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Abstract
In the United Kingdom, the Technology Foresight Programme wHMSO, Progress Through Partnership 1 Ž1995. 126 pp.x, through its
Transport Panel, revealed the requirement for key generic technologies and scientific research in relation to automobiles. One of the
‘three major development opportunities which will help accommodate increased demand in a sustainable way’ was identified as ‘ vehicles
with greater efficiency and reduced environmental impact’. In addition, further studies in ‘fuel efficiency’ and ‘simulation and modelling’
were recommended. The total scope of tribological considerations with regard to the above prospective research themes is immense and
the present paper will focus upon the major frictional components of the automobile engine, that is, the bearings, the valve train and the
piston assembly. In particular, the current position surrounding the modelling of these components will be reviewed and future
possibilities identified. Prediction of overall engine friction will be addressed and the specific issues of modelling of lubricant behaviour
and the role of surface topography touched upon. q 1998 Elsevier Science S.A. All rights reserved.
0043-1648r98r$ - see front matter q 1998 Elsevier Science S.A. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 0 4 3 - 1 6 4 8 Ž 9 8 . 0 0 2 5 3 - 1
2 C.M. Taylorr Wear 221 (1998) 1–8
The automobile
Power to wheels 12%
during city driving
Cost of wasted $0.88
powerrl Ž$1rl
petrol, UK.
Total cost to $40 billion
Fig. 1. Typical fuel energy distribution in an internal combustion engine.
UKryear Ž25
million vehicles, 10,000
mileryear, 5.5 mile rl.
Total worldwide $1 trillion
The laws of thermodynamics indicate that with the costryear Ž625
Carnot cycle, an ideal engine could achieve a maximum million vehicles.
efficiency of about 85% for typical heat generation and
rejection temperatures. The low heat rejection and the high From the information in Fig. 3, it will be noted that a
thermal efficiency cannot be achieved in practice for a reduction in the mechanical losses of, say, 10% would lead
number of reasons. Quite naturally, the substantial thermal to a reduction in the fuel consumption of 1.5%. For an
losses which are encountered have led to engineers and average vehicle lifetime, driving a distance of 125,000
researchers devoting enormous energies to improving the miles, using the data in the box above, this would amount
efficiency of the IC engine, particularly since the energy to a fuel saving of 340 l of petrol during the lifetime of the
crisis of the mid 1970s. In particular there, have been car, equating to about $340, quite apart from environmen-
intense studies of the combustion process and engine tal gains due to reduced emissions. On a worldwide scale,
designrfuelling development improvements linked to this.
Further, low heat loss rejection engines have received
attention and maximum brake efficiencies of over 45%
have been reported. However, it has been recognised that
worthwhile efficiency gains might be effectively had by
paying attention to the more modest mechanical losses.
Fig. 2. Mechanical losses distribution in an internal combustion engine. Fig. 3. Power distribution in an automobile during city driving.
C.M. Taylorr Wear 221 (1998) 1–8 3
the potential economies, in the round, are clearly substan- Žb. Elastohydrodynamic—in which the surfaces are also
tial. in theory separated, but the contact is much more concen-
In order to address the durability and frictional losses in trated, the films are thinner and other physical phenomena
the major tribological components of an automobile en- Želastic distortion of the surfaces and the effect of pressure
gine, it is necessary to have a clear understanding of the on dynamic viscosity. are influential.
engineering science underpinning their operation. Cur- Žc. Mixed—in which a lubricated contact experiences
rently, the ability to achieve improved modelling of com- some degree of asperity contact between surfaces and the
ponents and deliver reliable predictions of behaviour, be- overall behavioural characteristics and load capacity are
fore cutting metal in a prototype, is a major objective of all defined by both Želasto. hydrodynamic and boundary Žsee
industrial sectors including the automotive field. This is below. influences.
being made possibly by the spectacular advance in compu- Žd. Boundary—in which it is the physical, and in
tational power now available on the desktop of the engi- particular chemical, actions of thin films attached to the
neering designer, coupled with substantive developments surfaces which define performance—lubricant dynamic
in the powerful solvers needed to secure solutions to the viscosity is not important but the additive package will
complex equations arising in the modelling. The remainder have a significant role.
of this paper will examine the major tribological engine Fig. 4 reflects the enormous challenge facing the lubri-
components from this standpoint, investigating the current cant technologist with regard to the use of a single product
position and prospective developments, and will identify in an engine. The tribological components rely upon differ-
some important developments and possible contributions. ent lubrication mechanisms at different times, and the oil
In interpreting this, it is important to have an understand- specification will be a compromise in terms of durability,
ing of the basic aspects of lubrication as reflected in the energy efficiency and emission requirements.
sketch version of the Stribeck diagram shown in Fig. 4.
In summary the modes of lubrication shown in Fig. 4
are the following. 2. Automobile engine tribological components
Ža. Hydrodynamic—in which the surfaces are com-
2.1. Engine bearings
pletely separated by a film of lubricant, and the generation
of pressures in the film to carry the load is achieved by The modern day analysis of engine bearings dates back
classical hydrodynamic action, in which the dynamic vis- to the mid 1960s and is associated primarily with the
cosity of the lubricant is the prime lubricant characteristic. method developed by Booker w3,4x. In this approach, now
computerized, the applied bearing loading which is taken
to be known a priori, is balanced by the load capacity
generated by hydrodynamic action in the thin fluid film.
The method yields the important design parameter, the
minimum film thickness, together with an estimate of
maximum lubricant pressure and other parameters as de-
sired. The Mobility Method developed by Booker has
become a remarkably robust and reliable design tool for
engine bearing design. As with the other engine friction
components, its predictions are, however, only benchmark
because of the assumptions made in the analysis. The list
below is helpful in scoping the conditions typically en-
countered in a modern day main or big end bearing w5x.
Fig. 4. The Stribeck diagram identifying the regimes of lubrication as The assumptions made in the mobility analysis are quite
conventionally associated with specific lubricated engine components. restrictive and these are listed below, with a corresponding
4 C.M. Taylorr Wear 221 (1998) 1–8
indication of some instances where these have been re- of view. For the last 20 years, almost all the major
laxed by researchers. automobile manufacturers have experienced cam and fol-
lower failures and problems persist.
There are, of course, a wide variety of valve train
Mobility method Relaxation of assumption—
mechanisms Že.g., push rod, pivoted follower, direct act-
of analysis of engine design challenges
ing, roller follower, desmodromic, etc.. and general con-
bearings—assumptions
siderations of cam and follower lubrication may be found
Short-bearing Full width-bearing analysis in Taylor w19,20x. A cam and follower contact is a form of
analysis straightforwardly possible, but concentrated contact Žnotionally elastohydrodynamic.
at substantial cost in analysis which is traditionally reflected as operating in the bound-
complexity and time. ary lubrication regime Žsee Fig. 4.. That is, the viscosity of
Circumferential Analysis of groovingrhole the lubricant is seen to be unimportant in the lubrication
symmetry effects emerging w6,7x but process, but the establishment of thin surface films of
complex. molecular proportions due to physical and chemical ac-
Rigid surfaces Elastic and thermal effects tions linked to the additive package, are seen to be crucial.
being considered w8–12x, but This is indeed the case, though more recent studies Žsee
complex and difficult to derive Ref. w19x. have already evidenced the contribution of elas-
generalised design data. tohydrodynamic lubrication and the importance of effec-
Perfect Misalignment rarely considered. tive mechanical design to establish the best lubrication
alignment conditions possible. Forms of zinc dialkyldithiophosphate
Lubricant Oil film history effects possible ŽZDDP. are the most common extreme pressure additive
freely available now, with computational effort used in oils to establish the thin films required; however,
becoming reasonable w13,6,7x. the prospect of the emission of zinc and phosphorous
Newtonian Consideration of shear thinning being seen as unacceptable for an environmental stand-
lubricant and pressure viscosity effects point is a real one. The additive to replace ZDDP is not
beginning to emerge w14,15x. apparent at the current time.
No vibrational Neglect of component inertia In the broadest sense, the valve train presents a wide
instability reasonable but little considera- spectrum of contacts to interest the tribological designer—
tion of bearing stiffness and the camsrfollowers, camshaft bearings, valve guides, lash
damping on overall vibrational adjusters, bucket guides, pivots and belt drives. Even if
characteristic of engine bearings. one restricts interest to the most important couple, the cam
Isothermal Few studies of thermal effects and follower, the range of tribological interests are exten-
in bearings w16,17x or total sive— metallurgyrfailurerwear, geometryrleftrkine-
engine thermal environment. matics, dynamicsrvibrationsrshockrnoise, additive pack-
agerboundary lubricationrsurface layers, friction, variable
Studies of the performance of engine bearings, which valve timing, fluid film lubrication and design philosophy.
were so active in the 1960s and 1970s, have taken second The design of a cam and follower from a tribological
place to development of the tribological understanding of context has improved significantly in the last 20 years, and
piston ringsrpiston assemblies and the valve train. How- has lead to the development of straightforward and sound
ever, evidence is beginning to emerge that with the contin- procedures and software Že.g., Ref. w18x.. The steps are:
ued development of smaller engines, with higher power Ø Kinematic considerations using standard methods of
outputs and speeds, that bearing problems are re-emerging. differential geometry;
Increasing attention to engine bearing design in all its Ø Load calculation, normally considering only inertia and
aspects is a priority for the future. spring effects;
Ø Film thickness evaluation from standard elastohydrody-
2.2. ValÕe train namic formulae;
Ø Stress calculations from Hertzian theory;
Valve train lubrication problems have presented diffi- Ø Friction and power calculations with a limiting traction
culties to engine designers throughout the century. How- assumption.
ever, the introduction of the overhead camshaft in the early Although such design procedures do not address di-
1970s led to increased difficulties. OHC arrangements rectly boundary lubrication effects and the failure mecha-
allowed improved production arrangements since the cylin- nisms which are encountered—pitting, scuffing and polish-
der head could be assembled separately from the block. In ing wear—they do enable sound decisions as to mechani-
addition, they operated better at high speeds and proved to cal design which contribute extensively to the production
be less expensive w18x. It is unfortunate that OHC designs of effective mechanisms. The figures below will help to
were found to be inherently poor from a tribological point enable a feel for the operating conditions of the cam and
C.M. Taylorr Wear 221 (1998) 1–8 5
logical conditions of a piston ring can vary widely with a 3.1. Lubricant modelling
host of influential parameters. However, the details below
will once again give an engineering feel for the scale of A recent paper w28x has described practical applications
important factors. On this occasion, the data are represen- of lubricant modelling to IC engines. The adoption of wear
tative of modern, 2-l, four-cylinder petrol engine with fuel models linked to lubrication conditions has already been
injection, four valvesrcylinder and a double overhead touched upon in the present paper and Coy referred to such
camshaft w26x. studies at the Shell Thornton Research Centre, UK in
relation to camrfollower and piston ringrcylinder liner
Conditions associated with the piston ring and cylinder contacts. He also commented upon engine bearing wear,
liner contact of a modern IC petrol engine considerations of which will be an important area for
development in the not too distant future. In particular,
Engine speed 2500 rpm; maximum cylinder pressure 4 though, his paper drew attention to the importance of
MPa; ISO VG 100 lubricant; oil inlet and water improved modelling of the lubricant. Typically, lubrication
outlet temperature 808C; BMEP 0.5 MPa analyses have taken dynamic viscosity Žas a function of
Piston land temperature above ring 1 2008C operating temperature. to be the significant lubricant char-
Piston land temperature below ring 3 1908C acteristic. For elastohydrodynamic conditions, the effect of
Žoil control ring. pressure on viscosity has also been considered. Coy identi-
TDC Žring 1. mean cylinder liner 1258C fied that we are now in a position to be more extensive in
temperature incorporating a range of lubricant characteristic behaviours
Minimum oil film thickness ŽTDC ring 1. 0.9 mm in analyses. Such considerations have already begun in
Minimum oil film thickness Žring 3. 0.5 mm relation to the prediction of the performance of the individ-
Mid-stroke oil film thickness Žring 1. 1.6 mm ual engine tribological components, and upon engine fric-
Ring 1 friction Žrun in. 0.15 kW tion and durability in particular. The improved incorpora-
Ring pack friction Žrun in. 0.49 kW tion of lubricant behaviour is an important area for auto-
motive engine tribology and the box below identifies
Some particularly interesting developments surrounding current and prospective rheological considerations.
piston assembly analysis include consideration of hydro-
carbon emission effects Že.g., Ref. w27x. and the linkage for
the first time of piston ring lubrication and wear models Lubricant rheological analytical considerations in relation
w26x. The latter aspect will be touched upon later in this to automotive engine tribology
paper but the following will serve to identify a range of v Temperature on dynamic viscosity
important potential design and analytical considerations for v Pressure on dynamic viscosity
piston assemblies in the future. v Shear rate on dynamic viscosity a
v Viscoelastic effects for engine bearingsa
a
Future piston assembly research and design challenges With relaxation time effects as influenced by molecular
structure, temperature- and pressure-dependent viscosity
v Enhanced ring and liner wear modelling linked to
and density
lubrication model and engine life history predictions
v Integrated piston and piston ring analyses
v Improved materialsrcoating considerations linked to
3.2. Surface topography
durability and failure
v Improved understanding of lubricant transport
mechanisms In its broadest context, the ability to influence the
v Influence of surface topography and mixed lubrication behaviour of a lubricated contact by careful consideration
v Three dimensional analysis improvements, including of surface topography influences, and thus achieve a de-
non-circular borerpiston considerations sired optimum performance, is a vibrant area of research at
v Lubricant characteristicsrdegradation and their the current time. By surface topography influences, the
influences potential effect of both profile and surface finish are
v Lubricant chemistryrreaction film studies implied. The area is a vast one upon which to comment
and it is only possible to draw out a few examples with
regard to the frictional elements of the internal combustion
engine.
3. Other considerations
3.3. Engine bearings
It is proposed to touch briefly upon two specific aspects
of engine tribology which merit particular focus at the The remarkably thin films which are predicted to occur
current time—lubricant modelling and surface topography. in automobile engine bearings are suggesting that mixed
C.M. Taylorr Wear 221 (1998) 1–8 7
Fig. 5. Effect of shaft lobing Žhere nine lobes. on mean hydrodynamic Fig. 7. Predicted ring profile after 120 h as compared with the measured
pressure in an automotive bearing. profiles.
8 C.M. Taylorr Wear 221 (1998) 1–8
honing process in finishing cylinder liners in order to tioner, with potentially significant influence upon wealth
promote satisfactory lubrication and avoid scuffing has creation and quality of life.
been recognised, if not understood.
Past research on piston ringrcylinder liner tribological
performance has concentrated entirely on the lubrication of References
the contact. Surface topography effects have been incorpo-
w1x HMSO Transport Statistics Great Britain 2 Ž1995. 57-58.
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