International Maritime University of Panama

Nautical Science Faculty

Nautical Engineering Degree with Specialization in Naval Machinery.

Marine Fuel Quality Control on M/T ILMA and Cap Felix

Presented by:
Carlos Enrique Samudio Martinez
4-758-1956

March, 2016

DEDICATION

I dedicate this sea project to my mother for encouraging me to achieve my goals

and for giving me all her support to accomplish this important project.
I also dedicate this project to God for giving me the necessary strength that has led
me where I am today.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

I am indebted with my Professors, classmates, and fellow seamen that helped and
guided me with their experience and knowledge.
My sincere thanks also goes to EURONAV and to all of those who contributed with
willingness in the development and completion of this project by their knowledge
and experiences.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
PRESENTATION........................................................................................................I
DEDICATION.............................................................................................................II
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS...........................................................................................III
TABLE OF CONTENTS...........................................................................................IV
TABLE OF ILLUSTRATIONS..................................................................................IX
TABLE OF CHARTS.................................................................................................X
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY..........................................................................................XI
INTRODUCTION.....................................................................................................XII

CHAPTER 1: ............................................................................................................1
1.1 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM..............................................................................2
1.2 JUSTIFICATION..................................................................................................... 2
1.3 OBJECTIVES.........................................................................................................3
1.3.1 General Objectives................................................................................3
1.3.2 Specific Objectives................................................................................3
1.4 DELIMITATIONS.....................................................................................................4
1.5 LIMITATIONS.........................................................................................................4

CHAPTER 2: MARINE FUELS.................................................................................5

2.1 THE MARINE FUELS CHALLEGE..............................................................................6
2.2 MARINE FUEL TYPES............................................................................................6
2.2.1 Marine Gas Oil (MGO)...........................................................................7
2.2.2 Marine Distillate Oil (MDO)....................................................................8
2.2.3 Intermediate Fuel Oil (IFO)....................................................................8
4

2.2.4 Heavy Fuel Oil (HFO)............................................................................8

2.3 REGULATIONS AND STANDARS ...........................................................................10
2.3.1 ISO 8217..............................................................................................10
2.3.2 MARPOL..............................................................................................10
2.3.3 ISM.......................................................................................................10
2.4 FUEL OIL PROPERTIES .....................................................................................11
2.4.1 Calorific value......................................................................................11
2.4.2 Viscosity...............................................................................................11
2.4.3 Cetane number....................................................................................12
2.4.4 Calculated carbon aromaticity index (CCAI)...................................12
2.4.5 Conradson carbon value.....................................................................13
2.4.6 Ash content..........................................................................................13
2.4.7 Sulphur content....................................................................................13
2.4.8 Water content.....................................................................................13
2.4.9 Cloud point...........................................................................................13
2.4.10 Pour point..........................................................................................14
2.4.11 Flash point..........................................................................................14
2.4.12 Specific gravity..................................................................................14

CHAPTER 3: QUALITY..........................................................................................24
3.1 CHALLENGE KEEPING A PROPER FUEL QUALITY....................................................26
3.1.1 Storage problems................................................................................27
3.1.2 Water in the fuel...................................................................................27
3.1.3 Burnability...........................................................................................28
3.1.4 High-temperature corrosion................................................................28
3.1.5 Low-temperature corrosion.................................................................28
3.1.6 Abrasive impurities.............................................................................28
3.2 BUNKERING........................................................................................................31
3.2.1 Bunker Quality ....................................................................................31
5

3.2.2 Good Bunkering Practice ....................................................................31

3.2.3 Ordering bunkers ................................................................................31
3.2.4 Selecting the grades of fuel required ..................................................31
3.3 FUEL OIL TEST....................................................................................................34
3.3.1 Sampling..............................................................................................34
3.3.1.2 Sampling Procedures.................................................................34
3.3.2 MARPOL Annex VI samples................................................................34
3.3.3 Samples for Analysis...........................................................................34
3.3.4 Onboard testing...................................................................................34
3.4 STORAGE AND HANDLING.....................................................................................34
4.4.1 Different Fuel Types Handling..............................................................34
4.4.2 Heating................................................................................................35
4.4.3 Bunker Tanks......................................................................................35
4.4.4 Settling tanks........................................................................................35
4.7.5 Service tanks........................................................................................35
4.7.6 Mayor Fuel Storage Problems.............................................................35

Sludge................................................................................................38

Fibres.................................................................................................38

Oxidation Products.............................................................................38

Microbial Contamination....................................................................38

Dirt......................................................................................................38

incompatibility....................................................................................38

4.4.7 Fuel Processing..................................................................................35

3.5

Fuel Transfer......................................................................................38

Settilng tanks to service tanks...........................................................38

F.O overflow and leaks.......................................................................38

F.O TREATMENT.................................................................................................35

3.5.1 Separating Forces In The Settling Tank..............................................38

3.5.2 SUCTION STRAINERS.......................................................................................40
3.5.3 Cleaning by centrifuge........................................................................40
6

The purifier.........................................................................................43

The clarifier.........................................................................................43

Combinations.....................................................................................43

Centrifuging high density fuels ..........................................................44

3.5.4 Filters..................................................................................................42

Cold filters .........................................................................................44

Hot filters ...........................................................................................44

Fine filters ..........................................................................................44

self cleaning filters .............................................................................44

3.5.5 Alternative methods...........................................................................42

Mechanical homogenisers ................................................................44

Ultrasonic Devices ............................................................................44

Static filter modules...........................................................................44

back-flushing filter modules................................................................44

3.5.6 Chemical treatment............................................................................44

Biosides .............................................................................................44

Fuel stabilisers..................................................................................44

Fuel aditives.......................................................................................44

3.5.7 The daily service tank........................................................................44

3.5.8 After the service tank.........................................................................44

CHAPTER 4: FUEL VISCOSITY............................................................................45

5.1 VISCOSITY AND FUEL QUALITY.............................................................................46
5.2 MARINE FUEL VISCOSITY UNDERSTANDING...........................................................47
5.2.1 What is viscosity..................................................................................48
5.2.2 How is coating viscosity affected.........................................................48
5.2.3 How is viscosity measured..................................................................48
5.2.4 Traditional approach to measuring viscosity.......................................48
5.3 VISCOSITY AND ITS EFFECTS ON DIESEL ENGINE.................................................48
7

5.3.1 Low Fuel Viscosity...............................................................................48

5.3.1 Engine operation with too high viscosity.............................................48
5.4 MARINE FUEL VISCOSITY KEEPING.....................................................................49
5.4.1 Heating of fuel oil...............................................................................63
5.4.2 Viscosity keeping during treatment.................................................63

Separation of heavy fuel....................................................................44

5.4.3 Viscosity keeping of the transfer system.......................................63

Fuel oil settling tanks..........................................................................44

Fuel oil system and service tanks......................................................44

Pumping.............................................................................................44

5.4.4 Keeping Viscosity during manoevering and stand-still periods. .63

Preparations before starting on heavy fuel........................................44

Operating and manoeuvring on heavy fuel........................................44

Stopping the main engine when operating on heavy fuel..................44

Change over between heavy fuel and diesel oil................................44

o Switching from diesel oil to heavy fuel oil...............................44
o Switching from heavy fuel oil to diesel oil...............................44

5.5 Viscosity Control Arrangement .....................................................................63

5.5.1 Viscosity Control...............................................................................63
5.5.2 Measuring Devices............................................................................63

Capilar Tube Sensor.....................................................................44

Attenuation Sensor.......................................................................44

5.5.3 Propotional Control...........................................................................63

5.5.4 PI And PID Control ............................................................................63

CHAPTER 5: FUEL SYSTEM (MT ILMA)..............................................................80

6.1 MAIN ENGINE.....................................................................................................57
6.2 GENERATOR ENGINES........................................................................................ 59
6.3 AUXILIARY BOILER FUEL OIL SERVICE SYSTEM...................................................61
8

6.3.1 HFO System........................................................................................62

6.3.2 Gas Oil System....................................................................................64
CHAPTER 6: ON BOARD EXPERIENCES............................................................80
6.1 DAILY ROUTINES AND OPERATING CONDITIONS .....................................................57
6.2 CHANGE OVER FAILURE.......................................................................................59
6.3 THE ROUGH WHEATHER.......................................................................................61

CONCLUSION.........................................................................................................71
ANNEX....................................................................................................................72
GLOSSARY...............................................................................................................73
LIST OF REFERENCES.........................................................................................77

TABLE OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Page
Figure 1....................................................................................................................70
Figure 2....................................................................................................................76
Figure 3....................................................................................................................77
Figure 4....................................................................................................................79
Figure 5....................................................................................................................88
Figure 6....................................................................................................................89

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TABLE OF CHARTS
Page
Table 1 Main Types Of Fuel Oil..................................................................................7
Table 2 ISO Caracteristics.......................................................................................12
Table 3 Typical values for standard fuels.................................................................17
Table 4 fuel oil specification of Man B&W low speed diesel engine of Cap Felix. . .17
Table 5 Heavy Fuels Problems................................................................................19
Table 6 Purifier Particle Removal Efficiency............................................................47

11

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

This project has been made with the intention of providing insights on the current
and appropriate practices in the handling of fuel oil onboard. The objective is to
present the precautions to be taken to keep and appropriate fuel quality and
viscosity on board, and the actions to take once one is working with it. To get a grip
on fuel handling in general, personal research has been done on the topic.
Moreover, a general knowledge recompilation about fuel quality and viscosity
theory was also done. This was followed by a study of the current difficulties
involving it and an approach to each aspect affecting the quality and viscosity of
the fuel on board Cap Felix and MT Ilma.
Precaution while handling fuel covering the bunkering, storage, analysis, transfers
and treatment is essential. Preparing the ship and crew beforehand will not only
prove an advantage but also necessary when encountering any unusual
conditions. The crew should follow, whenever possible, the recommendations of
the manufacturers, ship builder and company, paying special attentions to the
current regulations.

12

These days, fuel quality and viscosity can be kept in the appropriate levels to fit in
the manufacturers requirements if good practices are carried out on board.

INTRODUCTION

Fuel oil has posed an increasing problem to the ship operators. Over the
years, any new regulation and processes become a challenge to the current
plants facilities which most of the time have not been designed to comply with
these new operating conditions. Every time more precautions have to be taken
when handling fuel. The engineers have to be aware that they can encounter with
low quality fuels, different types and that each type of fuel must require to be
treated and handled in different ways. Inapropiate working conditions for the type
of fuel being handled can led to serious implications in safety of life and machinery.
Poor fuel quality will sometimes restrict the normal operation of the purifiers,
affecting its treatment rate and time. Constant adjustments must be done to cope
with the current operation conditions. These can affect the use of separation
equipment by producing fast accumulation of sludge and, subsequently, changes in
the interface position. When it comes to the machinery, poor fuel quality produces
wearing on the surface of cylinder liners and pistons. It surely affects the fuel
pumps since they are extremely sensitive by obstruction or seizure. Even if

13

appropriate treatment is done, special attention to viscosity, temperatures and

pressures must be kept.
Because of their direct concern with fuel, the engineers must get acquainted
with future fuel requirements and prepare the systems in advance in the area they
expect to deal with. They should make use of all the information and resources
available and most importantly, always proceed with caution.
Fuel quality keeping calls for special knowledge and precautions even in
new building ships designed for new regulations and standards. Fuel quality
keeping poses several problems of its own. Different conditions can be
encountered with each bunkered fuel and it can bring about many unusual
problems for seamen having little or no experience on this regard.
Further on, we will discuss how to get prepared for these types of
conditions, different types of fuel and fuel problems that can arise. We will also
discuss necessary actions to take when encountered with some of these problems.

CHAPTER 1
THE RESEARCH PROBLEM

14

In this chapter I will propose the objectives of the project, general and specific and
the delimitations and limitations.
1.1 Statement of the Problem
Fuel quality and viscosity keeping can be very harsh. If the engineers of the
vessel are not prepared the outcome could be disastrous. It is important to know
what to expect when encountered with different fuels qualities and grades, and to
understand what is needed to be done under these conditions to keep fuel as
required by the machinery.
1.2 Justification
Fuel quality keeping is not to be taken lightly; even the most experienced
engineer can find difficult to deal with problems related to poor fuel quality and
viscosity keeping. Thorough preparations need to be made to assure a proper
quality avoiding by these way greater, dangerous and expensive issues. There are
essential tools and information required to conduct effective, safe, fuel treatment
that must be taken in account.
Starting a purifiers main engines, generator and boilers is something all
engineers are more readily prepared for. However, there is a risk of suddenly
meeting systems fail, clogging, and machinery damage if the appropriate fuel
specification is not supply.
Same as every ship is unique, every fuel type has own variations in their
composition. Although, some people can easily get acquainted with the conditions
of some ship or fuel, ignoring these factors could lead to plant failure. Big efforts
have been made to give a guidance or a trace of the quality fuel you are bunkering
and dealing with. One of these efforts is the ISO 8217. With this guidance it is
much easier to follow the treatment required according to the type fuel you are to
deal with. But this cant assure you that the same treatment can be followed for a

same fuel grade. Engineers must go deeper in order to make sure that proper fuel
quality is being supplied to the machinery.
Increases in world regulations, particularly on the low sulfur emissions for
SECAs is opening an incredibly difficult challenge for fuel quality and viscosity
keeping. Some of these fuels are in total opposite corners of treatment and
handling. While something is good for one fuel, it is total quite the opposite for
other fuels. Appropriate training and familiarization must be given to the crew for
dealing with these new regulations. On the other hand, new and increasingly
sophisticated ships, are being built to cope with the high new standards.
.
1.3 General Objectives
To provide information of the risks, precautions and procedures to follow before,
during, and after dealing with fuel oil in order to keep and appropriate quality
showing at the same time the connection between fuel quality and viscosity
keeping. Making use specifically of experiences; Euronav guidances and
procedures. As well as classification society and manufactures recommendation
and manuals in Cap Felix and MT Ilma.
1.3.1Specific Objectives
1. To create conscience regarding the risk invoving fuel handling on board.
2. To present seamen with guidelines for actions to take and general information
when dealing with fuel quality and viscosity keeping .
3. To help the engineers with a guidance to perform a safe fuel system treatment
and handling onboard.
4. To leave a legacy to those cadets interested in understanding the aspects
involving fuel quality on board a Euronav tanker.

1.4 Delimitation
1. This project is aimed to engine cadets, who need to understand the basics of
fuel quality and viscosity keeping, the personal safety precautions necessary to
take when handling fuel weather and measures necessary in MT Ilma and Cap
Felix.

1.5 Limitations
1. Most of the research was done with the aid of books and manuals on board due
to limited time for scheduled maintenances on board the vessel.
2. Fuel quality and viscosity keeping system are only bounded to the systems and
ship specific manuals and recommendations for 2014/2015 Euronav update.
3. Each time we bunker different fuel or reach different areas we experienced
different levels of complexity and circumstances with fuels.

CHAPTER 2
MARINE FUELS

2.1 The Marine Fuels Challenge

Fuel remains one of the highest single cost factors in running a ship and also the
source of the most potent operating problems. The reason for this is that new
refining techniques, introduced as a result of political developments in the Middle
East in 1973/74, have meant that fluid catalytic cracking and this breaking have
produced a more concentrated residual fuel of very poor quality. This residual fuel
is the heavy fuel oil traditionally supplied to ships as bunkers and used in the
majority of motor ships of a reasonable size for the main engine. Despite the high
cost of these poor quality residual fuels owners generally have no alternative but to
burn them, though some still prefer to use even more expensive intermediate
grades produced as a result of mixing residual fuel oil with distillate.
The problems are reflected in the effects on the engine in terms of wear and tear
and corrosion resulting from harmful components in the fuel. It is the duty of the
ships engineer to be aware of these harmful constituents, their effect on the
operation of the engines and the solutions available to counter the harmful
properties.

2.2 Marine Fuel Types

There are three major types of marine fuel: distillate fuel, residual fuel, and a
combination of the two to create a fuel type known as intermediate fuel oil (IFO).
In this section, the various grades of marine fuel are introduced using the colloquial
industry names to group the different fuel types. The purpose of this discussion is
to introduce the reader to marine fuels in general to enable assimilation of more
nuanced discussions that are presented in the chapter number three of this report.
we will make a technical discussion of marine fuel regulations involving the names
and standards.
Distillate and residual fuels are blended into various combinations to derive the
different grades of marine fuel oil. Table 1 lists examples of the major marine fuel

grades and their colloquial industry names. In terms of cost, distillates are more
expensive than intermediates, and residual fuels are the least expensive.
Table 1 Main Types Of Fuel Oil

Fuel

Fuel Grade

Colloquial Industry Name

DMX, DMA, DMB, DMC

Marine gas oil (MGO) and marine

Type
Distillate

distillate oil (MDO)

Intermed

RME/F-25, RMG/H-35

Marine diesel fuel or intermediate

iate
Residual

fuel oil (IFO180 and IFO380)

RMA- RMH, RMK, and Fuel oil or residual fuel oil (HFO)
RML

Main types of fuel oil

2.2.1 Marine Gas Oil (MGO)

Marine gas oil is the result of blending LCO with distillate oil to produce one of the
highest marine fuel grades. MGO is more expensive because it is a lighter fraction
and better quality fuel than diesel fuel. MGO is a fuel best suited for faster-moving
engines. DMX grade marine distillate is a high grade pure distillate which is used
only for special applications such as operation of emergency diesel engines.
DMA and DMZ grades, usually referred to as Marine Gas Oil, are also pure
distillate fuels. DMZ is almost identical to DMA but has a higher minimum viscosity.
They are normally used on small engines such as those found on tugboats and
fishing vessels.
Only simple filtration is needed before use to remove any dirt picked up during
storage or transport. As with all distillate fuels heating is not normally required.
2.2.2 Marine Distillate Oil (MDO)
MDO is manufactured by combining kerosene, light, and heavy gas oil fractions.
DMA and DMB are typically used in small- to medium-sized marine vessels. DMC
is heavier fuel oil and may sometimes be referred to as an intermediate fuel oil
6

because it can be blended with residual fuel. MDO is manufactured by blending

DMC with 10% to 15% residual fuel. MDO is more expensive than the more
common intermediate fuel types. The last distillate grade, DMB, referred as Marine
Diesel Oil, is the distillate grade most commonly used by commercial shipping,
usually as fuel for auxiliary diesel engines or for cold start of main diesel engines
and boilers.
DMB grade is essentially dirty Marine Gas Oil with only a trace of heavy or residual
fuel content.
2.2.3 Intermediate Fuel Oil (IFO)
Residual marine fuel grade G (RMG-35) is one of the most common residual fuels
used in transoceanic ships. More commonly known as IFO380, this residual marine
fuel is manufactured at the refinery and contains visbroken residue, HCO, and
LCO. IFO380 typically has a high sulfur content that approaches 5%. IFO180 is
another common IFO. IFO180 has a lower viscosity and metals content but
maintains the same sulfur content as IFO380.

2.2.4 Residual Fuel Oil (HFO)

Marine residual fuels are a by-product of the refining process and are obtained
from the residues of the various distillation processes. They are generally
considered as low quality fuels.
There are many grades specified in the ISO 8217 fuel standard, defined by various
physical properties including viscosity and the type and level of contaminant
content.
Residual fuels require extensive pre-treatment before use. This will include heating
to bring the viscosity down to an acceptable level.
Residual fuels are commonly used for large 2-stroke and 4-stroke marine diesel
engines and also marine boilers.
7

Many auxiliary engines have now been designed to operate on residual fuels.
Where the residues of the refining process are unsuitable for fuel purposes then
blending is often carried out to bring the fuel within a recognized specification.

2.3 Regulations And Standards

Existing regulations regarding marine bunker fuels provide an important backdrop
for the modeling conducted in this analysis and, thus, are summarized in this
section.
Many shipping companies have additional standards for their vessels; these take
into account the treatment facilities onboard and past service experience with
different fuels.
These company standards often have specifications not included in the ISO 8217
standard.
The engine manufacturers recommendations will take into account specific
requirements for their engines, with particular reference to design limitations and
service experience.
You should try and make yourself aware of the content of ISO 8217, and also any
specific requirements that your company or the engine manufacturer has for the
fuel for the machinery on your current vessel.
This will help you understand the handling and treatment requirements and will
also highlight possible problems you may have when using the fuels onboard.

2.3.1 MARPOL
The International Maritime Organizations (IMO) MARPOL Annex VI sets out a
series of regulations impacting international marine bunker fuels. These new
8

regulations center on limits for emissions of nitrous oxides (NOx), sulfur oxides
(SOx), and volatile organic compounds (VOCs). Fuel quality regulations in Annex
VI have been implemented in the form of the ISO-8217 2010 specification. This
specification updates selected bunker qualities, provides protections to prevent the
blending of used lubricating oil (ULO) into marine fuels, and limits the presence of
refinery streams that contain high levels of catalyst fines.
2.3.2 ISO 8217
If fuel oil bunkered does not meet a certain quality standard then it is said to be off
specification.
The requirements for the quality of marine fuel oil are detailed within ISO
8217:2010,
4th edition. This document supersedes ISO 8217: 2005, 3rd edition. ISO 8217
specifies the requirements for petroleum fuels for marine diesel engines and
boilers,
prior to appropriate treatment before use. It was originally drafted in 1982 and
came into force in 1987.
A fuels specification is generally considered less critical when burning poorer
quality fuel in ships boilers because of their design, construction and operating
method; however at the beginning of the 21st century motorships accounted for
around 98% of the world fleet.
The ISO standard is regularly revised to account for engine technology
development and statutory environmental requirements such as MARPOL Annex
VI. Amendments in 2010 focused on the level of used lubricating oils (ULO) within
fuel oils.
The ISO 8217:2010 standard defines maximum and minimum values for
various parameters including:

 Density: which is required to determine purification settings and is used to

calculate the amount of fuel bunkered.
Viscosity: which is expressed as a fluids resistance to flow. In everyday terms
this is thickness. Viscous (thick) fuels require preheating to reduce the viscosity
and enable good purification, injection and combustion in the engine cylinder.
Flashpoint: of the fuel indicates the temperature at which a fuel vapour is
produced and can be ignited. In accordance with SOLAS requirements, the flash
point must be above 60 degrees Celsius. (This does not apply to fuel that will be
used for emergency purposes such as generators, fire pumps and lifeboat
engines).
Aluminium And Silicon (Catalytic fines): are remnants of the cracking process
at the refinery. They are introduced as a catalyst to assist with the refining in a
catalytic cracking process. These highly abrasive particles can cause rapid wear of
engine components and can be difficult to remove or separate using the ships fuel
treatment equipment
The table below iIIustrates a shortened version of the new ISO 8217:2010 showing
the most common grades of HFO.
The products are designated by a code that consists of:
the initials ISO
the letter F (for petroleum fuels)
the category of fuel, consisting of three letters
the first letter of this category is always the family letter (O for distillate or R
for residual)
the second letter, M, designates the application 'Marine'

10

the third letter, X, A, B, e, ... , K, which indicates the particular properties in

the product specification (ISO 8217), or residual fuels, a number which
corresponds to the maximum kinematic viscosity, in mm2/s, at 50 0c
for example a product may be designated in the complete form, e.g. ISO-FRMG 180, or in abbreviated form, e.g. F-RMG 180

Table 2 ISO Caracteristics

Source: ISO 8217 Fourth Edition 2010-06-15

2.3.3 The ISM

Another important piece of legislation from IMO is the International Management
Code for the Safe Operation of Ships and for Pollution Prevention or, as you will
probably know it, the International Safety Management Code (ISM Code).
As the full title indicates, this legislation covers safety and pollution prevention so it
impacts heavily on bunkering operations and procedures.

11

Many of the procedures that are used to ensure safe, pollution free bunkering and
usage of the fuel will have originated from these anti-pollution regulations.
The following sections we will look at some typical procedures that are necessary
when receiving, handling and using fuel oil bunkers on board ship.
You should always make reference to your own vessels specific procedures when
carrying out any bunkering operations on board.

2.4 Fuel Oil Properties

The quality of a fuel oil is generally determined by a number of specific parameters
or proportions of metals or impurities in a given sample of the particular fuel. Such
parameters include: viscosity; specific gravity; flash point; Conradson carbon;
asphaltenes content; sulphur content; water content; vanadium content; and
sodium content. Two parameters of traditional importance have been the calorific
value and viscosity. Viscosity, once the best pointer to a fuels quality or degree of
heaviness, is now considered as being only partially a major quality criterion
because of the possible effects of constituents of a fuel.
2.4.1 Calorific value
The calorific value or heat of combustion of a fuel oil is a measure of hydrogen that
is, an amount of hydrogen equal to one-eighth the weight of the oxygen is nullified.
The sulphur compounds are assumed to have their combustion heat nullified by
the oxy-nitrogen ones. Calorific value is given in kcal/kg of fuel.
The calorific value as determined by a bomb calorimeter is the gross or higher
value which includes the latent heat of water vapour formed by the combustion of
the hydrogen. The net or lower calorific value is that obtained from subtracting this
latent heat. The difference between the gross and net values is usually about 600700 kcal/kg, depending upon the hydrogen percentage.

12

2.4.2 Viscosity
The viscosity of an oil is a measure of its resistance to flow which decreases
rapidly with increase in temperature. Heating is necessary to thin the heavy fuels of
high viscosity in current common use and ease their handling.
2.4.3 Cetane number
The cetane number of a fuel is a measure of the ignition quality of the oil under the
conditions in a diesel engine. The higher the cetane number, the shorter the time
between fuel injection and rapid pressure rise. A more usable pointer of ignition
quality is the diesel index, expressed as:

where G = specific gravity at 60F on the API scale

A = aniline point in F, which is the lowest temperature at
which equal parts by volume of freshly
2.4.4 Calculated carbon aromaticity index (CCAI)
The ignition quality of residual fuels is more difficult to predict than distillate fuels
because they comprise blends of many different components but the ignition
quality of such fuels may be ranked by determining the Calculated Carbon
Aromaticity Index from density and viscosity measurements. It should be noted,
however, that the ignition performance of residual fuels is mainly related to engine
design and operational factors. Formulae and nomograms for CCAI determination
are published by major fuel suppliers and engine builders.
2.4.5 Conradson carbon value
This is the measure of the percentage of carbon residue after evaporation of the
fuel in a closed space under control. The Conradson or coke value is a measure of
the carbon-forming propensity and thus an indication of the tendency to deposit

13

carbon on fuel injection nozzles. The Ramsbottom method has largely replaced the
Conradson method of carbon residue testing, but it gives roughly the same results.
2.4.6 Ash content
The ash content is a measure of inorganic impurities in the fuel. Typically, these are
sand, nickel, aluminium, silicon, sodium and vanadium. The most troublesome are
sodium and vanadium which form a mixture of sodium sulphate and vanadium
pentoxide, which melt and adhere to engine components, particularly exhaust
valves.
2.4.7 Sulphur content
This has no influence on combustion but high sulphur levels can be dangerous
because of acid formation, mentioned earlier in this chapter. In recent years there
has been a tendency to equate sulphur content with cylinder liner wear, but
opinions differ on this matter. (See also chapter on Emissions).

14

2.4.8 Water content

This is the amount of water in a given sample of the oil and is usually determined
by centrifuging or distillation.
2.4.9 Cloud point
The cloud point of an oil is the temperature at which crystallization of paraffin wax
begins to be observed when the oil is being cooled down.
2.4.10 Pour point
This is the lowest temperature at which an oil remains fluid and thus is important to
know for onboard handling purposes. An alternative is the solidifying point or the
highest temperature at which the oil remains solid. It usually lies some 3 C below
the pour point. According to one major enginebuilder, the lowest admissible
temperature of the fuel should be about 510 C above the pour point to secure
easy pumping.

2.4.11 Flash point

The flash point is defined as the lowest temperature at which an oil gives off
combustible vapours, or the point at which air/oil vapour mixture can be ignited by
a flame or spark.
components, fuels can have identical densities but widely varying individual
component densities. Apart from being an indicator of the heaviness of a fuel,
when measured by a hydrometer the specific gravity can be used to calculate the
quantity of fuel by weight in a tank of given dimensions.
2.4.12 Specific gravity
This is normally expressed in kg/m3 or g/cm3 at 15 C. As the density of the fuel
depends upon the density of the individual

15

2.5 Typical values for standard fuels

Table 3 Typical values for standard fuels

Ilma manuals 2014

The following is the fuel oil specification of Man B&W low speed diesel engine of
Cap Felix. The properties are considered the worst in each case that can be burnt
in these particular engine.
Table 4 Fuel oil specification of Man B&W low speed diesel engine of Cap Felix

16

CHAPTER 3
QUALITY KEEPING

17

3.1 Challenge keeping a Proper fuel Quality

PROBLEMS WITH HEAVY FUELS
The problems of present and future heavy residual fuels can be categorized as:
1.

Storage and handling.

2.

Combustion quality and burnability.

3.

Contaminants, resulting in corrosion and/or damage to engine components:

for example, burnt out exhaust valves.

Table 5 Heavy Fuels Problems

18

3.1.1 Storage problems

The problems of storage in tanks of bunker fuel result from build-up of sludge
leading to difficulties in handling. The reason for the increase in sludge build-up is
because heavy fuels are generally blended from a cracked heavy residual using a
lighter cutter stock resulting in a problem of incompatibility.
This occurs when the asphaltene or high molecular weight compound suspended
in the fuel is precipitated by the addition of the cutter stock or other dilutents. The
sludge which settles in the bunker tanks or finds its way to the fuel lines tends to
overload the fuel separators with a resultant loss of burnable fuel, and perhaps
problems with fuel injectors and wear of the engine through abrasive particles.
To minimize the problems of sludging the ship operator has a number of options.
He may ask the fuel supplier to perform stability checks on the fuel that he is
providing. Bunkers of different origins should be kept segregated wherever
possible and water contamination kept to a minimum. Proper operation of the
settling tanks and fuel treatment plant is essential to prevent sludge from entering
the engine itself. A detergent-type chemical additive can be used to reduce the
formation of sludge in the bunker tanks.

19

3.1.2 Water in the fuel

Water has always been a problem because it finds its way into the fuel during
transport and storage on the ship. Free water can seriously damage fuel injection
equipment, cause poor combustion and lead to excessive cylinder liner wear. If it
happens to be seawater, it contains sodium which will contribute to corrosion when
combined with vanadium and sulphur during combustion.
Water can normally be removed from the bunkers by proper operation of
separators and properly designed settling and daily service tanks. However, where
the specific gravity of the fuel is the same or greater than the water, removal of the
water is difficult or indeed not possible and for this reason the maximum specific
gravity of fuel supplied for ships bunkers has generally been set at 0.99.
3.1.3 Burnability
The problems that are related to poor or incomplete combustion are many and
complex and can vary with individual engines and even cylinders. The most
significant problem, however, is the fouling of fuel injectors, exhaust ports and
passages and the turbocharger gas side due to failure to burn the fuel completely.
Fuels that are blends of cracked residual are much higher in aromatics and have a
high carbon to hydrogen ratio, which means they do not burn as well. Other
problems arising from these heavier fuels are engine knocking, after burning,
uneven burning, variation in ignition delay, and a steeper ignition pressure gradient.
These factors contribute to increased fatigue of engine components, excessive
thermal loading, increased exhaust emissions, and critical piston ring and liner
wear. The long-term effects on the engine are a significant increase in fuel
consumption and component damage. The greatest fouling and deposit build-up
will occur when the engine is operated at reduced or very low loads.
The fuel qualities used to indicate a fuels burnability are: Conradson carbon
residue; asphaltenes; cetane value; and carbon to hydrogen ratio. Additives
20

which employ a reactive combustion catalyst can also be used to reduce the
products of incomplete combustion.
3.1.4 High-temperature corrosion
Vanadium is the major fuel constituent influencing high-temperature corrosion. It
cannot be removed in the pre-treatment process and it combines with sodium and
sulphur during the combustion process to form eutectic compounds with melting
points as low as 530C. Such molten compounds are very corrosive and attack
the protective oxide layers on steel, exposing it to corrosion.
Exhaust valves and piston crowns are very susceptible to high temperature
corrosion. One severe form is where mineral ash deposits form on valve seats,
which, with constant pounding, cause dents leading to a small channel through
which the hot gases can pass. The compounds become heated and then attack the
metal of the valve seat.
As well as their capacity for corrosion, vanadium, sulphur and sodium deposit out
during combustion to foul the engine components and, being abrasive, lead to
increased liner and ring wear. The main defence against high temperature
corrosion has been to reduce the running temperatures of engine components,
particularly exhaust valves, to levels below that at which the vanadium compounds
are melted. Intensively cooled cylinder covers, liners, and valves, as well as
rotators fitted to valves, have considerably reduced these problems. Special
corrosion resistant coatings such as Stellite and plasma coatings have been
applied to valves.
3.1.5 Low-temperature corrosion
Sulphur is generally the cause of low-temperature corrosion. In the combustion
process the sulphur in the fuel combines with oxygen to form sulphur dioxide
(SO2). Some of the sulphur dioxide further combines to form sulphur trioxide
(SO3). The sulphur trioxide formed during combustion reacts with moisture to form
21

sulphuric acid vapours, and where the metal temperatures are below the acid dew
point (160C) the vapours condense as sulphuric acid, resulting in corrosion.
The obvious method of reducing this problem is to maintain temperatures in the
engine above the acid dew point through good distribution and control of the
cooling water.
There is always the danger that an increase in temperatures to avoid low
temperature corrosion may lead to increased high temperature corrosion. Attack on
cylinder liners and piston rings as a result of high sulphur content fuels has been
effectively reduced by controlled temperature of the cylinder liner walls and alkaline
cylinder lubricating oils.
3.1.6 Abrasive impurities
The normal abrasive impurities in fuel are ash and sediment compounds. Solid
metals such as sodium, nickel, vanadium, calcium and silica can result in
significant wear to fuel injection equipment, cylinder liners, piston rings and ring
grooves.
However, a comparatively new contaminant is the metallic catalyst fines composed
of very hard and abrasive alumina and silica particles which are a cause for much
concern. These particles carry over in the catalytic cracking refinery process and
remain suspended in the residual bottom fuel for extended periods. It has been
known for brand new fuel pumps to be worn out in a matter of days, to the point
where an engine fails to start through insufficient injection pressure, as a result of
catalyst fines in the fuel. The only effective method of combating abrasive particles
is correct fuel pre-treatment.

Separator manufacturers recommend that

the

separators should be operated in series (a purifier followed by a clarifier) at

throughputs as low as 20 per cent of the rated value.

22

3.2 Bunkering
Ships burning HFO in combustion equipment will, at some time in the voyage
cycle, have to bunker fuel to replenish what has been consumed.
Bunkering may take place offshore, at anchor or alongside. It may be pumped
from road tanker, bunker barge or another tanker or ship.
3.2.1 Bunker Quality
This is probably the most common area for complaint. A typical wording is as
follows:
"The charterers shall supply bunkers of a quality suitable for burning in the ship's
engines and auxiliaries and which conform to the ISO 8217 4th Edition.
The owners reserve their right to make a c/aim against the charterers for any
damage to the main engines or the auxiliaries caused by the use of unsuitable
fuels or fuels not complying with the ISO 8217 4th Edition standards or which
otherwise prove unsuitable for burning in the ship's engines or auxiliaries. The
owners shall not be held responsible for any reduction in the ship's speed
performance and/or increased bunker consumption, nor for any time lost and other
consequences."
Another typical clause relates to fuel oil sampling and analysis:
"Three samples of all fuel shall be taken during delivery, sealed and signed by
suppliers, Chief Engineer and Charterers' agent, each of whom should retain one
sample. If any c/aim should arise in respect of the quality or specification of the
fuel supplied, the Owners and Charterers agree to have samples of the fuel
analyzed by a mutually agreed analyst."

23

3.2.2 Good Bunkering Practice

Between the refinery and the delivery of the bunkers onboard, via any intermediary
storage that might be required, are many opportunities for the fuel to become
contaminated: sometimes so badly that it may damage the ships machinery and
associated systems. Especially threatening is the presence in the fuel of catfines
resulting from the catalytic cracking stage at the refinery in which the oil is heated
over aluminium silicate catalyst, a substance harder than metal.
Immediate and longer term risks to ship and machinery are associated with poor
fuel quality, including fire and explosion, loss of main engine power and/or auxiliary
power black-out, and difficulty in fulfilling charter party clauses with regard to ship
speed, engine power and specific fuel consumption.
Little legislation exists to govern bunker fuel but the parameters of the international
standard ISO 8217 have been widened

in

recent years. Since most risk

associated with bunkers impacts on the ship and owner (even though the fuel is
bought by and belongs to any charterer) the best protection is for all parties to
know exactly what fuel is needed for the vessel, and then to test that the delivered
bunkers meet these requirements. Most problems and disputes can be traced back
either to the ordering or sampling of the fuel. The traditional way of ordering
bunkers has been by quoting IFO grades, which only refer to viscosity at 50 C,
but this can be technically inaccurate. It is more important in the first instance to
make sure that the fuel is suitable for the machinery and fuel system in which it will
be used. The best starting point is the fuel specification provided by the engine
builder. It makes commercial sense for ship operators to follow a recognized
specification such as ISO 8217. This will help to secure a charter party and should
help to secure economically priced bunkers worldwide. The charter party clause
should clearly state what fuel is required and may also include other aspects, such
as segregation, testing and the services of a surveyor for quantity determination.
The charter party clause should also be kept as simple as possible, Lloyds
Register recommending the following wording as an example: Charterer to provide
all fuel oil and diesel required, in accordance with ISO 8217:1987, Grades RM . . .

24

and DM as updated from time to time. Ship operators are encouraged to stipulate
that the bunker supplied is fit for its intended use on the delivery note.
Among the key parameters of a fuel specification are:

A maximum viscosity: this is required to be within the engine builders

specified limit; it is also a guide to the storage and handling properties of the fuel.

A maximum density or specific gravity: dictated by the ships fuel treatment

plant.

A minimum flash point: dictated by safety regulations for the storage of fuel

at sea.

A maximum pour point: this limits the amount of heating required to store

and handle the fuel.

A maximum water content.

A maximum sulphur content: may be necessary to satisfy regional

environmental regulations but is also desirable to limit the corrosive products of

combustion and to ensure that the lubricants used in the engine can cope with
these products.
3.2.3 Ordering bunkers
To ensure that the correct quantity and type of fuel is onboard at any particular time
it is necessary that bunkering operations are planned correctly.
If it is left to the Chief Engineer onboard to order the bunkers, the bunker plan will
have to be drawn up based on information about the expected trade pattern of the
vessel.
He will have to take into account various factors when calculating quantities and
forming his bunker plan such as:

voyage length

vessel speed requirements and therefore expected fuel

consumption rate

required fuel reserve - legislative restrictions

25

available storage capacity In addition he may have to take

into account other factors such as:

charterers requirements

cost and availability of fuel at future ports of call Once the

required quantity has been calculated then the fuel can be
ordered.

3.2.4 Selecting the grades of fuel required

Different grades of fuel may be required for the various machinery and equipment
fitted onboard the vessel. Even for those vessels using the same fuel for all of the
machinery onboard it will be normal to carry three grades of fuel to meet different
operating conditions. You should be aware that current air pollution regulations
contained in MARPOL Annex VI limit the level of sulphur allowed in marine fuel,
with a reduced level in SOx Emission Control Areas (SECAs).
MARPOL Annex VI has timetables for the reduction of the maximum allowable
sulphur content in fuels both inside and outside SECAs. National legislation, for
example within European Union countries, may require even lower sulphur levels.
It is therefore important that the vessels trading pattern is taken into account
when selecting the grades of fuel to be bunkered.
If the trading pattern of your vessel includes operation within a SECA a
quantity of low sulphur fuel will have to be carried onboard.
This may also be the case if the future trading pattern of the vessel is
uncertain.This will normally be in addition to the regular grades of fuel required, as
fuel tends to become more expensive as the sulphur level is reduced.

26

3.3 Fuel Oil Test

To be able to check whether the specification indicated and/or the stipulated delivery
conditions have been complied with, we recommend that a minimum of one sample of
each bunker fuel lot be retained. In order to ensure that the sample is representative
for the oil bunkered, a sample should be drawn from the transfer pipe at the start, in
the middle, and at the end of the bunkering period.

The samples received from the bunkering company are frequently not identical with the
heavy fuel oil actually bunkered. It is also appropriate to verify the heavy fuel oil
properties stated in the bunker documents, such as density, viscosity, and pour point. If
these values deviate from those of the heavy fuel oil bunkered, there is a risk that the
heavy fuel oil separator and the preheating temperature are not set correctly for the
given injection viscosity.

3.3.1 Sampling
There is no point in taking a sample of the fuel being delivered unless it is a
representative sample.
There are accepted procedures for collecting, labelling, distribution and onboard
retention of the sample.
You should be aware of the requirements for your vessel and follow them carefully.
It is recommended that only the correct containers are used for samples, and that
the sample is obtained by a continuous drip method so that it represents the fuel
delivered throughout the bunkering operation.
3.3.1.2 Sampling Procedures
When bunkering starts, place a container under the sampler, open the sampler
valve fully and flush the sampler with fuel. It is good practice to check this sample
from fuel initially pumped onboard as it may be high in water content from the
bunker barges tanks. After flushing the sampler, close the valve and attach a
27

suitable clean container to the valve. Adjust the needle valve to give a slow and
steady drip. Time the fill rate so that it will provide for sufficient estimated sample
over the expected delivery period.
^ MARPOL sample point showing cubitainer attached
If the sample container fills during the bunkering period, remove it and place an
empty
sample container (Cubitainer) on the sampler and continue to draw a sample.
On completion of bunkering, mix together the samples from both containers to
ensure you
have a good, representative sample from the bunkering operation.
always ensure that the sampler valve is fully open to allow the sampler to drain
always close the sampler valve before blowing through the fuel lines on
completion
of bunkering
close the sampler valve if pumping stops, to prevent the sample being drawn
back,
under vacuum, into the fuel line
Select three or four clean sample bottles. The exact number depends on the final
destination
of the various samples. To cover all eventualities, it is recommended that four
representative
samples are obtained from the delivery. The list shows the samples that are
required.
The distribution of the samples being:
suppliers sample (from their MARPOL connection)
ships sample for retention on board
onboard analysis sample
sample for independent analysis

28

The full Container should be placed in the pourer box and thoroughly shaken to
ensure that the contents are well mixed. Attach the pourer spout and gradually
transfer the
contents into the sample bottles, filling each a little at a time. If more than one
Cubitainer
was used during bunkering, then transfer a portion into each of the bottles.
Complete
the document labels and attach one to each sample bottle.
Always have the barge operator to witness the removal and sealing of the sample
bottle(s)
(shown below). If this request is refused, or if no witness is provided, then note this
in the
delivery log.
3.3.3 MARPOL Annex VI samples
It is now a requirement that a sample is taken for MARPOL Annex VI purposes.
The sample has to be specifically for the purpose of meeting the MARPOL
regulations.
It must be stored securely and retained onboard for at least twelve months.
The sample should be taken at the ships inlet manifold and the sample bottle must
be properly sealed on completion.
Details of the sample bottle serial number must be added to the bunker delivery
note and entered into the oil record book or log book.
There should be documentation onboard your ship giving the full requirements of
these regulations.
3.3.4 Samples for Analysis
Many ship operators make use of a specialist fuel analysis service to get
detailed information on the quality of the fuel delivered.

29

The major classification societies offer this service and usually supply the
containers, labels and instructions for taking and forwarding the samples. The
analysis report covers the fuel properties and contaminant content. It also gives
advice on storage and handling and predictions on the effect of using the fuel.
It is also good practice to carry out onboard testing of the fuel as a check on
the accuracy of the shoreside analysis report.
3.3.5 Onboard testing
Onboard testing is not meant to give accurate results but should give a rough
indication for the main parameter values of the fuel. Typically, onboard testing is
carried out using simple test equipment.The parameters that are usually tested are
shown in the list.
The results from these tests will give an early indication if using the fuel is likely to
cause any operational problems. Take the opportunity to do these tests using the
fuel onboard your vessel so that you become more familiar with them.
Density: using hydrometer
Viscosity: using simple viscosimeter
Abrasive content: using a pair of glases slides
Compatibility: using spot test
Water content: using water detector paste.
Figure 1 Density Measurement Instrumentation

30

Density measurement (seagull 2015)

3.4 Storage and Handling

When heavy fuel oil is bunkered it is stored in the ship's bunker tanks. These
tanks are of varying shapes, sizes and capacities depending on the ship size,
construction and trade.
Fuel oil is transferred from storage tanks to settling tanks via a fuel oil
transfer pump and its associated suction strainer. From the settling tanks it is
transferred to service tanks by way of the purification system. Two fuel oil
centrifugal separators are installed with appropriate supply pumps, heaters and
controls. The system and equipment is configured to permit operation of the
separators in parallel or in series, either in a purifier/purifier, clarifier/clarifier or
purifier/clarifier sequence. Centrifuge heater crossover capability is also illustrated.
Fuel oil is discharged from the centrifugal separators to the service tanks either
directly, or via an additional duplex filter if it is suspected that the separators have
not removed all contaminants. The fuel oil is retained in the service tanks until it is
31

drawn to the main engine via the fuel oil service system. Trace heating of the fuel
oil piping, if fitted, should be activated during these transfer operations.
3.4.1 Different Fuel Types Handling
The different grade requirements will dictate the storage arrangements onboard the
vessel. It is recommended that fuels from different sources, particularly residual
fuels, should not be mixed in storage. In other words, new bunkers should not be
loaded into a tank containing any of the previous bunkers. The purpose of this
recommendation is to minimise the risk of fuel compatibility problems which may
result in the formation of sludge and heavy deposits either in storage tanks or in
treatment equipment.
Mixtures of residual fuels can become unstable even if the original fuels were
stable, so mixing should be avoided whenever possible, as was stated in an earlier
chapter.
In practice, this is not usually possible, since fuel tanks are not normally completely
empty unless they have been manually cleaned. They should, however, only
contain the minimum quantity of old bunkers before filling with the new batch.

32

3.4.2 Heating
AII fuel oil bunker tanks and waste oil tanks must have some form of tank heating.
Normally the heating is by way of steam produced by an oil-fired boiler and passed
through coils inside the oil tank. Other ways to heat the fuel tanks are by using
thermal oil. This also utilises an oil fired boiler that heats the thermal oil which is
then circulated through coils inside the tank by a pump. Temperature regulation
and monitoring can be automatic and self-adjusting but is commonly effected by
checking the tank temperature and manually adjusting the heating accordingly.
Heating coil integrity in the case of using steam as the heating should be monitored
by checking the steam condensate returns in the engine room observation tank. If
oil is observed, the source must be traced. An increase in steam consumption
should be checked out as this may indicate a steam coil failure. In the case of
thermal oil heating, oil analysis should be regularly taken and results checked for
any HFO contamination. Monitoring of the thermal oil header tank leve I should
also be strictly monitored. Onboard viscosity checks may be useful in determining
any thermal oil viscosity change caused by HFO contamination.

33

3.4.3 Bunker Tanks

The bunkering capacity of ships varies from ship to ship. In fact not even sister
ships may have the same bunker tank capacity as a result of small design changes
and tank fabrication discrepancies during building.
The maximum allowable filling capacity of a bunker tank varies from one company
to another and should be documented in the company's safety management
system. Normally, the maximum is in the range of 85 to 90% although this may
vary from ship to ship. Remember that allowance for fuel expansion from bunker
tank heating should always be factored into the initial filling level. The 90% capacity
figure should include an allowance for heat expansion. Overlooking this has in
many instances led to heavy fuel oil tank overflows. Periodical cleaning of bunker
tank is required in order to avoid excesive sludge formation.
3.4.4 Settling tanks
Settling tanks have several important functions in the proper treatment of heavy
fuel oil. They provide a settling function for suspended water and solids, a heating
function, a de-aeration function, and a thermal stabilising function.
Ships' settling tanks are designed to accept fuel oils with a 60C minimum flashpoint. The 'two settling tank' concept is the most common arrangement fitted to
new ships. One settling tank may contain low sulphur fuel oil and the other the high
sulphur fuel for use outside sulphur emission-controlled areas. A three-way change
over valve may be fitted to ensure that the fuel change-over is made as trouble free
as possible. Engineers should always follow the company's fuel change-over
procedures. Please refer to the 'Fuel changeover procedure basic guidelines'
section below.
As soon as a settling tank is filled, it is normally heated to approximately 72C, or
6C below the flash-point, whichever is lower.

34

From a safety standpoint, fuel oils must never be heated in ships' bunker tanks at
or above the fuel's flash-point. The tanks should be insulated where possible to
reduce heat loss. It is important to shut off the settling tank heat source once its
contents are up to temperature, because continuous heating will produce thermal
currents within the tank which interfere with the settling process. Ships have high
tank temperature alarms and may also have automatic regulators.
Because of constant heat loss from a settling tank, it may be necessary to
reactivate the tank heating system periodically to maintain its contents at 60C or
better. Settling tanks should have bottom drains for water and sludge stripping.
Water and sludge should be removed on a regular basis by mean s of these drains
as part of a normal watchkeeping routine. During periods of heavy weather it is
necessary to drain fuel storage tanks more regularly than usual. Ships' engines
have stopped when this has not been carried out in rough weather.
3.4.5 Service tanks
Service tanks, or day tanks, have a very important function in the overall treatment
of heavy fuel oil for diesel engines. They provide a final settling function for water
and solids, a heating function and a thermal stabilising function. The settling
function is primarily a backup in the event of a failure of the separators and/or
during a by-pass of the filtration system, should this emergency be necessary. It
should be noted that damage to engine fuel injection equipment and the engine
may occur if this is carried out. On some ships, one HFO service tank is fitted. This
obviously makes the changeover to low sulphur fuel oil a much more time
consuming procedure, as the service tank high sulphur fuel has to be consumed
before low sulphur fuel is introduced. On most modern ships, however, two service
tanks are provided. This follows SOLAS requirements for redundancy of fuel oil
service tanks, which apply to ships built on or after 1 July 1998. (See SOLAS 2009,
Part C, Regulation 26.11). One service tank contains the higher sulphur fuel oil and
the other may contain low sulphur fuel to ensure MARPOL Annex VI emission
regulations are met. This will involve a fuel changeover sometime during the ship's
35

operation for engines and/or boilers. Fuel changeover procedures are discussed
below. The service tanks normally have high and low suction lines with downturned
suction diffuser elbows. The cleanest fuel oil is available from the upper (high)
suction. Therefore it should be used whenever possible. The service tanks should
have bottom drain connections for water and sludge stripping. The water and
sludge from this bottom drain should be removed at regular intervals as part of the
engine room watchkeeping procedures. A typical heavy fuel oil service tank system
is shown below.

3.4.6 Mayor Fuel Storage Problems

To have a deeper understanding of the mayor problems we can have onboard in
this section we are going to make a little explanation about them so we can advise
then and avoid any problem with the system or the engines.

Sludge:
Sludge is a contaminant that results from the handling, mixing, blending,
and pumping of heavy fuel while stored at, and after it leaves, the refinery.
Storage tanks, heavy fuel pipe lines, and barging can all contribute to the
build-up of sludge. Water contamination of a high asphaltene fuel oil can
produce an emulsion during fuel handling which can contain more than 50%
water. Shipboard transfer pumps can frequently provide the necessary
energy to produce emulsified sludges during normal fuel transfers. These
emulsified sludges can cause rapid fouling and shutdown of centrifugal
purifiers, clogging of strainers and filters in the fuel oil system and rapid
fouling if burned in the engine.

Fibres:
Fibre contamination can cause significant problems in fuel handling onboard
ships. This type of contamination usually occurs during transport and
storage. Fibres can plug suction strainers protecting pumps, within minutes
of initial operation. Whereas cleaning strainers is not a difficult task, the
36

frequency of cleaning and the need for round-the-clock attention generally

create problems with the allocation of manpower. A centrifuge normally is
ineffective in removing oil soaked fibres because they have the same
density as the oil being purified. Hence, downstream manual or autostrainers and fine filters can be expected to clog quickly, and continue to
clog frequently until the entire amount of a fibre contaminated fuel has been
consumed or removed.

Oxidation products
This form of contamination is the result of the marine residual fuel ageing,
either before or after it is bunkered. Residual fuels are not stable for long
periods at elevated storage temperatures. The time from the refinery to use
onboard ideally should be less than three months. It is anticipated that future
residual fuels resulting from more intense secondary processing will be even
less stable. Heated heavy fuels, stored in uncoated steel tanks and exposed
to air (oxygen) will oxidise and polymerise with time. The resultant sludges,
gums and resins will initially form in solution and then collect and settle or
adhere to the tank's surfaces. Also, as heavy fuels age, their shipboard
conditioning and treatment become more difficult. In the extreme, the diesel
engine's combustion process can deteriorate, causing increased fouling
deposits and corrosion, as a result of burning such partially oxidised older
fuel oils. Generally, residual fuel oils should not be bunkered or utilised as
ballast, trim, or held in reserve for extended periods. The oldest on spec fuel
on the ship should be burned first to prevent any heavy fuel oil from ageing
beyond three months from its bunkering date.

Microbial contamination:
Microbial contamination usually occurs with jacket water systems, diesel
fuels and lubricating oils onboard ship. However, there have been instances
where HFO and IFO have been contaminated.

37

Microbial contamination of diesel fuel oil has unfortunately become a

common occurrence.
Microbes are microscopic, living organisms, and include bacteria, fungi and
yeast, all of which can cause problems in the fuel system.
Bacteria, normally the main source of problems, can be either aerobic types,
which need oxygen to survive, or anaerobic types, which do not need
oxygen.
When bacteria are present in water contaminated diesel fuel, colonies can
form as slimy masses at the interface between the settled water and the
fuel.
As the colonies break up they can be carried through the fuel system
causing severe filter blockages.
Aerobic bacteria usually initiate the problem but, as the oxygen supply
reduces, anaerobic bacteria can appear with the colonies growing rapidly.
In many cases the fuel delivered to the vessel will consist of a number of
different components from the refinery process which have been mixed
together in order to meet the specification given in the fuel standard.
Heavy fuel oil, with either viscosity or density values outside of the limits of
the fuel standard, may have distillate fuel mixed with it to try and improve its
condition.
If the mixture is not stable then the two components will separate out during
storage leaving the heavy fuel component in the lower part of the tank and
the distillate above it.
Obviously the high values of density and viscosity may cause problems
when transferring or pre-treating the fuel before final use.
You can reduce the risk of this occurring by ensuring that the fuel storage
temperature is not excessive as this may accelerate any separation.

Dirt:

38

Fuel oil can be contaminated from a number of sources, these include the
raw crude oil, the refining process and the transportation and storage stages
of supply. Some of the contaminants are solid material including sand, soil,
rust and other debris. Water, either salt or fresh, is also often present in the
fuel.
During storage some of the water and dirt will settle out and collect in the
bottom of the tank. This has to be removed, either by draining or manual
cleaning, so that it doesnt carry over into the fuel systems. It also means
that there has to be suitable filters and pre-treatment facilities onboard to
remove any remaining water and dirt which has not settled.

Incompatibility:
Incompatibility is the term used to describe a situation when two different
batches of fuel, each of which is normally stable, react when mixed together,
resulting in heavy sludge deposits in either the storage tanks or in the pretreatment equipment.
The result of this condition can be that the fuel becomes unusable and the
vessels operation is seriously affected.
Severe sludge accumulation in the fuel treatment equipment, resulting in
more frequent cleaning, can mean that the treatment rate cannot keep up
with consumption requirements.
It should be standard practice when bunkering a new batch of fuel that it is
only loaded into empty or nearly empty tanks.
Mixing with previous bunkers should be avoided whenever possible.

4.4.7 Fuel Processing

The shipowner's first point of active fuel control and handling begins at the ship's
bunkering connection. The movement, storage, inventory and final processing of
the fuel is the responsibility of the ship's operating personnel. Pre-planned and
careful execution of fuel oil management within the ship's transfer and processing
39

systems will minimise the potential for creating fuel compatibility and combustion
problems.

Fuel transfer
Fuel oil is transferred from storage tanks to settling tanks via a fuel oil
transfer pump and its associated suction strainer. A transfer pump normally
is installed to move fuel oil from storage tanks to settling tanks. One positive
displacement transfer pump, protected by suction strainers and a pressure
relief valve, and a pump bypass line, is normally fitted. The transfer pump
flow rate depends on engine fuel consumption rate and service and settling
tank size.
Proper arrangement of system valves adds distribution flexibility to the
transfer system. These valves normally permit fuel oil from any storage tank
to be pumped to either settling tank, to either service tank, to the remainder
of the fuel oil storage tanks or, in some systems, overboard to a barge or
other storage facility via the bunkering manifold.
Internal fuel oil transfers must always be recorded in the ORB. The internal
transfer of fuel oil onboard ship must be treated with the same precautions
as during bunkering.

Settling tanks to service tanks:

The transfer of fuel oil from the settling tank to the service tank is normally
carried out by using the onboard HFO purifiers. Some ships have the facility
to use oil in the engines and boilers directly from the settling tank, thus bypassing the fuel oil purifiers. This by-pass system is for emergency use only
and should be strictly avoided, where practicable, at all other times. Serious
engine damage may occur if this by-pass system is used for any length
oftime.
40

F.O Overflow and Leaks

As we know most of ships fuel arrangement is provided with a overflow tank
were is coming the overflow from all F.O tanks doesnt matter the type of
fuel containing. if good transfer procedures for topping up

tanks are

followed usually is not filled by means of overflowing. Most of the time is

filled slowly from the F.O leak lines, from main engines and auxiliary engines
also is fill by the back flush filter or any auto filtration system to avoid lost of
fuel so as we can see these fuel is reach in impurities and mixtures of fuels
of different types. When required these fuel most be transfer and apropiate
handling of it must be done usually is recommended to be send back to the
settling tanks but experiences dealing with these type of fuel have shown
this can led to heavy sludges so as recommendation big quantities
transfers from these tank must be avoided at the same time.

3.5. F.O Treatment

In the previous chapters we have concentrated on the storage of fuel onboard and
the procedures and systems in place to achieve this safely with a minimum risk.
The condition of the fuel is, however, unfit for use without further cleaning and pretreatment. In this chapter we will look at the way in which we can prepare the fuel
ready for use in a diesel engine fuel system.
The extent of the treatment really depends on the grade of fuel that we are
operating with; distillate fuels require far less treatment than residual fuels.
4.5.1 Separating forces in the settling tank
We have already said that the settling tank relies on a difference in density for
separation to occur due to the effect of gravity. However, this is not the whole story.
All matter is affected by gravity. An object will fall to the earth due to gravitational
force acting on it which is determined by the objects mass and the acceleration
due to gravity.
41

The air resistance results in a drag force which acts to slow down the rate of fall.
The difference between the two forces determines the speed at which the object
will fall.
Similarly, in the settling tank, and ignoring buoyancy forces, the water droplets and
dirt particles are subject to a falling force and the fuel oil provides the drag force.
The size of the drag force is determined by the viscosity and density of the fuel and
the surface area of the particle.
At increased temperature, the density and viscosity of the fuel oil decreases, and
therefore, the drag force reduces.
4.5.2 Suction strainers
The settling tank low suction connection will be used for normal operation
If there is a build up of dirt in the bottom of the tank, or, if vessel movement in
rough weather is likely to disturb the settled dirt and water, then the high suction
can be used.
This will reduce the amount of dirt and water drawn from the tank by the pump.
A suction strainer is fitted between the tank outlet valves and the pump inlet to
protect the pump from damage by the larger particles of dirt.
The suction strainer usually has a coarse mesh to help ensure an acceptable flow
to the pump; only relatively large particles of dirt are removed at this stage.
Further cleaning of the fuel is necessary before it can be transferred to the service
tank for use in a diesel engine fuel system.
This can be achieved dynamically using centrifuges or by using a static filter
module.
Both of these devices are usually self cleaning.
You will probably have one or other of these fitted on your current vessel.
4.5.3 Cleaning by centrifuge
We have seen that a settling tank relies on a difference in density to separate
different liquids and solids.

42

This is a slow process due to the fact that there is not much difference in the
densities of fuel and water, and so the separating forces are relatively small.
To speed up the process the separating forces need to be increased and this is the
purpose of the centrifuge.
The centrifuge usually consists of a gear driven bowl contained within a casing
provided with suitable inlet and outlet passages.
The high speed rotation of the centrifuge bowl generates forces many times
greater than gravitational force due to the centrifugal effect.
This increases the separating force between the different components of the
mixture passing through the bowl.
The heavy components of the dirty fuel mixture, usually solids and water, move to
the outer part of the centrifuge bowl.
A compact stack of conical discs are used to assist the separating process.
The centrifuge can be set up to allow discharge of water and dirt or to collect dirt in
the outer part of the bowl.
Most centrifuges are designed as self cleaning units and have an automatic, timed,
sludging facility.
All ships designed to operate on heavy fuel oils will have centrifugal separators
(purifiers) as part of the engine room equipment. It should always be remembered
that purifiers have their limitations and we cannot expect a ships fuel oil treatment
processing plant to render every fuel oil fit for use. However effective design and
maintenance will almost certainly provide adequate protection against the
potentially harmful effects of the vast majority of fuel oils delivered. Water and
sediment levels in the fuel can be effectively controlled in well maintained and
correctly operated purifiers. On the flip side, poorly maintained and operated
purifiers will fail to improve fuel oils to an acceptable quality and result in undue
wear or damage to the engine

43

The centrifugal separator is the foundation of the total shipboard fuel treatment
system.
Its operation must be thoroughly understood by the shipboard engineers so that
they can immediately troubleshoot heavy fuel oil problems as they occur. A
treatment problem cannot wait until the next port. Major main engine damage can
rapidly result from lack of effective fuel oil purification.
The following actions are necessary to ensure a proper cleaning of the HFO:

Selection and operation of the fuel oil centrifuges

according to suppliers recommendation

Correct HFO temperature at inlet to the centrifuges

Correct throughput of fuel through the centrifuges

Proper density of HFO in conformance with the centrifuge specification

Proper maintenance of the centrifuges. If properly operated, a centrifuge

has a removing efficiency of close to 100% for catalytic fines larger than 5
microns, but this technique cannot completely remove catalytic fines smaller
than 5 microns within the time the fuel actually stays in the centrifuge.
The enclosure shows an example of excessive wear resulting from inappropriate
operation of the centrifuges.
Temperature of HFO before centrifuges
It is often seen that the HFO preheaters are too small or have too Iowa set-point in
temperature, thereby reducing the efficiency of the centrifuge.
In order to ensure that the centrifugal forces separate the heavy contaminants to
the waste drain of the centrifuge, in the limited time they are present in the
centrifuge,
the centrifuge should always be operated with an inlet temperature of 98C for
HFO.

44

The importance of adjusting the throughput if the temperature is changed is

illustrated in Fig. 1, which shows an example of the relationship between
temperature and
throughput. For example, a centrifuge operating with an inlet temperature of 90C
would require a reduction in the throughput of min. 15% to obtain the same
cleaning
efficiency as with a 98C inlet temperature.
Table 6 The Temperature And The Throughput

Man B&W service letters (Relationship between temperature and throughput)

Been in contact with different suppliers of centrifuges and, based on the

information received, Fig. illustrates the relationship between throughput and
temperature for fuels with a viscosity of 180-700 cSt (at 50C) for unchanged
centrifuge cleaning efficiency.
As the throughput is normally controlled by a constant flow pump, it is often not
possible to reduce the fuel flow to the centrifuges in case of a lower preheating
temperature. There is only one solution, i.e. to keep the 98C inlet temperature
for fuels above 180 cSt (at 50C).

45

The purifier:

When a centrifuge is set up to continuously discharge water it is referred to as a

purifier.Dirty oil enters the bowl through a central tube and passes down to the
distribution plate at the bottom and then upwards through the disc stack.
The forces, generated by the high speed of rotation, cause the water and dirt,
which are heavier than the oil, to move to the outer part of the disc stack and bowl.
The water and dirt gather in a region between the wall of the bowl and just inside
the edge of the disc stack.
The clean oil gathers in the region from the centre of the bowl to just inside the
edge of the disc stack.
The point where the separated oil and water meet is referred to as the interface
The position of the interface is controlled by using gravity discs with different size
central holes or gravity plugs of different length.
These determine the effective position of the water outlet.
The clean oil passes up the outside of the central tube to the outlet to the service
tank.
The water flows over the disc stack cover plate to the edge of the gravity disc, or
plug, and out through the water outlet.

The clarifier:

When a centrifuge is set up without a continuous water discharge it is referred to

as a clarifier.
The general operating principles are the same as for a purifier except that the
water outlet is blanked off by the top cover of the disc stack.
Instead of separating water and solids from the dirty oil, a clarifier separates solids
from a liquid mixture
The solids build up on the inner wall of the bowl and have to be removed regularly.
As already stated this is achieved through an automatic sludging cycle

Combinations:

The factors which affect the performance of the centrifuge are the density
difference, the speed of rotation and the time that the mixture is in the bowl.
46

We usually operate with temperatures as high as possible, but below the boiling
point of water, to maximise the density difference.
Where the capacity of the centrifuges is much greater than the consumption rate of
the machinery then a low flow rate can be used to increase time in the bowl.
This also allows us to use two centrifuges in series, one as a purifier and one as a
clarifier, which increases the cleaning effect.
This is the preferred arrangement where possible.
Where capacities of the centrifuges are not much greater than the consumption
rate of the machinery it is possible to use them as purifiers operating in parallel.
This allows us to have a reduced flow rate through each centrifuge but still
maintain an overall throughput greater than the consumption rate.
Purifier particle removal is important for the removal of catalytic fines from HFO.
Purifier manufacturers have performed various tests on particle size and purifier
throughput to determine the effects this has on particle removal. Below is a table
showing some interesting results.
Table 7 Purifier Particle Removal Efficiency

Size range of particles

(microns)
Particles in feed oil to
Purifier.
Particles after purification
100% throughput
50% throughput
25% throughput

5-6

6-8

8-10

1,600

13,600

6,400

1,600
910
150

1,100
760
90

400
400
60

Source alpha laval operational manuals(MT Ilma).

This table illustrates that the best particle removal is when the purifier is operating
at 25% throughput. This of course assumes that the correct gravity disc has been
fitted. It should be noted that most modern purifiers operate without a gravity disc
and are known as high density purifiers. These machines operate as a clarifier but
also use water monitoring and control devices to ensure that no water passes
through. Studies have found that the best method of purifying fuel oil is by using
47

the purifier/clarifier in series method when the machines use the gravity disc
method. The purifier removes water and some particles and the clarifier removes
even more particles, therefore lowering the fuel oils particle count. With modern
systems only one machine is required.
Some basic situations which can cause separators to operate below maximum
efficiency, or not work at all, are:
a. incorrect fuel handling before the centrifuge
b. unstable flow
c. incorrect flow, usually too high a flow
d. unstable temperature
e. incorrect temperature
f. incorrect positioning of the water/oil interface, inhibiting the correct
flow of oil through all discs, usually caused by incorrect gravity data
and/or choice of an incorrect gravity disc.
g. overfilling of sludge space caused by extended intervals between desludging, or incompatible heavy fuel oils with higher than normal
sludge deposits.
Referring to the diagram below, the following observations show inefficient or
incorrect separator operation which may be caused by changes in the fuel oil
characteristics.

a separator which breaks the water seal after experiencing

balanced operation may be the result of increased fuel density,
increased viscosity, increased flow rate, or a decrease in
temperature

if the oiVwater interface moves towards the axis of the bowl to

give poor fuel separation or water carry over into the oil phase,
the potential causes may be decreased flow rate, or increased
fuel temperature
48

if the separator failure occurs because of an uncontrollable

fuel oil characteristic, such as increased density or viscosity,
the gravity disc should be changed to achieve efficient
operation. It also may be necessary to decrease throughput to
purify higher density fuels effectively.

Centrifuging high density fuels:

When the fuel density is too close to that of water it is not possible to operate a
conventional purifier arrangement.
There are a number of centrifuges on the market, designed to operate as a form of
clarifier, for treating fuel oils with a density of up to approximately 1010 kg/m at 15
C.
During normal operation, if sufficient water separates and collects in the bowl some
will carry over to the clean oil outlet which is fitted with a water sensor.
When water is detected, a solenoid valve opens in the water outlet, allowing a
short discharge of water to occur, before closing again.
At calm weather, the heavy components in the HFO, e.g. catalytic fines, will settle
on the tank bottom, but at high seas they can be hurled up and led to the
centrifuges, in a concentration exceeding the maximum of 80 ppm. This will most
probably I the efficiency of the treatment system, leading to large quantities of
catalytic fines at
engine inlet, and it is therefore important to drain the settling and service tanks
regularly. Furthermore, it is also recommended to use the standby fuel centrifuges
in heavy weather.
4.5.4 Filters
We have already mentioned the use of suction strainers to protect transfer and
feed pumps from relatively large pieces of solid contaminants from storage and
settling tanks.

49

We also need other strainers, often referred to as filters, in different parts of the fuel
system to ensure the fuel is clean enough to use and to prevent components from
being damaged.
The majority of filters used in the fuel system will be some form of metal mesh
basket or candle type if they are reusable and paper or felt types if disposable.
In the next points we will find out more about the different types of filters and the
reason for having them.

Cold filters:
As the name suggests, a cold filter is any filter which is positioned in the part
of the fuel system where the fuel is unheated.
The mesh size for a cold filter is usually quite large since the high viscosity
of the fuel when cold would give unacceptable pressure drop across the
filter.Cold filters are usually intended for removal of large particles.

Hot filters:
One factor which limits the mesh size of a filter, and therefore the size of
particle that can be removed, is the pressure drop across the filter.
The pressure drop is also influenced by the viscosity of the fluid.
Excessive pressure drop across a filter can cause the filter element to
rupture.
You will probably have sailed with systems where the filters have differential
pressure indicators measuring the pressure drop across the filter.
These are used as indicators for the need to replace or clean filter elements.
As fuel is heated at various stages of transfer and pre-treatment, the
viscosity will be reduced.
The reduced viscosity allows filters with a smaller mesh size to be fitted in
these hot sections of the system to remove smaller dirt particles.
These are referred to as hot filters.
These hot filters are similar in design to the cold filters but are generally of
smaller mesh size.
50

Fine filters:

Fine filters, capable of removing very small contaminant particles, are needed to
protect the fuel injection system components.
Fine metal mesh, paper and fabric filters are available for removing particles down
to a few microns in size.
There are also other fine filters such as edge filters.
Edge type filters are sometimes found in the inlet connection of fuel injection
valves.
The filter consists of a machined housing and a close fitting filter element; typically
a plug with sharp edged channels machined along its length.
The small clearance between the housing and element is only a few microns.
Flow paths are arranged via holes machined at right angles to internal bores in the
plug.
Fuel is directed into alternate channels from the inlet bore and passes through the
small clearance between the plug and the housing into the adjacent channels.
These are connected to the outlet bore.
Dirt particles, larger than the clearance, are trapped at the edges of the element
which can be removed periodically for cleaning.

Self cleaning filters:

Many of the filters used in the fuel system have to be manually cleaned.
The filters are usually arranged in pairs, referred to as duplex filters, with change
over cocks or valves that allow isolation of one of the filters for cleaning while the
other remains in use.
This avoids interrupting operation when cleaning the filters.
Some systems have self cleaning filters fitted.
A common type uses a set of thin plates mounted on a spindle.
Each pair of plates is separated by a spacer of slightly smaller diameter.
51

A set of static cleaning blades, which mesh with the plate stack, in line with the
spacers, are also fitted.
Fuel flows through the plate stack from the outside to inside and particles of dirt are
trapped between the plate edges.
By rotating the central spindle the dirt is scraped off by the cleaning blades and
falls to the bottom of the housing from where it can be flushed out or removed
manually.

4.5.5 Alternative methods

There are a number of alternative fuel treatment methods that we should consider.
Some of these may be used instead of centrifuges although in many cases they
are used in addition to centrifuges.
Some of the leading marine diesel engine manufacturers state that centrifuging is
always necessary to achieve the required cleanliness of the fuel.

Mechanical homogenisers:

Mechanical homogenisers can be used to break down and disperse contaminants

and heavy hydrocarbons evenly throughout the fuel.
Most mechanical homogenisers use either grinding or crushing action to achieve
this.
They are capable of breaking up solids, emulsifying any water present and
breaking up heavy hydrocarbon molecules into smaller structures.
These smaller hydrocarbon structures are easier to burn so combustion is
improved and harmful emissions may be reduced.
Using a homogeniser should also reduce the amount of sludge produced so
reducing disposal costs.
A type which is available today consists of a conical rotor and stator which have
slightly different tapers so that the clearance is greater at one end than the other.
The dirty fuel enters at the end with the greatest clearance and accelerates through
to the exit end which has the smallest clearance.
52

You may come across homogenisers fitted in the system onboard some of your
vessels, usually working alongside centrifuges.

Ultrasonic devices:
Many mechanical homogenisers also generate ultrasonic energy which
assists in the breakdown of some of the contaminants as well as the heavy
hydrocarbons.
There are also some devices which rely only on the ultrasonic energy to
achieve the breakdown.
The ultrasonic energy, which is a form of sound energy, causes the
components within the fuel to vibrate rapidly which results in them breaking
down into small particles and molecules.
You may have come across similar, lower energy devices which are used for
cleaning components by shaking the dirt from them.
Cleaning of heat exchanger plates can be achieved this way.

Static filter modules:

There are a number of static filter modules available which can be used in
place of centrifuges for fuel treatment.
The modules are made up of a number of different filters typically:
These units are more common for service in either distillate fuel systems or
lubricating oil systems.
It is unlikely that you will find them used with heavy fuel systems unless
there are centrifuges also fitted.

Back-flushing filter modules:

Many of the static filters systems, just like centrifuges, are provided with a self
cleaning facility to reduce downtime and manual effort.
Whereas centrifuges use sludging cycles to remove accumulated dirt from the bowl
at regular intervals, static filter units usually use back-flushing to remove collected
dirt.

53

Through a suitable arrangement of control valves, the cleaned fuel is made to flow
back through the filter to a drain sump.
This flushes the trapped dirt out of the filter elements.
A clean filter will be inline while back-flushing of a dirty filter occurs to maintain
supply.
Water is drained from the coalescer unit by a float controlled drain valve or other
similar arrangement.
4.5.6 Chemical treatments
We mentioned in an earlier section the problem of microbial contamination of fuel
and said we would look at how to deal with it later.
The condition requires the use of chemical treatment in the form of a biocide.
Biocides, and other chemical additives, are widely available to deal with this and
other fuel related problems.
Some of these treatments can be added at the storage stage but most are
designed for use in and after the service tank.
We are not going to look at the chemistry of the additives here; that would be of no
benefit to you.
We will look at what the additives are claimed to do.
Remember, as with all chemicals, you must take care and use appropriate
personal protective equipment, as indicated on the material safety data sheets,
when you are handling them.

Biocides:

It is generally accepted, that if there is no water present in a fuel tank there can be
no microbial activity.
You should therefore make sure that water is drained from fuel tanks regularly.
Watch out for the smell of rotten eggs, hydrogen sulphide gas, from the tanks,
which will give some indication of the problem.
54

When microbial contamination does occur you will need to use biocides to kill off,
and control recurrence, of the bacterial colonies.
There are many different biocides available and most are about 90% effective, so
repeat treatment is usually necessary.
The treatment can cause problems as the dead bacteria fall to the bottom of the
tank, forming a sludge, which can be carried into the system causing further
blockage and corrosion.
To prevent recurrence of microbes it is necessary to completely sterilise the
system, including all tanks, pipework and fittings.
As this is not usually possible on an operational ship it is best to avoid the problem
altogether. So we should keep checking for water in those fuel tanks.

Fuel stabilisers:

When fuels are in storage oxidation occurs which can result in chemical changes to
the fuel, leading to sludge formation.
The chemical changes can also affect the combustion performance of the fuel.
Fuel stabilisers are intended to preserve the condition of the fuel by stopping or
slowing down the ageing process.
If the stabiliser is effective then the fuel should burn more cleanly and emissions
should be reduced.

Fuel additives:

Fuel additives are chemical compounds which are intended to either, enhance the
performance properties of the fuel or, provide properties which the fuel naturally
lacks.
There are many additives on the marketplace which all claim to achieve these
purposes.
Some of the most common types of additives are:
Some of the additives have proven to be beneficial while others may not do all that
is claimed.

55

4.5.7 Other Treatments

Other treatments, which you should be aware of, include in line blending and
emulsification processes.
With blending, two different grades of fuel, usually a residual and a distillate, are
mixed together in the supply line to the engine to produce a blended fuel which is
better suited for use in the engine than the individual grades.
It is possible to vary the blend ratio to suit operating conditions, for example
different engine loads, to give optimum performance.
Some engine manufacturers have moved to emulsified fuels, a fuel and water
mixture, as a way of reducing the level of emissions.
This is normally carried out in part of the engine fuel system, after the service tank.
It may seem strange to you, after all we have said about not mixing fuels and
removing water from the fuel, to see that some engine manufacturers are
intentionally doing the opposite.
4.5.8 The daily service tank
The treatment we have looked at up to now has been pre-treatment required to
clean the fuel.
At this point, the clean fuel is delivered to the daily service tank from where it can
be drawn for use in the machinery.
If the cleaning process has been effective there should be very little dirt or
contamination in the service tank.
Regular draining of the tank is still necessary to remove any carry over or
condensation. This should be one of your routine duties.
4.5.9 After the service tank
When the fuel is drawn from the service tank further treatment is necessary to
make sure that the condition of the fuel is correct for the intended use.
Fuel for a diesel engine, for example, has to be heated to ensure that the viscosity
is correct for injection.

56

We saw in the previous section that in line blending and fuel emulsification are also
used, normally after the service tank.

CHAPTER 5
Fuel Viscosity

57

5.1 Viscosity and Fuel Quality

Heavy fuel oils are normally purchased on the basis of a limiting viscosity due to
storage, handling, or engine-related restrictions. Viscosity does not, however, carry
a quality implication, regardless of the fact that many purchasers of marine fuel oils
believe this to be the case. A false sense of quality assurance has developed
through the procurement, on the basis of viscosity only, of straight-run fuel oils. As
heavy fuel oils are produced in the future by more and more intensive secondary
processing, the relationship between fuel oil viscosity and fuel oil quality becomes
less and less meaningful.
Viscosity is a measure of a fuels resistance to flow. The higher the viscosity,
generally the higher the specific gravity. The viscosity of any petroleum oil
increases when the oil is cooled and decreases when it is heated. For this reason,
the viscosity value of an oil must always be accompanied by the temperature at
which the viscosity was determined. The viscosity value by itself is meaningless.
Viscosity is used principally to give information about the handling, treatment and
atomization of the fuel. However, it also is a rough indicator of its carbon and
asphalt content. The lower the viscosity, the easier it is to settle or to separate
entrained water and solid particles. Although high viscosity fuels require proper
preheating for good separator operation and heating before injection for good
atomization, this characteristic usually can be handled without any problems.
5.2 Marine Fuel Viscosity Understanding
5.2.1 What is Viscosity?

58

Viscosity is the resistance of a fluid to flow. The classic definition is the ratio
of shear stress to shear rate. Imagine two plates separated by a distance x, of area
A, with the space between filled with a liquid.
= (F/A)/(V/x)
If you push sideways on the top plate with a force F and as a result it moves at a
speed V. The unit of dynamic viscosity is called centipoise (cp) or millipascalseconds.
5.2.2 How is coating viscosity affected?
Since viscosity is the measure of a fluid's resistance to flow, it correlates to
the internal friction of a liquid and is influenced by the level of solids and the
temperature of the coating, as well as other operating conditions.
in general terms, the higher the viscosity, the slower the flow of the liquid.

5.2.3 How is viscosity measured?

The first "viscometer" design was a cup with a calibrated hole in the bottom.
The measurement involved determining the time it took for the liquid to run out the
hole. The force on the liquid depends in this case on its' density, so the cup
measurement was actually the ratio of viscosity to density. The units of "kinematic"
viscosity measured this way are centistokes (cSt). On board ships we always refer
to viscosity in terms of the kinematic viscosity.
5.2.4 Traditional approach to measuring viscosity
Whats wrong with the traditional approach to measuring viscosity?

59

The most common measurement method has been to dip a cup with a specific
shape into a coating reservoir, take it out, and then measure how long it takes for
the fluid to flow through a hole in the bottom of the cup. The longer it takes, the
higher the viscosity. Unfortunately, this method is inaccurate. Ten different
operators will get ten different measurements. With the viscosimeter you can
measure the time in which a certain quantity of fuel flows through the meter.
Until 1977 it was common to use "Redwood Seconds" (SRI) measured at 100 deg
Fahrenheit when measuring the viscosity grade of intermediate fuels. The problem
with using 100 deg F as a reference temperature is that fuels with very high pour
points may have non-Newtonian properties at this temperature. This means that
the viscosity temperature lines will not be straight in the lower temperature range.
Therefore, viscosity should be measured at a higher temperature. Fluids that have
the same viscosity regardless of shear rate are considered to have Newtonian
properties.
With non-Newtonian products, there is no longer a linear relationship between
shear stress and shear rate and this contributes to the non-linearity of the flow
equations. In other words, they do not have a constant viscosity. "Centistokes"
measured at 50 C has become the standard of measurement since 1977. An IFO
180 grade fuel is a fuel with a viscosity equal to or less than 180 cSt at 50C.
To the dismay of people finding it difficult to adjust their thinking from SRI's to cSt's
at 100.F and 50C respectively, the committees dealing with new fuel standards
suggest 80C or 100C as the reference temperature of the future.
Engine manufacturers nowadays often use cSts at 100 C. The reason for
increasing the reference temperature is that it has become general knowledge that
the viscosity index of secondary refined fuels may differ from the traditional fuels.

60

That's why it is important to measure viscosity near the temperature at which the
fuel is to be used, i.e. the injection temperature in the case of diesel engines.
In addition to cSt and seconds Redwood I (SRI) there are some old viscosity
standards such as seconds Seabolt Universal (SSU) and Engler (E) by 20C or
50C

5.3 Viscosity and its effects on diesel engine

A modern diesel engine is designed for efficient combustion and optimum
power output when burning fuels ranging from 30 cSt/50 to 700 cSt/50, provided
that the fuel is properly treated and conditioned. The fuel injected into the engine
must meet specific pressure, temperature, flow and viscosity requirements.
Efficient fuel combustion can only be achieved if the fuel temperature and viscosity
can be controlled within recommended limits.
Today many modern diesel engines are capable of burning heavy fuels with
viscosity as high as 700 cSt/50C.
In order to prevent damage to the injection pumps and achieve optimal
combustion it is important to maintain the correct viscosity of the fuel going to the
injection pump. Temperature control alone is not sufficient due to individual
differences in oil characteristics from one bunker to another.
Injection of fuel into a diesel engine at the incorrect viscosity can have a
number of adverse effects on the engine and its performance. A high injection
viscosity fuel, in excess of 20 cSt, can cause poor combustion in the cylinder of the
engine, contributing to a build up of deposits on exhaust valves and piston heads
and an increase in lubrication oil contamination.
Another problem that can have very serious consequences is the effect of large
and rapid changes in fuel oil temperature on the injection pumps. Without accurate
viscosity measurement linked to temperature control, the heaters may fail to react
properly to changes in fuel properties and engine load.
61

This could result in a seizure of the pump cylinder liner and the plunger due
to the varying thermal expansion properties of the liner and the plunger.
Engine manufacturers have improved engine designs to cope with this problem by,
among other things, developing new fuel injection pumps and nozzles to
compensate for viscosity fluctuations.
However, accurate viscosity control and fuel oil treatment is required.

Caution must be exercised when heating prior to injection to temperatures

above 135 degrees Centigrade because cracking may occur, gases may be given
off, and water may vaporize forming steam pockets in the fuel line. Insufficiently
heated fuel, on the other hand, can result in poor atomization and delayed burning,
which may lead to higher thermal loading, scuffing problems, possible piston and
piston ring failure, and to an increase in fuel consumption. In addition to heating
prior to injection, an increase in fuel injection pressure may also be necessary to
maintain design atomization spray patterns depending on fuel used. Where high
viscosity fuels are concerned, an increase in primary fuel pump pressure may be
necessary to prevent vaporization of a fuels more volatile components due to the
heating prior to injection.
5.3.1 Low Fuel Viscosity
Low sulphur distillates have relatively low viscosity, ranging from 1.5 to 3.0
cSt. Fuel pumps depend upon an appropriate viscosity to meet required volumetric
capacity, an especially important consideration in maintaining proper feed rates.
ISO 8217 states minimum viscosities for DMX, Distillate Marine Oil of Class X, of
1.4 cSt at 40 oC and DMA, Distillate Marine Oil of Class A, of 1.5 cSt at 40 oC (ISO
2010). A rule of thumb value advised by the makers is 2Cst at engine inlet (MAN,
2014). Ambient temperature in an engine room easily reaches 40 oC and
sometimes even higher in some cases as much as 55 oC. Adding excessive heat
62

from pipes and engines will raise the temperature even further; and as a
consequence viscosity will fall, causing a significant change of operating conditions
in the system. Mercifully, the lower the viscosity at 40o C the more gradual the fall
of viscosity with temperature rise.
The lower viscosity will reduce the film thickness between the fuel pump plunger
and casing and in the fuel valves leading to excessive wear and possible sticking,
causing failure of the fuel pump. Special fuel injection pumps may be available that
are more suitable for this type of fuel, such as tungsten carbide coated pumps, or a
fuel pump lubrication system could be installed. Any new types of fuel injection
equipment installed to address lubrication issues shall be certified by the engine
maker to maintain engine compliance with emission standards and may require recertification of engines.
Heavy fuel oil at the fuel pumps is about 150C because the fuel must be heated
due to its high viscosity. Marine distillate fuel, introduced at ambient engine room
temperature, could cause the fuel pumps to seize if introduced too fast, due to a
combination of thermal contraction and low lubricity. This could cause sudden loss
of propulsion or auxiliary power.
A decrease in fuel viscosity may cause an increase in fuel leakage between the
pump plunger and barrel. The leakage can lead to hot start and low fuel setting
start difficulties, especially in worn fuel pumps. It is advisable to make distillate hot
start checks at regular intervals so that the limits of operating conditions for a
particular engine are determined. Loss of capacity in fuel supply pumps is due to
low viscosity with fuel leaking around pump rotors. Leakage of fuel through the
high pressure fuel pump barrel, plunger, suction and spill valve push rods occurs
on slow speed engines. This leakage may result in a higher load indication position
of the fuel rack and may require adjustment of the governor for sustained operation
on low viscosity fuel or may results in worn pumps elements (enlarged
clearances). As an internal leak is part of design and is used in part to lubricate the
pumping elements, it can cause too high leak rate and in consequences lead to
smaller than optimal injection pressures resulting in difficulties during start and low
load operation.
63

5.3.2 Engine operation with too high viscosity

When the fuel viscosity is too high, excessive pressure is produced in the injection
system. This can cause parts of the injection pumps or their drive to be damaged
or cause the relief valves to spray off. The atomisation of the fuel oil is also
affected, and this results in incomplete combustion.

When the fuel viscosity is too high, excessive pressure is produced in the injection
system. This can cause parts of the injection pumps or their drive to be damaged
or cause the relief valves to spray off. The atomisation of the fuel oil is also
affected, and this results in incomplete combustion.

5.4 Marine Fuel Viscosity keeping

The maximum admissible viscosity of the fuel that can be used in
an installation depends on the onboard heating and fuel preparation
outfit. As a guide, the necessary pre-heating temperature for a given
nominal viscosity can be taken from the viscosity/temperature chart
in the engine instruction manual. Wrtsils recommended viscosity
range for its Sulzer low speed engines is: 1317 cSt or 6075 sec
Redwood.

5.4.1 Heating of fuel oil

The viscosity of fuel oils can be reduced by heating the oil. This diagram illustrates
a typical ratio between viscosity and the temperature of various heavy fuel oils.
Recommended viscosity at the inlet to the injection pumps:
This diagram also shows the temperatures that are required to lower the viscosity
of various heavy fuel oils down to the value required at the inlet to the injection
pumps. This temperature is generally called "Required heat-up temperature".

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The viscosity controller regulates the pre-heating of the heavy fuel oil. In order for
the engine to run smoothly irregular, vapour must not be allowed to collect in the
injection pump.
Because of this, the pre-heated heavy fuel oil is fed into the injection pumps under
pressure by the high-pressure booster pump. This pressure must be set at the
pressure-regulating valve.

Figure 5: Viscosity versus temperature (MAN, 2010)

To ensure proper fuel atomization, effective use of the centrifugal separators,

settling tanks and filters is essential; and the correct fuel viscosity must be
maintained by heating, adequate injection pressure and correct injection timing.
The maintenance of correct running temperatures according to the engine
manufacturers recommendations is also important, particularly at low loads.
-Fuel oil gassing

65

If the fuel oil temperature after the FO heaters rises higher than the fuels boiling
temperature, the result is gassing of the oil. Oil viscosity is assumed to be a
gassing indicator. As this falls under approximately 2 cSt, gassing of the fuel oil
gradually starts, leading to:
The running of the main engine becomes unstable.
The signal from the viscosity meter becomes very noisy.
Normally HFO gassing develops above 135C and for DO it develops above 80C
(variable).
5.4.2 Viscosity keeping during treatment
During the past decade, advances in diesel engine technology have been made to
meet the new requirements of burning lower-grade fuel oils.
This requires careful treatment and makes the installation of a suitable plant
necessary. According to present techniques, the most effective way of cleaning
liquid fuels from solids and water is achieved by using centrifugal separators.
The temperature of the oil also determines its viscosity in addition to the oils
composition.
By preheating fuel, separation in a centrifuge is improved, but a temperature of 98
degrees Centigrade should not be exceeded because flashing of water in the
separator may occur with resultant loss of the centrifuge water seal.

Separation of heavy fuel

Almost all separators on board a ship are self-cleaning separators. The separating
effect such as the cleaning efficiency depends on the throughput and on the
viscosity of the heavy fuel oil. As a general rule, the smaller the throughput (m/hr
or ltr/hr) and the lower the viscosity of the heavy fuel oil, the better the separating
effect.
66

It is necessary to heat the heavy fuel oil before it enters the separator and maintain
the working temperature at a constant level within a tolerance of 2 C. The
minimum required temperature depends upon the nominal viscosity at 50 C of the
heavy fuel oil.
This temperature can be found in a viscosity/temperature diagram, also check the
instructions from the manufacturers of your separator.
For design reasons the admissible heating temperature is sometimes limited. The
sludge removed by the centrifuging must be removed periodically from the
separator drum.
In the case of self-cleaning separators the emptying sequence process may be
controlled automatically, but even in such plants, operating personnel must monitor
the correct function and the frequency of these events.
It is of great importance that the drain of the drum is open and kept free from
sludge, so that unacceptably high backpressure does not affect the operation of
the separator thereby adversely affecting the cleaning of the heavy fuel oil.
Periodical inspections are necessary in order to make sure this does not happen.
Modern separators without gravity disks can separate poor quality oils at a
relatively higher throughput rate (approximately 1010 kg/m3 at 15 and 700
cSt/50C).
In older treatment plants you will find separators with replaceable gravity discs,
which must in each case be adapted to the density of the heavy fuel oil to be
treated.
The correct size of the gravity disc must be selected according to manufacturer
specifications. Operating centrifugal separators as purifiers, and if necessary,
clarifiers arranged in series is also recommended.
5.4.3 Viscosity keeping of the transfer system

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This heavy fuel oil transfer system includes four bunker tanks, one spill oil tank, a
transfer pump and the necessary piping. The transfer pump can suck oil from any
of the bunker tanks or the spill oil tank and discharge it into the settling tanks or
back to the bunker tanks. The bunker tanks are heated by steam.
The heat transfer is proportional to the steam pressure, which is set by manually
controlled throttle valves. If the heating is turned off, the bunker tank temperature
will slowly cool down towards ambient (SW) temperature. The flow resistance in
the heavy fuel oil lines is dependent on temperature. (See figure 5 of chapter 6)

Fuel oil settling tanks

A HFO transfer pump transports the fuel oil from the bunker tanks or the spill oil
tank to one of two settling tanks. The heating of the settling tanks is managed by a
manual or automatic thermostatic control.
If the temperature of the oil in the settling tank cools below a certain limit, it will be
difficult for the separators feed pump to transport the oil.
The tank is shaped so that the water in the oil from the bunker tank will gradually
sink towards the tank bottom by force of gravity. (See figure 6 of chapter 6)

Fuel oil system and service tanks

If the plant is shut down without any heating, the oil in the venting tank will cool
down due to loss of heat in the surroundings. Depending upon temperature and
possible dilution of diesel oil, the oil viscosity in the venting tank, is calculated.
If the viscosity at booster pump inlet is high, the FO pump discharge pressure will
decrease.
The flow resistance in FO heaters and filters depends upon the viscosity.
The FO pipeline and the venting tank can be heated by steam (steam tracing). The
steam has to be turned on/off manually.

68

If the oil in the FO pipe gets too cold, the pressure drop across the FO filter and FO
heater increases greatly. The oil pressure from the booster pumps will drop
correspondingly. (See figure 6 of chapter 6)

The oil delivery from the booster pumps is reduced if the suction pressure drops
below a certain limit.
Because of the steam tracing facility, the main engine can be stopped and
restarted on HFO. The normal procedure, however, is to change to DO a short time
before shutting down the engine.
This has a cleaning effect by filling the piping system with diesel oil and ensures a
safe start-up at a later time.
The change from HFO to DO or vice versa should be performed gradually. If the
rate of temperature reduction during transfer from HFO to DO is too high, some of
the HP injection plungers might stick due to plunger liner contraction or reduced
lubrication.
The heavy fuel oil tank and the venting tank can be drained to the spill oil tank.
If a water leakage in the service tank heater has occurred, it will be necessary to
empty the HFO tank and to drain water from the venting tank.

Pumping

Gear and screw type pumps used for fuel transfer rely almost exclusively on
boundary lubrication. Lack of it results in wear and loss of pumping pressure and
volumetric capability.
A higher number means a stronger oil film. When a screw pump operates with low
sulphur fuel, the Sommerfeld number might not be high enough to sustain full oil
film condition, and the pump operates in boundary zone. Thus the moving parts are
not separated by a film, with metallic contact taking place.

69

In testing conducted under the American Standard Test Method, ASTM D5001-89
BOCLE Test, (ASTM, 1989), it was discovered that viscosity played essentially no
role in fuel pump failure but rather, the inherent lubricating value of the fuel
determined the extent to which fuel pump wear occurred. Viscosity plays
essentially no role in providing sufficient fuel lubricity for either rotary of
plunger/barrel type fuel pumps. On the other hand we should remember that a
major difference between the pump types is the effect viscosity has on the capacity
of the pump. In the positive displacement pumps which constitute the fuel supply
and injection pumps the flow increases with viscosity (Viking, 2014). The higher
viscosity liquids
fill the clearances of the pump resulting in a higher volumetric efficiency. This effect
is depicted in Figure
Figure 2

Fig. 6: Flow rate vs viscosity (Viking 2014)

Viscosity keeping during manoevering and stand-still periods

Preparations before starting on heavy fuel

70

The cylinder cooling water must be heated, check the manufacturer instructions.
The viscosity of the heavy fuel oil before the inlet to the injection pumps must be
brought to the required heat-up temperature. It is also a good idea to circulate the
bearing lubricating oil through the separator for a while before starting.
5.4.4 Viscosity keeping during manoevering and stand-still periods

Preparations before starting on heavy fuel

The cylinder cooling water must be heated, check the manufacturer instructions.
The viscosity of the heavy fuel oil before the inlet to the injection pumps must be
brought to the required heat-up temperature. It is also a good idea to circulate the
bearing lubricating oil through the separator for a while before starting.

Operating and manoeuvring on heavy fuel

When operating and manoeuvring on heavy fuel oil, the fuel temperature and
viscosity must be kept at the specific values as well as the temperature of the fuel
valve cooling water if it is in use.

Stopping the main engine when operating on heavy fuel

The heavy fuel oil booster pump must be kept running, so that the fuel can
circulate at the required viscosity through all of the injection pumps.
The booster pumps can only be stopped after switching the system over to diesel
oil and when all of the heavy fuel oil has been removed out of the system.
The cooling water to the injection nozzles must be kept at a specific temperature.
Cylinder cooling water should also be kept at a specific temperature.
Pre-lubricating pumps or stand-by pumps for bearing lubrication must be running.
The fuel oil circulation systems cannot be stopped when running on heavy fuel oil.

Change over between heavy fuel and diesel oil

Most new main engines can be started on diesel oil or on heavy fuel oil, and
manoeuvred on both, it all depends on your engine type. When starting on heavy
71

fuel oil, sufficient heating energy must be available. If this is not available the
engine must be started on diesel oil. A switch over to heavy fuel oil may only be
made when the required viscosity is obtained.
If the availability of sufficient heating energy is not guaranteed, operation must
again be switched back to diesel oil before shutting the engine down for a longer
period of time. After operating with a low load the output should be raised
gradually.
Switching to diesel oil at an early stage to flush the system is recommend when
work on the engines fuel system is scheduled at the next stop.
The day tanks must be de-watered and de-sludged at regular intervals. In order to
maintain their effectiveness, tanks must have the sludge and water, accumulating
in the tank bottom, periodically drained off.

Switching from diesel oil to heavy fuel oil

Before switching over it is necessary that the diesel oil in the injection pump is
heated to a specified temperature. That heat-up should be gradual. A rapid rise in
temperature can lead to seizure of the injection pump plunger.
It is therefore recommended that the heating steam only be allowed to flow first to
the preheating of the piping, the fuel filter etc. In this case the viscosity controller
can shut off. The fuel temperature can then be controlled manually. Quick
temperature rises must be avoided.
The operation with hot diesel oil should continue at least until the injection pumps
are warm to the touch. Then a 3-way valve can make the switch from diesel oil to
heavy fuel oil.
When equipped with a proportional three-way valve, the viscosity controller will
control the heater when switching over gradually and the controller does not have
to be switched off
Subsequently the steam, thermal oil admission or electrical power to the heaters
must be increased.
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When the fuel temperature is brought to the required pre-heating temperature for
the respective heavy fuel oil, the viscosity controller can then again be switched on.
The heating to the fuel filter and fuel piping should be kept on at least until the
required pre-heating temperature on the engine, has been achieved.
It is often recommended that it is not to exceed 75% MCR-load, (maximum
continues rating) during switchover, until the required pre-heating temperature has
been reached.

Switching from heavy fuel oil to diesel oil

Before the switchover, the 3-way valve must be turned or the proportional three
way valve must be switched over gradually. The buffer unit or mixing tank now
contains a mixture of heavy fuel oil and diesel oil. The viscosity of the circulating
mixture drops rapidly as the diesel oil ratio increases.
The viscosity controller will subsequently close the steam or switch off the electrical
power to the heater. If the temperature is at a minimum value the viscosity
controller and /or sensor may be switched off if required.

5.4.5 Viscosity control arrangement

A consistent viscosity is maintained by the viscosity system, which consists of a

viscosity sensor, controller and a heater cabinet (steam, electrical or thermal oil).
The viscosity controller regulates the viscosity. The viscosity sensor measures the
viscosity.
Viscosity control
The viscometer is a critical component which ensures uniform and accurate
viscosity control. The viscometer constantly samples the heavy fuel oil and

73

produces a signal which is proportional to viscosity. Typical sensors employ

calibrated capillary tubes, falling pistons, or vibrating rods.
Irrespective of the method of determining viscosity, the viscometer output signal
modulates an automatic steam control valve on the fuel oil service heaters. Since
the viscometer is constantly sampling and adjusting the fuel oil heater outlet
temperature to maintain a constant pre-set viscosity, the accuracy of this unit must
be checked and calibrated periodically. Experience suggests that service once
every six months by disassembly and recalibration is recommended. The unit
should be carefully installed according to the manufacturers recommendations.
By-pass valves and isolation valves should be provided to allow for service without
plant shutdown.

Measuring devices

Modern devices work on any one of several principals. Some impart a magnetic
force on a piston and measure the speed. Another device uses a heavy piston and
measures the speed, where as others rotate a cylinder inside a coaxial sleeve and
measure the drag force on the sleeve.
Some devices vibrate and measure the attenuation, which depends upon both the
viscosity and density. Other devices work by forcing the liquid through a small hole
at a controlled flow rate then measuring the pressure across the hole in order to
calculate the viscosity.

Capilar tube sensor

74

Most viscosity sensors operate on the principle of pressure-drop measurement

across a capillary pipe. After reading the pressure drop, the viscosity is calculated
using a formula.
The problems inherent in this technology are:
Correct measurement of the pressure drop
Transforming the measured pressure drop into a correct viscosity value by
calibrating the instrument.
The pressure drop is a function of pipe diameter, pipe length, flow velocity, density
and viscosity.
In order to measure the viscosity, all other parameters must remain constant.
Therefore, it is imperative that the pipe diameter does not change due to clogging
or fouling.
The flow must also remain laminar, in other words streamline without any
turbulence, when it is passing through the pipe, and the flow velocity must remain
constant.
This means that the pump, capillary pipe and pressure gauge must be checked
and serviced regularly to ensure that measurements are correct. Any change of
instrument setting, or component parts of the system will require that the unit be
recalibrated.

Attenuation sensor

The operating principle of the sensor is that of a torsion pendulum. The sensor
consists of a stainless steel driver / sensor head (1), attached to the base plate (2)
by means of a tubular torsion spring (3). In the head, one pair of piezo elements
(driver piezos) (4) actuates the pendulum at its torsional resonance frequency,
while another pair (the receiver piezos) probes the actual movement of the head. In
a low viscosity medium, like air the resonance frequency is in the range of 1600
Hz. In a high viscosity medium the movement of the head is damped by the liquid.
Consequently, the resonance frequency slightly shifts towards lower frequencies,
whilst the width of the resonance peak increases, which is a measure for the
75

viscosity. A flow tube (5) is placed around the pendulum, to protect it against
mechanical damage. The flowtube inlet ensures a constant new supply of liquid for
a correct measurement.

Figure 3

Proportional control

Controllers are systems that accept a measured value as an input, compare it to

some desired value, and then output a control signal. The control signal is
connected to a valve or switching mechanism which will move the measured value
toward the desired level.
For instance, imagine a temperature controller with a heater regulated by a
controller. Input to the controller would be a thermal detector, like an RTD or
thermocouple. Suppose the controller calls for no heat, i.e. zero Control Variable
Output (CVO=0). With no heat added the system would stay at a certain
temperature, call it T1.
On the other hand, if the controller calls for full heat (CVO=100%) the system will
eventually stabilize at a higher temperature, call it T4. For every intermediate
76

control output there is some stable temperature. Connect temperature T1 to T4

with a line (the solid black line) that illustrates the way the system responds to heat
being added. Usually we will not know what the shape of this curve is.
Suppose we want to control the temperature to a set point, indicated by the
horizontal green line, labelled Set Point. We could design our controller so it would
call for full heat if the temperature is well below the set point, no heat if it is well
above the set point, and a proportionate amount in between, as indicated by the
dark blue line. The darkened band shown is the Proportional Band.
Suppose then we position the Proportional Band evenly about the set point
temperature, since before starting we don't know what the shape of the black line
(the system response) will be. The system will eventually stabilize at temperature
T2, since that is the point at which the system response line intersects the
controller output. Since T2 is above our set point, there is an offset (the difference
between temperatures T2 and the Set Point). Proportional controllers are simple,
but they are likely to result in an offset.
Figure 4

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Anders Brunvoll, Seagull AS

PI and PID control

Proportional-Integral (PI) control is the same as Proportional control, except an

"Integral" adjustment gradually reduces the offset to zero. Also, since the viscosity
of a liquid is decreased by the addition of heat or a solvent, the system response
line slopes down with increasing control output.
Since it is assumed that a Viscosity PI Controller output is used to either heat the
liquid or add solvent, the output has an inverse relationship between the control
output and the measured value (viscosity), i.e. the blue control output line slopes
up to the right (see graph).
Proportional-Integral (PI) control is the same as Proportional control, except an
"Integral" adjustment gradually reduces the offset to zero. Also, since the viscosity
of a liquid is decreased by the addition of heat or a solvent, the system response
line slopes down with increasing control output.
Since it is assumed that a Viscosity PI Controller output is used to either heat the
liquid or add solvent, the output has an inverse relationship between the control
output and the measured value (viscosity), i.e. the blue control output line slopes
up to the right (see graph).
This illustration shows an initial setting with PI viscosity control. The black line
represents the system response to either adding heat or solvent. The graph
illustrates the system in its initial state with an offset.
Once the system enters the band of proportional control (coloured), the PI
controller periodically tests to determine whether the actual viscosity is above or
below the set point.
If it is below, the proportional band is very slowly adjusted upward at a rate that is
slow compared to the response time of the system. Eventually the offset is reduced

78

to zero at which point the system continues to "dither" above and below the set
point by a small amount.

Figure 5

Anders Brunvoll, Seagull AS

CHAPTER 6
FUEL SYSTEM (MT ILMA)

79

6 Fuel Systems
6.1 .Main Engine
Fuel for the main engine is supplied by the FO supply unit, the engine is
designed to burn heavy fuel oil (HFO) at all times. Such fuel normally has a
viscosity of up to 700cSt at 50C, which is too high for effective atomisation
and combustion. A viscosity at the fuel injectors of between 13 and 17cSt is
needed for effective engine operation, so the fuel is heated before delivery to
the engine. The fuel oil heaters use steam to raise the temperature of the HFO,
with fuel oil supply and circulating pumps supplying fuel to the main engine
fuel pumps. A line from the main engine returns to the fuel oil mixing chamber
where degassing and venting takes place.
Heavy fuel oil is stored in four HFO storage tanks in the engine room, two
on the port side and two on the starboard side. There are separate HFO and
low sulphur heavy fuel oil (LSHFO) settling and service tanks. Under normal
circumstances, the main engine and generator engines operate continuously on
HFO, but when environmental circumstances dictate, the fuel oil supply system
is changed over to LSHFO operation.
Fuel oil (HFO) is transferred from the storage tank(s) to the associated settling
tank with the HFO transfer pump, and from the settling tank the fuel oil passes
through a centrifugal separator and discharged to the associated service tank.
There are two transfer pumps, one primarily for HFO and the other for diesel
oil (DO); a crossover pipe system allows either pump to be used for HFO or
DO as required.
The HFO and DO transfer pumps are normally used to transfer fuel oil from
the storage to the settling tanks, but they may be used to transfer HFO between

the storage tanks as required.

There are two centrifugal separators used to remove water from and clean the
fuel oil when filling the service tanks. Each separator has a designated feed
pump, however, cross-connection valves allow the pumps to supply either
separator. Both No.1 and No.2 separators are available for cleaning HFO, No.2
can also be used for DO.
Normally, at least one separator will be running on HFO at all times, with
the throughput balanced to match the consumption of the main and generator
engines. If required, the main system can be changed over to diesel oil
operation. The three diesel generator engines normally operate on HFO, the
supply being taken from the HFO service system.
A fuel flow meter is installed in the fuel lines between the FO feed and FO
booster pumps for the main engine, and after the FO supply pump for the diesel
generator engines. These flow meters enable the fuel consumption of the main
engine and diesel generator engines to be determined.
The boiler HFO supply is taken from either the service or settling tanks and
supplied to the burner unit via the boiler HFO service pumps and heaters.
Return HFO flows to the boiler fuel system FO return pipe. The boiler may also
burn DO or gas oil (GO) from the DO service tank. The boiler pilot/ignition
burners operate on diesel oil.
Outlet valves from the fuel oil storage/bunker tanks are of the quick-closing
type with a collapsible bridge, which can be tripped from the fire control
station on the sunken deck. After being tripped, the valve bridges must be reset
and the valve opened locally. Each bunker tank is also fitted with a self-closing
test/drain cock to test for water and to remove any, if present. Tundishes under
the test cock, drain the water/oil to the waste oil tank.

All tanks and heaters use steam from the engine room 6.0 bar steam system for
heating. The condensate flows to the atmospheric condenser and then to the
observation tank. This is integral with the feed water cascade/filter tank and is
fitted with an oil detection unit. The steam supply to the FO supply unit heaters
is controlled by the viscosity controller. All fuel oil pipework is trace heated
by small bore steam pipes laid adjacent to the fuel oil pipe and encased in the
same insulation.
Heated and filtered fuel oil is supplied to the main engine from either the HFO
service tank, or the LSHFO service tank when operating on low sulphur fuel.
However, it is possible to run the main engine on DO should that be necessary.
There are two changeover valves (F107V and F106V) fitted on the main engine.
fuel oil feed pump suction line. Normally, the valves are set to take suction
from the HFO/LSHFO service tanks.
Heavy fuel oil from the HFO service tank or LSHFO service tank is supplied
to one of two FO feed pumps. The second pump will be on automatic standby
and will start in the event of a discharge pressure drop or voltage failure of the
running pump.
A filter is located on the suction side of each FO feed pump. A pressure
regulating valve, set at 5.0 bar is located after the FO feed pumps, returning
excess FO back to the suction side of the pumps.
The fine backflushing filter is fitted after the FO heaters which are backflushed
using the system oil, when a preset differential pressure across the filter is
reached. The differential pressure is monitored by the module control system.
A manual bypass filter is also an integral part of the module.
The FO feed pumps discharge through a flow meter to the suction line from
the FO mixing chamber to the suction of the FO booster pumps. The mixing

chamber receives fuel oil from the main engine fuel oil return line and degasses
the returned fuel, any gases vented are directed to the HFO overflow tank.
From the booster pumps the fuel is discharged to the heaters. The second
booster pump will be selected as standby and it will start in the event of a
discharge pressure drop or voltage failure of the running pump. The fuel oil is
heated to a temperature corresponding to a viscosity of 12cSt using steam from
the 6.0 bar steam service system. The viscosity controller, located in the fuel
line after the heaters, regulates the steam supply to the heaters to maintain the
required fuel viscosity. The viscosity controller can be bypassed if necessary.
Normally, only one fuel oil heater is required to maintain the required fuel
injection viscosity.
Connections for a fuel oil homogeniser are fitted after the heaters for a
possible future retro-fit of a homogeniser unit. This would further remove any
impurities remaining in the fuel oil after purification and filtering. These are in
place owing to the more stringent emission regulation in force and also helps
to improve combustion and engine performance.
The heated FO after the viscometer enters the main engine fuel rail on the
suction side of the high pressure fuel pumps. The fuel rail is fitted with a
pressure control valve, set at 6.0 bar, this maintains suction pressure at the high
pressure pumps returning excess fuel back to the mixing chamber and then to
the circulating pumps.
The high pressure FO lines on the main engine are double skinned, any leakage
into the annular space is led to a FO drain tank. The tank is fitted with a high
level alarm which gives warning of a leakage from a fuel injection pipe or
connection. The drain tank has a suction line connected to the FO transfer
pump.

6.2 Generator Engines

The three generator engines are designed to run on HFO at all times, but may
be operated on diesel oil (DO) or gas oil (GO) should that become necessary.
Fuel lines are normally flushed through with DO when the engine is shut down
for prolonged periods or maintenance.
Heavy fuel oil (HFO or LSHFO) is supplied to the generator engines from the
FO service tanks through trace heated supply lines. A flow meter is fitted to the
supply line for the generator engines.
In addition to a fuel supply from the FO service tanks, the generator engines
also have an independent fuel supply from the DO service tank using two
electrically-driven supply pumps and the pneumatically-driven DO flushing
pump, also known as the blackout pump. The air supply is maintained to this
pump (isolated by a solenoid valve) in order that in the event of a blackout, DO
can be supplied to the generators engines in order to enable a generator to be
run-up and placed on load when there is no power available for the
electricallydriven
pumps. There are also two MGO screw-type supply pumps taking their
suction from the MDO service tank.
Supply and return valves at each generator engine fuel inlet allow for changing
individual engines from HFO to DO or vice versa. The DO fuel return line is
fitted with a constant pressure valve set at 2.0 bar.
The high pressure fuel injection lines on the engines are double skinned and
any leakage from the annular space is led to the fuel oil drain tank.
6.3 Auxiliary Boiler Fuel Oil Service System
The fuel oil for the two auxiliary boilers is supplied by fuel oil service pumps
drawing from one of the five following main sources, the HFO/LSHFO settling
tanks, the DO service tank. or the HFO/LSHFO service tanks.
Two fuel supply systems are available depending on whether the burner is
running on heavy fuel oil or gas oil. The system contains service pumps,

return pipes and pressure control equipment. During operation, one fuel oil
service pump is normally selected as the duty pump, with the second placed on
standby for automatic start should the first pump fail in service. During normal
operation in unrestricted areas, the boilers will be operating on heavy oil. For
starting from cold or operation in restricted waters, gas oil can be supplied from
the DO service tank.
HFO System
Depending on the area of operation, the auxiliary boilers can be supplied by
either heavy fuel oil (HFO) or low sulphur heavy fuel oil (LSHFO). During
normal operation in unrestricted waters, the boilers will be operating on HFO.
The fuel is normally supplied from either the HFO or the LSHFO settling
tanks, but the fuel can also be supplied directly from the HFO or the LSHFO
service tank.
Fuel oil is supplied to the FO service pumps through filters. Flow meters are
fitted on the supply lines to record the amount of fuel consumed.
The FO supply system contains two service pumps. One pump will be
supplying fuel to the burners whilst the other is on standby. The selected fuel
oil supply pump circulates fuel at a pressure of 25 bar through the boiler burner
system. If the pressure drops below 15 bar, a pressure sensor will activate an
automatic changeover of the FO booster pumps.
A return line is fitted with a pressure control valve on the discharge side of the
fuel pumps to regulate the fuel pressure and return any excess fuel to the HFO
return pipe to allow for degassing of the fuel oil. In addition to the venting
process, the fuel oil is returned to the fuel oil service pump suction line from
the FO return pipe for further circulation. The vent from the return pipe carries
air/gas back to the FO settling tanks.

The FO fuel oil service pump discharge passes through two fuel oil heaters,
one of which is in service at any one time with the second one on standby. The
heaters raise the fuel oil temperature to allow for optimum fuel atomisation at
the boiler burners. The oil is fed to each boiler via control valves, regulated by
the boiler control system.
When the boiler is in standby, fuel is returned to the return pipe via valves
F268V and F269V. After degassing in the return pipe, the fuel is returned to
the pump suction.
All of the FO pipework is trace heated by small bore steam lines and encased
within the same insulation. The FO supply system may also be changed over
to GO by selected use of the correct valves to allow thorough flushing of the
lines of any remnant HFO.
Gas Oil System
It is necessary to operate the boilers on gas oil (GO) in designated areas. The
boilers will need to be changed over to the gas oil supply system.
The temperature of the gas oil circulating system is controlled by passing
the oil through a fresh water cooled heat exchanger, which is also used by
the generator engines. This keeps the gas oil at a temperature low enough to
prevent gassing-up on the suction side of the pumps. The supply to the cooler
is controlled by the inlet and outlet valves, F204V and F136V respectively. A
bypass valve F133V is also provided.
The gas oil supply passes through a line valve, F251V, prior to a three-way
changeover valve, which also supplies FO from the HFO system.
When operating in gas oil mode, the fuel return is redirected from the boiler FO
return pipe to the boiler MGO return pipe which then directs the return back to

the service pumps suctions via the gas oil cooler.

When operating in gas oil mode, the fuel is circulated using the FO service
pumps as an alternative to a HFO supply.
Preparing the Auxiliary Boiler Fuel Oil System for Operation
The following presumes that the auxiliary boilers are ready for use in all
respects, ie, being full of water and the required valves open or closed as
necessary. Ensure that the FO service tanks are full and any water or sediment
has been drained off.
Figure 6

Figure 7

CHAPTER 7
ONBOARD EXPERIENCES

7.1 Daily Routines And Operating Conditions

As daily basis on board there are many routines and operating conditions
that I experience onboard. Following them should let us to get good results
but the real thing is that we must adapt to everyday circunstances of the
systems in the next part I will first at all give you and insight of the normal or
ideal operations conditions for keeping a good fuel quality and a proper fuel
system working conditions.

Ideal working conditions

With ideal operation I will refer that I will assume there is a Steady and
apropiate temperature in each part of the fuel system,that the fuel quality is
good enough for cleaning the amount of fuel required. Under this conditions
the fuel quality control will be as follow.
The chief engineer will request the amounts and types of fuel required, the
tanks where the fuel is going to be take will be emptied, the fuel is bunkered
and during these bunkering four samples will be taken by continuous drip
method, bunkering is finished sample tests are according to the requested
specification.
When fuel is in the bunker tank the cleaning process will start, daily drain of
water is carried out from settling and service tank. System is set with one
purifier in line sucking from settling and filling the service tank; throughput is
set to be above the consumtion ledding the service tank to overflow in to the
settling tank. After the service tank strainers are set to keep any particles
(usually cleaned every third week) after the feed pump a heater is
positioned leding after to a auto backflush filte thatr will make the last
filtration (usually cleaned every third month) leding the fuel to a booster
pump that will sent fuel the engines.

Low-high MCR(maximum continuous running)

The fluctuation of consumption of the ship will affect in two different ways
the normal operation.
First aspect is the the temperature and for instance the viscosity this
happen due to a increase in flow cause by a high demand of fuel causing
poor heat transfer to the fuel, producing fluctuations in temperature.
Second aspect is the cleaning efficiency of the purifiers as more fuel is
required. The amount of fuel to be cleaned by the purifier will be more so
special arrangement most be done to keep the amount without affecting he
quality. Usually a parallel purifier or series clarifier purifier arrengement will
be needed.

Fuel quality
As better is the fuel quality less treatment will require so the throughput of
purifier can be kept as high as require by one purifier.

Low-high temperature
Not only in the engine room also happen to us that all ship temperature can
affect the consumption of fuel sometimes becoming as high that is
equivalent to the main engine running condition even it is not working at full
MCR or at anchorage ususally the highest comsumption is reached during
cold wheather traying to keep the the fuel, water, cargo and accommodation
temperature. So under cold wheather the the heat demand will be extremely
high leading to a big quantitie of fuel being burned under this conditions the
throughput must be kept high even if we are in low steaming. Temperature
is also in many ways important for the proper treatment temperatures
between 70-80 degrees must be kept for apropiate sedimentation in the
service and settling tank the purifier also requires feed tempreatures
between 92-98 degrees. During temperature fluctuation fail can happen
there are protections that will stop automatically it when going above or

below this type of problem is usually taking place during prolonged

unmanned operation where the controller is not functioning properly.

7.2 Change Over Failure

Viscorator mal function caused high pressure in the lines causing an oil
spill in the purifier room, during the change over procedure in California
secas zone.
21st of October reaching California state SECA zone 13:00hrs on board Cap
Felix experience oil spill due to high pressure in the lines. The Chief engineer
standing order where to keep engine running and proceed to follow the ship
specific manual and procedure for changing over to MDO according to this
procedure the indications that where as follow :
Fuel Change over procedure from HFO to MGO
(Starting condition: (at sea, HFO circuit 125C)
a) Reduce M/E load to 3/4 of normal sea going (full manoeuvring 75
RPM)
b) Shut the heat tracing lines for M/E & Generators fuel pipelines.
(important)
c) Switch the viscorator from Viscosity control to manual temperature
control
d) Increase Cylinder lubrication (0.9 gram/Kw-h)
e) Set the Viscorator down in 2C increments, in order to bring down
the Fuel temperature to about 90C in 1 hour 30 minutes. (Typically
one setting every 5 minutes).
f) Change over to MGO: open valves OD019F & OD034F ; Shut valve
OF070F (Nota: In normal condition, MGO Service tk valve OD011F
already opened.)
g) As the monitored fuel mixture viscosity value goes down, reduce the
temperature settings on the viscometer in 2C increments. (Typicaly

one setting every 5 minutes, thus 1 h 30 minutes).(Note: The ideal is

to slowly reduce the temperature until no steam is supplied ; with
special attention to maintain the viscosity above 3 cSt) Our
experience indicated that the MGO will stabilise at around 55C
(3.4cST) ; heat source being the running generators.
h) let the Fuel Oil service tank cool down to 70C (In anticipation to the
eventual Fuel change over procedure from MGO to HFO)
i) During Mgo operation, the Fuel backwash filter dirty discharge may
have to be trottled in order to avoid system pressure drop during
backwash.
Fuel Change over procedure from MGO to HFO
(Starting condition: (at sea, MGO circuit 55C) (HFO service tk 70C)
a) Reduce M/E load to 3/4 of normal sea going (full manoeuvring 75
RPM)
b) Switch the viscorator from Viscosity control to manual temperature
control
c) Set the Viscorator up in 1C increments, in order to bring up the Fuel
temperature to about 60C in 30 minutes. (Typically one setting every
6 minutes).
d) Change over to HFO: open valve OF070F ; Shut valves OD019F &
OD034F
e) As the monitored fuel mixture viscosity value goes UP, increase the
temperature settings on the viscorator in 1C increments. (typically at
a rate of 1C per 2 minutes) (Therefore, approximate duration of 1 hr
is to be expected).(Nota: The ideal is to slowly increase the
temperature allowing parts to warm-up evenly ; with special attention
to maintain the viscosity above 3 cSt, up to 20cSt)
f) Open the heat tracing line Valves for M/E & Generators fuel pipelines.
g) Reduce the Cylinder lubrication to the normal required setting/rate.

h) Fuel backwash filter dirty discharge to be returned to the fully opened

position.
Procedure was follow by the engineers but one important, but at that time not show
as necessary was forgotten. Usually a connecting valve to the settling where open
for some time to relief and flush the lines from the residual fuel.
According to the procedures the the adjustment of the viscorator will led to a easy
and slow change over. But what happen if there is a failure in the viscorator? We
discover during a change over that practically our life are in the hands of the
viscorator if we manualy dont assure a safe way to relief pressures in the lines.
Whawithot happen was that the viscorator was

not giving us real values of

viscosity and neither of temperature. There is no way for any one to notice unless
there were a failure in the system maybe the deviation from the set value where
not so big but when dealing with a change over this is extremely important. After
few minutes we start seeing small leaks in filters for boiler and after few seconds
the pressure due to the MDO-HFO mix expansion and gasification make one filter
cap to broke spilling every where MDO-HFO mix with high pressure in the purifier
room. Immediately the filter valve where isolated and the pressure realese to the
settling by means of the special valve. Review where done to the procedure and
after this the recommendation become a requirement.
7.3 The Rough Wheather
October 22nd 2015 middle of Atlantic Ocean 16.00hrs
After departure from California U.S.A. to Africa (Rep. Congo) through cape horn
the souht
main engine low temperature on units number number two and seven the second
engineer proceed to the engine control room immediately try to detach the fuel rack
but it where imposible.

CONCLUSION

Operating special areas zones like California waters have represented an

enrichment experience. That have let me know the implications and challenges
that ships experience with the new regulations about low sulphur fuels.
In all industries safety is important, but definitely in naval industry safety is of
utmost importance, its one of the principal subjects to take into consideration.

For EURONAV protecting its crew; caring for the environment, and of course the
safety of the vessel are priority subjects. The continuous training of the crew is
without doubt what assures that the vessel and the voyage suffer of no
inconvenience.

During my time on board on MT ILMA and Cap Felix, I was able to live the
experience as an engine cadet working in nearly extreme situations, many
problems involving fuel system malfunction. And in reality, when its a situation like

this every body is expecting from engine crew to work as faster and accurate as
possible. The fuel system is and extremely sensitive factor on board due to the fire
risk and power fail implications that can lead to delays or permanent loss of
propulsion. Even a changeover of fuel if is not done appropriately can lead to leaks
or explosions as happen to us on Cap Felix due to high temperature handling of
MDO. Special attention must be paid all the time because even if you are making
the proper procedures there is too many factors that can lead to a fail. Most of the
activities that have to be executed to keep and appropriate fuel quality are related
to crew handling and treatment so even if you get a poor quality fuel if appropriate
precautions, treatment and handling is given no problems should overcome to the
system, engines or boilers.

For a cadet, following the instructions of your superior is fundamental.

The engine room systems are not something to be taken lightly, you should always
proceed with caution and follow procedures and instructions.

This experience that Euronav allowed me to live on board one of their tankers have
let me get the conclusion that every ship is different and has her own soul.
Consequently what might be OK for one vessel may not befit the other. It appears
that the solution to the challenges involves a lot of trial and error adapting the fuel
system gradually.

ANNEX

Glossary

ASTM: American Standard Test Method

CARB :California Air Resources Board

CO2 :Carbon Dioxide

DMA : Distillate Marine Oil of Class A

DMB: Distillate Marine Oil of Class B

DMX: Distillate Marine Oil of Class X

ECA: Emission Control Areas

EN: European Norm

EU: European Union

FAME: Fatty Acid Methyl Esters

HFO : Heavy Fuel Oil

IMO : International Maritime Organization

ISO :International Organization for Standardization

LSFO : Low Sulphur Fuel Oil

MARPOL : International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution From

Ships

MGO: Middle Gas Oil

SCR: Selective Catalytic Reactor

SOLAS : Safety Of Life At Sea

TBN: Total Base Number Frazil: Fine spicules, plates or discoids of ice
suspended in water. In rivers and lakes, it is formed in super-cooled
turbulent waters

CCAI: Calculated Carbon Aromaticity Index

CII: Calculated Ignition Index

DM: Distillate Marine (as used in ISO 8217)

H2S: Hydrogen Sulphide

IMO: International Maritime Organization

ISO: International Standards Organisation (International Organisation for

Standardisation)

KOH: Potassium Hydroxide

NOx: Nitrous Oxides

RM: Residue Marine (as used in ISO 8217)

SG: Specific Gravity

SI: International System of Units

SOx: Sulphurous Oxides

TAN: Total Acid Number

LIST OF REFERENCES

ISO 8217, 2010, (Fuel Standard for marine distillate fuels)

Hyundai Heavy industries technical manual for F.O viscosity control unit (MT
ILMA).

Pounders Marine Diesel Engines and Gas Turbines Eighth edition (Fuel
properties).

Ship specific manual Cap Felix 2014

Maersk Ilma Machinery Manual March 2014

ABS Europe Engineering manuals(Masters guide for using fuel oil)

Doosan Man B&W Fuel treatment manual.

Doosan Man B&W service letters.