or suction force is known as transpirational pull.
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The external conditions that affect the rate of transpiration

1. The external conditions that affect the rate of transpiration are light intensity,
relative humidity, temperature and air moment.
a) Light intensity
An increase in light intensity increases the rate of transpiration.
Light stimulates the opening of the stomata.
As a result, the stomata open wider, Hence, more water vapour evaporates
through the stomata.
b) Temperature
An increase in temperature increases the rate of transpiration.
An increase in temperature increases the rate of evaporation of water from
the surfaces of the mesophyll cells. The rate of diffusion of water through
the stomata also increases.
c) Humidity
High humidity surrounding the leaves reduces the evaporation of water
from the stomata.
This causes transpiration to slow down.
Conversely, a rise in temperature lowers the relative humidity of
surrounding air, and this increases the rate of transpiration.
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d) Air movement
As the water vapour that diffuses through the stomata accumulates near the
leaf surface, a faster air movement helps to remove the water vapour.
Air movement increases the concentration gradient between the water
vapour in the leaf and that outside the leaf. This increases the transpiration
rate.
When the air is still, the transpiration rate decreases or stops altogether.
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Experiment 1: Studying the effect of air movement on the rate of

transpiration by using a potometer
Problem Statement
How does the movement of air movement of air affect the rate of transpiration?
Variables
Manipulated variable: Air movement
Responding variable: The distance travelled by air bubble in 5 minutes
Constant variable: Surrounding temperature, light intensity, relative humidity,
the type and size of plant used and time
Hypothesis
The faster the movement of air, the greater the rate of transpiration.
Materials
A leafy shoot, Vaseline, a dry cloth and diluted eosin solution
Apparatus
A potometer, a beaker, secateurs, a basin of water and a stopwatch
Technique
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Measure and record the distance travelled by an air bubble in a potometer in 5

minutes by using a graduated capillary tube.
Procedure
1. A leafy shoot is chosen from a plant. The shoot is cut off with secateurs and the
cut end is immersed immediately into a basin of water.
2. A razor blade is used to cut 1 cm of the bottom of the stem obliquely under water.
3. The potometer is immersed in the water and moved around to remove all the air
bubbles. The tap of the reservoir is turned on to fill the graduated capillary tube
with eosin solution.
4. The cut end of the stem is inserted carefully into the rubber cork of the potometer
under water.
5. The reservoir tap is turned off before the apparatus is removed from the water so
that the graduated capillary tube is full.
6. The apparatus is then set up as shown below.
7. The leaves and apparatus are wiped dry with a cloth.

8. The part of the stem which passes through the cork of the potometer is smeared
with Vaseline to ensure there is no water leakage and the apparatus is airtight.
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9. The end of the capillary tube is lifted out of the beaker for a short while and then
returned to the beaker of water to introduce an air bubble into the tube.
10.
The air bubble is allowed to move to the horizontal graduated section of the
capillary tube.
11.
The potometer is then placed in an enclosed room with no air movement.
12.
The shoot is allowed a few minutes to reach a steady state before any
readings are taken.

13.
The stopwatch is activated and the distance travelled by the air bubble for 5
minutes is recorded. The air bubble is not allowed to reach the end of the shoot.
14.
The air bubble is sent back to the right hand side of the capillary tube by
turning on the reservoir tap. The experiment is repeated to obtain two more
readings.
15.
Step 8 to 14 are repeated by placing the potometer under a moving fan.
16.
The distances travelled by the air bubble under both the conditions are
recorded in the following table.
Result
Condition
Distance travelled by the air bubble in 5 minutes Rate of

(cm)
transpiration (cm
minute-1)
1st reading 2nd
3rd reading Average
reading
Windy
9.0
9.6
9.0
9.2
Non-windy
4.0
3.9
3.9
3.9
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The regulation of transpiration by stomata
The mechanism of the opening of a stoma

1. During the day, light stimulates photosynthesis in the guard cells.
2. They start synthesizing glucose and generate the energy required for active
transport.
3. The guard cells accumulate potassium ions from adjacent cells through active
transport.
4. The guard cells become hypertonic and water from the adjacent cells enters the
guard cells by osmosis.
5. As a result, the guard cells swell up and become turgid.
6. Since the inner cell walls of the guard cells are thicker than the outer walls,
the guard cells bend outward and the stoma opens. This is because the thinner
outer wall stretches more than the thicker inner wall.
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The mechanism of the closing of a stoma

1. At night, when photosynthesis does not take place, potassium ions exit the guard
cells and water also leaves the guard cells by osmosis.
2. The guard cells become flaccid and the stoma closes.
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Form 5 Biology Chapter 1 Transport (D)

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Form 5 Biology Chapter 1 Transport (d)

The Transport of Substances in Plants