Fa-Jia, usually (although inaccurately[1][3]) translated as Legalism is a classical school of

Chinese philosophy. Its reformers focused on the centralized management of personnel and
state through the manipulation of protocol or interests like greed.[4][5] The developments
representative of the term were important in Chinese history, forming guiding principles for
the First Emperor and imperial administration. Sometimes compared with modern social
sciences,[2][6] they rejected their Confucian contemporaries espousal of a rule based solely
on the charisma of the aristocrats as undermining to their ruling patrons.[7][8] Highly effective
in the short run, the "legalists" dismissiveness of traditional culture, morality and "antiministerial" approach earned them enmity. Continued use of their methods and the
administrative developments that culminated during the Warring States period[3] would be
often overlaid with Confucian ideology and customs.[9]
The term fa-jia was introduced by the Chinese historian Sima Tan[10] (c. 165 BC 110 BCE) in
his essay, The Essential Implications of the Six Houses of Thought." (The other five schools
being Confucianism, Daoism, Mohism, the School of Names, and the School of Naturalists.)
The originating Canon of the Mohists, who were given their own school,[11] explain fa as
ideas, compasses, or circles. Sima Tans criteria held that Fa philosophers disregarded kinship,
treating everyone equally according to administrative protocol.[1] His description, perhaps
accurate for Qin reformer Shang Yang reads that they "are strict and have little kindness, but
their alignment of the divisions between lord and subject, superior and inferior, cannot be
improved upon... Fajia do not distinguish between kin and stranger or differentiate between
noble and base; all are judged as one."[12]
Although usually referring to reformative philosophers of the Warring States period, Fa-Jia
come to often be used, sometimes derogatorily, as the term for what has been referred to
modernly as the Realist[3] or Realpolitikal[13] thought of the ancient Chinese more generally,
including Shen Dao and Shen-Buhai, and others disliked by the Confucian orthodoxy like the
otherwise Confucianistic reformers Guan Zhong and Xunzi,[14] and Huang-Lao Taoists.[15]
Ten texts are listed in the Han imperial catalogue as belonging to the Fa school, but only two
have survived to modern day intact, namely the Book of Lord Shang, and the more widely read
and "philosophically engaging" Han Fei Zi, which attempted to synthesize earlier "Legalist"
philosophy. Fragments of the two Shenzi books of foundational philosophers Shen Buhai and
Shen Dao have been recovered, while the other six books stopped being circulated more than
a millennia ago.
Though each of the competing schools sought to provide an answer for the attainment of
"sociopolitical stability", "Legalist" thinkers were, Yuri Pines states, at the "forefront of
administrative and sociopolitical innovation", and some, namely Shang Yang (the Prime
Minister of Duke Xiao of Qin), were "leading reformers of their age". Following his reforms the
Qin polity allowed the common people to gain in rank if they performed well, in contrast to
states that allowed only the well-connected to gain higher ranks.
Xunzi and parts of the Lshi Chunqiu may also be considered relevant,[2] and some of the
recently translated Mawangdui Silk Texts are quite Legalistic.[16]
Overview[edit]
Main article: Political Thought in Ancient China
Written around 240 BCE, the Han Feizi is commonly thought of as the greatest of all Legalist
texts, bringing together his predecessors ideas into a coherent ideology.[17] By Han Fei's

standards a good leader must not only accept the advice of loyal ministers when shown to be
in error, but also extend courtesy to those beneath him or her and not be too avaricious.
Stressing that ministers and other officials too often sought favours from foreign powers by
abusing their positions, he urged rulers to control these individuals using the two handles of
punishment and favour through Fa (methods, standards),[2] preventing ministers and other
officials from performing some other official's duties and punishing them if they attempted to
blind the ruler with words or failed to warn them.
In his History of Chinese Philosophy, Fung Yu-lan divided the Legalists into three groups, one
laying stress on the concept of shi (circumstantial advantage, power, or authority) popularized
by Shen Dao; the second on fa (law, regulation or, standard) of Shang Yang; and the third on
the shu (methods or strategy) of Shen Buhai.[18][19]
'Shi' (, p 'sh', lit."situational advantage"): It is the position of the ruler, not the ruler himself
or herself, that holds the power. Therefore, analysis of the trends, the context, and the facts
are essential for a real ruler.
'Fa' (Chinese: , p 'f', lit. "method" or "standard"): The law code must be clearly written and
made public. All people under the ruler were equal before the law. Laws should reward those
who obey them and punish accordingly those who dare to break them. Thus it is guaranteed
that actions taken are systematically predictable. In addition, the system of law, not the ruler,
ran the state, a statement of rule of law. If the law is successfully enforced, even a weak ruler
will be strong.
'Shu' (, p 'sh', lit. "technique" or "procedure"): Special tactics and 'secrets' are to be
employed by the ruler to make sure others don't take over control of the state. Especially
important is that no one can fathom the ruler's motivations, and thus no one can know which
behavior might help them get ahead, other than following the laws.
Philosophy[edit]
To aid his patron in preventing misgovernance, Shen Buhai (c. 400 BC c. 337 BC), a minister
of the state of Han, formalized the concept of shu, the bureaucratic model of administration.
Shen Buhai argued that the ruler's most important asset was an intelligent minister. He
advised that rulers should keep a low profile, hide their true intentions and feign nonchalance,
limiting themselves to judging ministers performances. It was the ministers duty to
understand specific affairs, which the ruler did not involve himself in. Theoretically, by
cloaking both his desires and his will, the Emperors checked sycophancy and forced his
subject to heed his dictates. Interestingly, according to the Han's Grand Historian Sima Qian
(c.14586 BC), while the First Qin Emperor hid himself from the rest of the world (perhaps due
to a desire to attain immortality) and thus maintained a low profile, he did not necessarily
follow all of the philosopher's advice on the role of the ruler.
Pivotal Qin reformer Shang Yang[20] (390338 BCE) emphasized strict obedience to what had
become a legal system (fa), abolishing direct primogeniture and weakening the power of the
feudal lords[21] and developing the industry and resources of the peripheral Qin state,
transforming it into a militarily powerful kingdom. With Shang Yang's establishment of a legal
system, Qin became strongly centralized, reforming the aristocracy into an open officialdom
ranked by merit.
The Han Feizi credits Shang Yang with the theory of ding fa (fixing the standards) and yi min
(treating the people as one). The polity created by Shang Yang aimed for economic wealth,
large population and, and as a result, state power. Shang Yang enacted measures to stimulate

economic growth and immigration, rewarding farmers who cultivated wasteland.[21] Shang
Yang's reforms allowed the common people to gain in rank if they performed well. Soldiers
could gain in rank according to the number of heads the soldiers collected (Lu Buwei reversed
the policy of head collecting as Qin gained in strength). A soldier may even gain noble rank. In
contrast, some other states allowed only the well-connected to gain higher ranks. An example
of this would be L Buwei, who originally a merchant, was able to become Chancellor of China,
an occurrence that would never happen in the other six states.
Jixia Academy's Shen Dao (350 c. 275 BC) emphasized that the head of state was endowed
with shi, the "mystery of authority", commanding the respect and obedience of the people.
The emperors very figure brought legitimacy. In the philosophy of Shen Dao and other such
philosophers, the establishment of order and the Sovereign's restraining hold on the state
generates the stability necessary for any rule at all. Shen Dao advised the ruler to monopolize
authority in-order to prevent its abuse by feudal magnates.[22] Shen Dao enjoined the ruler to
make no judgements,[23] instead relying on protocol to reward or penalize ministers according
to their performance.[1]
Qin dynasty[edit]
Main article: Qin dynasty
This intrastate realpolitik would end up devouring the philosophers themselves. Holding that, if
punishments were heavy and the law equally applied, neither the powerful nor the weak would
be able to escape consequences, Shang Yang advocated the states right to punish even the
parents tutor, and run afoul of the future King Huiwen of Qin (c.338311 BC). Whereas at one
point, he had the power to exile his opponents (and, thus, eviscerate individual criticism) to
border regions of the state, he was captured by a law he had introduced and died being torn
into pieces by chariots. Similarly, Han Fei would end up being poisoned by his envious former
classmate Li Si, who in turn would be killed (under the law he had introduced) by the
aggressive and violent Second Qin Emperor that he had helped to take the thrones.
However, guided by their thought, the First Qin Emperor Qin Shi Huang conquered and unified
the China's warring states into thirty-six administrative provinces with a standardized writing
system, under what is commonly thought of as the first Chinese Empire, the Qin dynasty, all
based upon law. Though the dynasty fell with the death of its emperor, the political theory
developed during the formative Warring States period would still influence every dynasty
thereafter, as well as the confucian philosophy that still underlie Chinese political and juridical
institutions.[24] Reflecting the philosopher's passion for order and structure, Qin soldiers were
only mobilized when both halves of tiger-shaped tallies (one held by the ruler and the other by
the commanding general) were brought together. Likewise, all documents in the empire had to
have recorded the year they were written, the scribe who copied them, and up to the exact
hour of delivery.
Accepting Shang Yangs earlier emphasis on the standardization of weights and measures, the
Qin Shi Huang would also accept Shang Yangs philosophy that no individual in the state
should be above the law (by ensuring harsh punishments for all cases of dissent) and that
families should be divided into smaller households. While there is reason to doubt Sima Qians
claim that Qin Shi Huang did in fact divide households into groups of ten, certainly the other
examples of standardization and administrative organization undertaken by the First Emperor
reflect the importance of philosopher's thought in Qin law.
Later influence[edit]

With the coming of the Han dynasty, the reputation of Legalism suffered from its association
with the former Qin dynasty. But although Confucianism was promoted by the new emperors,
the government continued to be run by Legalists. Emperor Wu of Han (14087 BC) barred
Legalist scholars from official positions and established a university for the study of the
Confucian classics.[25] Although the emperor acted as a patron of Confucianism, his policies
and his most trusted advisers were Legalist.[26] An official ideology cloaking Legalist practice
with Confucian rhetoric would endure throughout the imperial period, a tradition commonly
described as wir nif (Chinese: ; literally: "outside Confucian, inside Legalist").[27]
During the Sui and Tang dynasty, Buddhist ideas were also part of the external face of the
imperial system.
The Confucian thinker Xun Zi is sometimes considered as being influenced by or having
nourished Legalist ideas, mostly because of two of his disciples (Li Si and Han Fei).
Legalism (or nomism), in Christian theology, is the act of putting law above gospel by
establishing requirements for salvation beyond repentance and faith in Jesus Christ and
reducing the broad, inclusive and general precepts of the Bible to narrow and rigid moral
codes.[1] It is an over-emphasis of discipline of conduct, or legal ideas, usually implying an
allegation of misguided rigour, pride, superficiality, the neglect of mercy, and ignorance of the
grace of God or emphasizing the letter of law at the expense of the spirit. Legalism is alleged
against any view that obedience to law, not faith in God's grace, is the pre-eminent principle
of redemption. On the Biblical viewpoint that redemption is not earned by works, but that
obedient faith is required to enter and remain in the redeemed state, see Covenantal nomism.
The words 'legalism' or 'legalist' do not occur in the Old or New Testaments. Legalism's root
word, "law" (Greek nomos), occurs frequently in the New Testament, and sometimes is
interpreted as legalism. In 1921, Ernest De Witt Burton stated that in Gal. 2:16, "nomou is here
evidently used ... in its legalistic sense, denoting divine law viewed as a purely legalistic
system made up of statutes, on the basis of obedience or disobedience to which individuals
are approved or condemned as a matter of debt without grace. This is divine law as the
legalist defined it."[2] The Greek of Paul's day lacked any term corresponding to the distinct
position of "legalism", "legalist", or "legalistic", leading C.E.B. Cranfield to commend "the
possibility that Pauline statements which at first sight seem to disparage the law, were really
directed not against the law itself but against that misunderstanding and misuse of it for which
we now have a convenient terminology" (legalism).[3] Messianic Jewish Bible translator David
H. Stern cited these two scholars to support the translation framework that often "'nomos'
means 'legalism' and not God's Torah", especially in Paul's constructs erga nomou (literally
"works of law", rendered by Stern "legalistic observance of Torah commands") and upo nomon
(literally "under law", rendered by Stern by 13 words, "in subjection to the system which
results from perverting the Torah into legalism").[4]
One concept of legalism, the belief that salvation can be earned by obedience to laws, is
referred to in various New Testament books, including Galatians. In this case, some Jews who
had become Christians believed that in order to obtain salvation, both faith in Christ (as
Messiah), and obedience to the Mosiac laws were required, such as the cases of the
circumcision controversy and the Incident at Antioch. Generally, however, these cases are
referred to as the Judaizer controversy, rather than a legalism controversy, but the two are
related.
Legalism refers to any doctrine which states salvation comes strictly from adherence to the
law. It can be thought of as a works-based religion. Groups in the New Testament said to be
falling into this category include the Pharisees, Sadducees, Scribes, Judaizers, and Nicolaitans.
They are legalists because they emphasized obeying the Law of Moses, in the case of the

Pharisees and Scribes, to the letter without understanding the concept of grace. Jesus
condemned their legalism in Matthew 23. The Pharisees love of the praises of men for their
strict adherence is said to be a prime example of legalism.
Legalism is sometimes confused with obedience. New Testament books such as Romans,
speak of grace and obedience together. An example is found in Romans 1:5 (New American
Standard Version) speaking of Christ 'through whom we have received grace and apostleship
to bring about the obedience of faith among all the Gentiles, for His name's sake...' The goal of
receiving the grace was to bring about obedience of faith. Here grace, faith and obedience are
tied together. Other references are in Acts 5:29, 32; Romans 16:19; 2 Corinthians 7:15;
Hebrews 5:9.
Legalism is also confused with discipline, which is often spoken of in a positive light. See 1
Corinthians 9:17; 1 Timothy 4:7; 2 Timothy 1:7 and Hebrews 12:511.
A third common misunderstanding of legalism is the word law. Law in many places in the Bible
refers to the Law of Moses, see also Biblical law in Christianity. In Galatians the Judaizers were
trying to insist that salvation required that a person be circumcised prior to obeying the Law of
Christ. Galatians 2:16 says, "Knowing that a man is not justified by the works of the law, but
by the faith of Jesus Christ, even we have believed in Jesus Christ, that we might be justified
by the faith of Christ, and not by the works of the law: for by the works of the law shall no flesh
be justified" (King James Version). The faith here is the Law of Christ and the law here is the
Law of Moses. The legalism of the Judaizers was that obedience to the law of Moses was
necessary to be saved.
Legalism in the New Testament is believed by some as being revealed by the life of Saul prior
to his conversion. Some believe that Saul sought to redeem himself by his works of
persecution of the church and its ultimate destruction. Acts 26:911 reveals, "I verily thought
with myself, that I ought to do many things contrary to the name of Jesus of Nazareth. Which
thing I also did in Jerusalem: and many of the saints did I shut up in prison, having received
authority from the chief priests; and when they were put to death, I gave my voice against
them. And I punished them oft in every synagogue, and compelled them to blaspheme; and
being exceedingly mad against them, I persecuted them even unto strange cities" (King James
Version). Galatians 1:1314 states, "For ye have heard of my conversation in time past in the
Jews' religion, how that beyond measure I persecuted the church of God, and wasted it: And
profited in the Jews' religion above many my equals in mine own nation, being more
exceedingly zealous of the traditions of my fathers" (King James Version). These two texts
emphasize the nature of Saul's religion, works.
However, in this passage the obedience is not tied to the obeying of specific Old Testament
laws, such as keeping Sabbath or circumcision.

Icon of James the Just, whose judgment was adopted in the Apostolic Decree of Acts 15:1929,
c. AD 50.
At the Council of Jerusalem, c. 50, James the Just decreed the Apostolic Decree:
"Wherefore my sentence is, that we trouble not them, which from among the Gentiles are
turned to God: But that we write unto them, that they abstain from pollutions of idols, and
[from] fornication, and [from] things strangled, and [from] blood.[1] For Moses of old time hath
in every city them that preach him, being read in the synagogues every Sabbath day" (Acts
15:1921).

Though the Apostolic Decree is no longer observed by many Christian denominations today, it
is still observed in full by the Greek Orthodox.[5] and it was a very effective philosophy during
that time.
In intra-Christian relations[edit]
Roman Catholic Church[edit]
In Roman Catholicism, good works are done in service to God and one's neighbour, by faith
working through love. In contrast, a severity in the imposition of, or overly scrupulous
conformity to any rule of piety, may be charged with legalism.
In an attempt to resolve the dispute over legalism, the Joint Declaration on the Doctrine of
Justification was a document issued in 1999 by Lutheran-Catholic clerical representatives,
declaring a common belief in Sola gratia, that grace alone can save the faithful, and that there
is a progressive infusion of grace in the spirit of the believer.
Eastern Orthodox Churches[edit]
The Eastern Orthodox, for another example, rejects the satisfaction theory of the atonement
as legalistic. The satisfaction theory states that mankind's Original Sin violated God's law,
resulting in all men being born guilty: an idea prevalent in the writings of Tertullian and
Augustine of Hippo of the Western Church. Anselm formally developed the theory that the
legal problem of guilt before the Law, required the legal solution of retribution, in order to
achieve a just salvation. The solution was for God's son Jesus to willingly die on the Cross in
place of humanity, thus allowing the legal penalty to be fully carried out, satisfying the justice
of God, and thus clearing the way for mercy to be shown to sinners. The Eastern Orthodox
charge that this theory is too dependent upon Roman legal concepts of retribution and justice.
Protestant Churches[edit]
In Protestant, Evangelical, Christian theology, especially in popular versions of the same, the
charge of legalism is an accusation of overzealous adherence to the word of the Bible (as law)
in all things said, established or accomplished in a believer's life (cf. bibliolatry). In that
context, to apply the criticism of legalism to a theological position or religious attitude implies
that the accused has overturned the Gospel of salvation through faith and new life in Jesus
Christ and has instead substituted some principle of personal works of strict adherence to the
word, through action, thought, or speech for the unearned grace of God.
Legalism, school of Chinese philosophy that attained prominence during the turbulent Warring
States era (475221 bce) and, through the influence of the philosophers Shang Yang, Li Si, and
Hanfeizi, formed the ideological basis of Chinas first imperial dynasty, the Qin (221207 bce).

The three main precepts of these Legalist philosophers are the strict application of widely
publicized laws (fa), the application of such management techniques (shu) as accountability
(xingming) and showing nothing (wuxian), and the manipulation of political purchase (shi).

The Legalists believed that political institutions should be modeled in response to the realities
of human behaviour and that human beings are inherently selfish and short-sighted. Thus
social harmony cannot be assured through the recognition by the people of the virtue of their
ruler, but only through strong state control and absolute obedience to authority. The Legalists
advocated government by a system of laws that rigidly prescribed punishments and rewards

for specific behaviours. They stressed the direction of all human activity toward the goal of
increasing the power of the ruler and the state. The brutal implementation of this policy by the
authoritarian Qin dynasty led to that dynastys overthrow and the discrediting of Legalist
philosophy in China.
Legalism

Doctrines
Legalism is a political philosophy that does not address higher questions
pertaining to the nature and purpose of existence. It is concerned with the most effective way
of governing society. The legalist tradition derives from the principle that the best way to
control human behaviour is through written law rather than through ritual, custom or ethics.
The two principal sources of Legalist doctrine were the Book of Lord Shang and the Han Feitzu. The Book of Lord Shang teaches that laws are designed to maintain the stability of the
state from the people, who are innately selfish and ignorant. There is no such thing as
objective goodness or virtue; it is obedience that is of paramount importance.
The Han Fei-tzu advocates a system of laws that enable the ruler to govern efficiently and
even ruthlessly. Text books apart from law books are useless, and rival philosophies such as
Moism and Confucianism are dismissed as "vermin". The ruler is to conduct himself with great
shrewdness, keeping his ministers and family at a distance and not revealing his intentions.
Strong penalties should deter people from committing crime.
History
The origins of Legalist thought are unclear. Some would date it as far back
as the teaching of the 7th century BCE statesman Kuan Chung (d. 645 BCE), prime minister of
the state of Ch'i, whose teachings are supposed to be represented by the Kuan-tzu. Other
figures associated with an early form of legalism are Shang Yang (d. 338 BCE), the putative
author of The Book of Lord Shang, and Shen Pu-hai (d. 337 BCE). Shang Yang was particularly
important for the development of legalism since it was he who served as governor of the state
of Ch'in and strengthened it to the extent that it was able to unify China in the following
century.
It was, however, Han Fei-tzu (d. 233 BCE) who systematised the various strands of Legalism in
his work The Han Fei-tzu. Han Fei-tzu had been taught by the Confucianist Hsun-tzu, whose
philosophy claimed that people were basically evil but could be guided towards goodness. Han
Fei-tzu adopted and developed Hsun-tzu's negative pessimistic attitude towards human nature
by teaching that people were so bad that they needed to be controlled by strong government
and strict laws. This principle was put into practice by the Ch'in dynasty, which on unifying
China in 221 BCE, destroyed the feudal system and placed the country under a single
monarch. Under the Ch'in dynasty land was privatised, a uniform law code was established,
and weights, measures and currency were standardised. Confucianism was severely
persecuted; hundreds of Confucian scholars were killed and virtually all Confucian texts were
destroyed.
The two most powerful figures in the Ch'ing dynasty were Ch'in Shih Huang Ti (d.210 BCE), the
first emperor, and the prime minister, Li Ssu (d.208 BCE). The death of Li Ssu created a power
vacuum which led to peasant uprisings and rebellions that broke out all over the country. In
207 BCE the Ch'in dynasty was overthrown and replaced by the Han dynasty, which favoured
Confucianism. The viciousness of the Ch'in dynasty served to discredit Legalism. In spite of
this legalism left its heritage in the form of a strongly centralised political system that would
define Chinese government up until the present day and influence despotic Chinese rulers.
When, for example, in 1973 Mao Tse Tung launched a campaign against his political opponents
he identified himself with the first Ch'in emperor.

Symbols

Legalism does not identify itself through the use of symbols.

Adherents

Legalism has no contemporary adherents.

Taoism (also called Daoism) is a philosophical, ethical or religious tradition of Chinese origin
that emphasizes living in harmony with the Tao (also romanized as Dao). The term Tao means
"way", "path", or "principle", and can also be found in Chinese philosophies and religions other
than Taoism. In Taoism, however, Tao denotes something that is both the source of, and the
force behind, everything that exists. Taoism is practiced as a religion in various Asian
communities. Its theology is not theist (even though some communities do worship Laozi as
the attributed founder of the religious doctrine), and has more affinities with pantheistic
traditions given its philosophical emphasis on the formlessness of the Tao.
Taoism drew its cosmological notions from the tenets of the School of Yin Yang, and is heavily
influenced and informed by the acknowledged oldest text of ancient Chinese classics, the I
Ching, which prescribes a system of philosophical thought on the ethics of human behaviours
based on articulating cycles of change in the natural and social worlds by means of
hexagrams, and includes instructions for divination practice still adhered to by modern-day
religious Taoists.[1] Daoism as Taoism is sometimes referred, diverged sharply from Confucian
thoughts by scorning rigid rituals and social classes.[2] The Tao Te Ching, a compact and
ambiguous book containing teachings attributed to Laozi (Chinese: ; pinyin: Loz; Wade
Giles: Lao Tzu), is widely considered the keystone work of this philosophy. Together with the
writings of Zhuangzi, which interprets and adds to the teaching of Laozi, these classic texts
provide the philosophical foundation of Taoism deriving from the 8 trigrams (bagua) of Fu Xi in
the 2700s BCE in China, the various combinations of which creates the 64 hexagrams as
documented in the I Ching.
Taoist propriety and ethics may vary depending on the particular school, but in general they
tend to emphasize wu-wei (action through non-action), "naturalness", simplicity, spontaneity,
and the Three Treasures: jing (sperm/ovary energy, or the essence of the physical body), qi
(energy, including the thoughts and emotions), and shen (spirit or spiritual power).
Taoism has had a profound influence on Chinese culture in the course of the centuries, and
clerics of institutionalised Taoism (Chinese: ; pinyin: doshi) usually take care to note
distinction between their ritual tradition and the customs and practices found in Chinese folk
religion as these distinctions sometimes appear blurred. Chinese alchemy (especially neidan),
Chinese astrology, Chan (Zen) Buddhism, several martial arts, traditional Chinese medicine,
feng shui, and many styles of qigong have been intertwined with Taoism throughout history.
Beyond China, Taoism also had influence on surrounding societies in Asia.
After Laozi and Zhuangzi, the literature of Taoism grew steadily and was compiled in form of a
canonthe Daozangwhich was published at the behest of the emperor. Throughout Chinese
history, Taoism was several times nominated as a state religion. After the 17th century,
however, it fell from favor.
Today, Taoism is one of five religions officially recognized in China, and although it does not
travel readily from its Asian roots, claims adherents in a number of societies.[3] Taoism also
has sizable communities in Hong Kong, Taiwan, Japan and in Southeast AsiaThe word "Taoism"
is used to translate different Chinese terms which refer to different aspects of the same
tradition and semantic field:[6]

"Taoist religion" (Chinese: ; pinyin: dojio; lit. "teachings of the Tao"), or the "liturgical"
aspect[7] A family of organized religious movements sharing concepts or terminology from
"Taoist philosophy";[8] the first of these is recognized as the Celestial Masters school.
"Taoist philosophy" (Chinese: ; pinyin: doji; lit. "school or family of the Tao") or "Taology"
(Chinese: ; pinyin: doxu; lit. "learning of the Tao"), or the "mystical" aspect[7] The
philosophical doctrines based on the texts of the I Ching, the Tao Te Ching (or Daodejing,
Chinese: ; pinyin: dodjng) and the Zhuangzi (Chinese: ; pinyin: zhungzi). These
texts were linked together as "Taoist philosophy" during the early Han Dynasty, but notably
not before.[9][10] It is unlikely that Zhuangzi was familiar with the text of the Daodejing,[11]
[12] and Zhuangzi would not have identified himself as a Taoist as this classification did not
arise until well after his death.[12]
However, the discussed distinction is rejected by the majority of Western and Japanese
scholars.[13][14] It is contested by hermeneutic (interpretive) difficulties in the categorization
of the different Taoist schools, sects and movements.[15] Taoism does not fall under an
umbrella or a definition of a single organized religion like the Abrahamic traditions; nor can it
be studied as a mere variant of Chinese folk religion, as although the two share some similar
concepts, much of Chinese folk religion is separate from the tenets and core teachings of
Taoism.[16] Sinologists Isabelle Robinet and Livia Kohn agree that "Taoism has never been a
unified religion, and has constantly consisted of a combination of teachings based on a variety
of original revelations."[17]
Chung-ying Cheng, a Chinese philosopher, views Taoism as a religion that has been embedded
into Chinese history and tradition. "Whether Confucianism, Daoism, or later Chinese
Buddhism, they all fall into this pattern of thinking and organizing and in this sense remain
religious, even though individually and intellectually they also assume forms of philosophy and
practical wisdom."[18] Chung-ying Cheng also noted that the Daoist view of heaven flows
mainly from "observation and meditation, [though] the teaching of the way (dao) can also
include the way of heaven independently of human nature".[18] In Chinese history, the three
religions of Buddhism, Daoism and Confucianism stand on their own independent views, and
yet are "involved in a process of attempting to find harmonization and convergence among
themselves, so that we can speak of a 'unity of three religious teaching' (sanjiao heyi)".[19]
The term "Taoist"[edit]
Traditionally, the Chinese language does not have terms defining lay people adhering to the
doctrines or the practices of Taoism, who fall instead within the field of folk religion. "Taoist", in
the sinological literature of the 19th and early 20th centuries, was used as a translation of
daoshi (, "master of the Tao"), or "Taoist priest", that is applied to the ordained clergymen
of a Taoist institution who "represent Taoist culture on a professional basis", are experts of
Taoist liturgy, and therefore can employ this knowledge and ritual skills for the benefit of a
community.[20]
This role of Taoist priests reflects the definition of Taoism as a "liturgical framework for the
development of local cults", in other words a scheme or structure for the Chinese folk religion,
proposed first by Kristofer Schipper in The Taoist Body (1986).[21] Daoshi traditions are
comparable in their role to the non-Taoist fashi (, "ritual masters") traditions (Faism).[21]
The term dojiot (Chinese: ; literally: "follower of Taoism"), with the meaning of
"Taoist" as "lay member or believer of Taoism", is a modern invention that goes back to the
introduction of the Western category of "organized religion" in China in the 20th century, and
the creation of the Chinese Taoist Association, but it has little application in the fabric of

Chinese society in which Taoism continues to be an "order" of the larger structure of Chinese
religion.
Origins and development[edit]

Birth of Laozi, a painting at the Green Goat Temple in Chengdu, Sichuan.

Gates of the Chunyang gong in Datong, Shanxi. It's a temple dedicated to L Dongbin.

A daoshi (Taoist priest) in Macau.

Main article: History of Taoism
Laozi is traditionally regarded as the founder of Taoism and is closely associated in this context
with "original" or "primordial" Taoism.[22] Whether he actually existed is disputed;[23][24]
however, the work attributed to him the Tao Te Ching is dated to the late 4th century BCE.
[25]
Taoism draws its cosmological foundations from the School of Naturalists (in the form of its
main elements yin and yang and the Five Phases), which developed during the Warring
States period (4th to 3rd centuries BC).[26]
Robinet identifies four components in the emergence of Taoism:
Philosophical Taoism, i.e. the Tao Te Ching and Zhuangzi
techniques for achieving ecstasy
practices for achieving longevity or immortality
exorcism.[23]
Some elements of Taoism may be traced to prehistoric folk religions in China that later
coalesced into a Taoist tradition.[27][28] In particular, many Taoist practices drew from the
Warring-States-era phenomena of the wu (connected to the shamanic culture of northern
China) and the fangshi (which probably derived from the "archivist-soothsayers of antiquity,
one of whom supposedly was Laozi himself"), even though later Taoists insisted that this was
not the case.[29] Both terms were used to designate individuals dedicated to "... magic,
medicine, divination,... methods of longevity and to ecstatic wanderings" as well as exorcism;
in the case of the wu, "shamans" or "sorcerers" is often used as a translation.[29] The fangshi
were philosophically close to the School of Naturalists, and relied much on astrological and
calendrical speculations in their divinatory activities.[30]
The first organized form of Taoism, the Tianshi (Celestial Masters') school (later known as
Zhengyi school), developed from the Five Pecks of Rice movement at the end of the 2nd
century CE; the latter had been founded by Zhang Daoling, who claimed that Laozi appeared
to him in the year 142.[31] The Tianshi school was officially recognized by ruler Cao Cao in
215, legitimizing Cao Cao's rise to power in return.[32] Laozi received imperial recognition as a
divinity in the mid-2nd century BCE.[33]
Taoism, in form of the Shangqing school, gained official status in China again during the Tang
dynasty (618907), whose emperors claimed Laozi as their relative.[34] The Shangqing

movement, however, had developed much earlier, in the 4th century, on the basis of a series
of revelations by gods and spirits to a certain Yang Xi in the years between 364 to 370.[35]
Between 397 and 402, Ge Chaofu compiled a series of scriptures which later served as the
foundation of the Lingbao school,[36] which unfolded its greatest influence during the Song
dynasty (9601279).[37] Several Song emperors, most notably Huizong, were active in
promoting Taoism, collecting Taoist texts and publishing editions of the Daozang.[38]
In the 12th century, the Quanzhen School was founded in Shandong. It flourished during the
13th and 14th century and during the Yuan dynasty became the largest and most important
Taoist school in Northern China. The school's most revered master, Qiu Chuji, met with
Genghis Khan in 1222 and was successful in influencing the Khan towards exerting more
restraint during his brutal conquests. By the Khan's decree, the school also was exempt from
taxation.[39]
Aspects of Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism were consciously synthesized in the NeoConfucian school, which eventually became Imperial orthodoxy for state bureaucratic
purposes under the Ming (13681644).[40]
The Qing Dynasty (16441912), however, much favored Confucian classics over Taoist works.
During the 18th century, the imperial library was constituted, but excluded virtually all Taoist
books.[41] By the beginning of the 20th century, Taoism had fallen much from favor (for
example, only one complete copy of the Daozang still remained, at the White Cloud Monastery
in Beijing).[42]
Today, Taoism is one of five religions recognized by the People's Republic of China. The
government regulates its activities through the Chinese Taoist Association.[43] Taoism is freely
practiced in Taiwan, where it claims millions of adherents.
Doctrines[edit]
Ethics[edit]

Jintai guan () in Baoji, Shaanxi.

A Taoist temple of Mount Longhu, in Jiangxi.

Golden Lotus Taoist Temple (Jinlian daoguan) on Jinshan, in Lucheng, Wenzhou, Zhejiang.
Taoism tends to emphasize various themes of the I Ching, the Tao Te Ching and Zhuangzi, such
as naturalness, spontaneity, simplicity, detachment from desires, and most important of all,
wu wei.[44] However, the concepts of those keystone texts cannot be equated with Taoism as
a whole.[45]
Tao and Te[edit]
Main articles: Tao and De (Chinese)
Tao (Chinese: ; pinyin: do) literally means "way", but can also be interpreted as road,
channel, path, doctrine, or line.[46] In Taoism, it is "the One, which is natural, spontaneous,
eternal, nameless, and indescribable. It is at once the beginning of all things and the way in

which all things pursue their course."[47] It has variously been denoted as the "flow of the
universe",[48] a "conceptually necessary ontological ground",[49] or a demonstration of
nature.[50] The Tao also is something that individuals can find immanent in themselves.[51]
The active expression of Tao is called Te (also spelled and pronounced De, or even Teh;
often translated with Virtue or Power; Chinese: ; pinyin: d),[52] in a sense that Te results
from an individual living and cultivating the Tao.[53]
Wu-wei[edit]
Main article: Wu wei
The ambiguous term wu-wei (simplified Chinese: ; traditional Chinese: ; pinyin: w wi)
constitutes the leading ethical concept in Taoism.[54] Wei refers to any intentional or
deliberated action, while wu carries the meaning of "there is no ..." or "lacking, without".
Common translations are "nonaction", "effortless action" or "action without intent".[54] The
meaning is sometimes emphasized by using the paradoxical expression "wei wu wei": "action
without action".[55]
In ancient Taoist texts, wu-wei is associated with water through its yielding nature.[56] Taoist
philosophy, in accordance with the I Ching, proposes that the universe works harmoniously
according to its own ways. When someone exerts their will against the world in a manner that
is out of rhythm with the cycles of change, they may disrupt that harmony and unintended
consequences may more likely result rather than the willed outcome. Taoism does not identify
one's will as the root problem. Rather, it asserts that one must place their will in harmony with
the natural universe.[57] Thus, a potentially harmful interference may be avoided, and in this
way, goals can be achieved effortlessly.[58][59] "By wu-wei, the sage seeks to come into
harmony with the great Tao, which itself accomplishes by nonaction."[54]
Naturalness[edit]
Main article: Ziran
Naturalness (Chinese: ; pinyin: zrn; WadeGiles: tzu-jan; lit. "self-such") is regarded as a
central value in Taoism.[60] It describes the "primordial state" of all things[61] as well as a
basic character of the Tao,[62] and is usually associated with spontaneity and creativity.[63]
[62] To attain naturalness, one has to identify with the Tao;[62] this involves freeing oneself
from selfishness and desire, and appreciating simplicity.[60]
An often cited metaphor for naturalness is pu (simplified Chinese: ; traditional Chinese: ;
pinyin: p, p; WadeGiles: p'u; lit. "uncut wood"), the "uncarved block", which represents the
"original nature... prior to the imprint of culture" of an individual.[64] It is usually referred to as
a state one returns to.[65]
Three Treasures[edit]
Main article: Three Treasures (Taoism)
See also: Three Treasures (traditional Chinese medicine)
The Taoist Three Treasures or Three Jewels (simplified Chinese: ; traditional Chinese: ;
pinyin: snbo) comprise the basic virtues of ci (Chinese: ; pinyin: c, usually translated as
compassion), jian (Chinese: ; pinyin: jin, usually translated as moderation), and bugan wei
tianxia xian (Chinese: ; pinyin: bgn wi tinxi xin, literally "not daring to act
as first under the heavens", but usually translated as humility).

As the "practical, political side" of Taoist philosophy, Arthur Waley translated them as
"abstention from aggressive war and capital punishment", "absolute simplicity of living", and
"refusal to assert active authority".[66]
The Three Treasures can also refer to jing, qi and shen (Chinese: ; pinyin: jng-q-shn;
jing is usually translated with "essence" and shen with "spirit"). These terms are elements of
the traditional Chinese concept of the human body, which shares its cosmological foundation Yinyangism - with Taoism. Within this framework, they play an important role in neidan ("Taoist
Inner Alchemy").[67]
Cosmology[edit]
Further information: School of Yin Yang, Qi and Taoism and death
Taoist cosmology is based on the School of Yin Yang[26] which was headed by Zou Yan (305
240 BCE). The school's tenets harmonized the concepts of the Wu Xing (Five Phases) and yin
and yang. In this spirit, the universe is seen as being in a constant process of re-creating itself,
as everything that exists is a mere aspect of qi, which, "condensed, becomes life; diluted, it is
indefinite potential".[68] Qi is in a perpetual transformation between its condensed and diluted
state.[69] These two different states of qi, on the other hand, are embodiments of the abstract
entities of yin and yang,[69] two complementary extremes that constantly play against and
with each other and cannot exist without the other.[70]
Human beings are seen as a microcosm of the universe,[16] and for example comprise the Wu
Xing in form of the zang-fu organs.[71] As a consequence, it is believed that deeper
understanding of the universe can be achieved by understanding oneself.[72]
Theology[edit]

Yuanshi Tianzun

Lingbao Tianzun

Daode Tianzun
The Three Pure Ones.

Altar to Shangdi ( "Primordial God") and Doumu ( "Mother of the Great Chariot"),
together representing the originating principle of the universe in some Taoist cosmologies, in
the Chengxu Temple of Zhouzhuang, Jiangxi.
Further information: Category:Chinese deities
See also: Li Hong (Taoist eschatology)
Taoism is practiced as a religion in various Asian communities, but its theology is not
foundationally dependent on the existence of an anthropomorphic godlike figurehead (even
though some communities do worship Laozi as the attributed founder of the philosophical
doctrine, as well as other deities from ancient Chinese folklore); on a theological basis, the
Taoist religion has more affinities with pantheistic traditions around the world, given its

philosophical emphasis on the formlessness of the Tao and the primacy of the "Way" rather
than anthropomorphic concepts of "God".
Nevertheless, as Taoist beliefs include teachings based on various sources, and are often
intermingled with Chinese folk religious practice, popular Taoist religious sects have co-opted
mythical figures from Chinese folklore as well as actual Taoist personages as figures of
worship, with the latter better understood as analogous to "saints" in Catholic veneration
rather than as divine deities in and of themselves, even though they were also often
mythologised to possess superhuman or supernatural powers. Different branches of Taoism
often have differing beliefs, especially concerning deities and the proper composition of the
pantheon.[73] Nevertheless, there are certain core beliefs that nearly all the sects share.[74]
Traditional conceptions of Tao should not be confused with the Western concepts of theism,
however. Being one with the Tao does not necessarily indicate a union with an eternal spirit in,
for example, the Hindu sense.[50][57]
Popular Taoism typically presents the Jade Emperor as the official head deity. Intellectual
("elite") Taoists, such as the Celestial Masters sect, usually present Laozi (Laojun, "Lord Lao")
and the Three Pure Ones at the top of the pantheon of deities.[22][75] The pantheon tends to
mirror the bureaucracy of Imperial China; deities also may be promoted or demoted for their
actions.[76]
While a number of immortals or other mysterious figures appear in the Zhuangzi, and to a
lesser extent in the Tao Te Ching, these have generally not become the objects of worship.
Texts[edit]

1770 Wang Bi edition of the Tao Te Ching.

I Ching[edit]
Main article: I Ching

The 8 trigrams of the I Ching

The I Ching, or Yijing, was originally a divination system that had its origins around 1150 B.C.
[77] Although it predates the first mentions of Tao as an organised system of philosophy and
religious practice, this ancient Chinese classic has long been adopted as a meditative text by
people, the well-practiced amongst them later became known as Taoists, which explains the
tangled relationships between many Chinese folk religions and what is later known officially as
Taoism. Whilst some commentators see the I Ching as no more than a classic augury text for
divination purpose,[78] the I Ching as used in Taoist practice has never been just a simple
revelatory text. Instead of requiring mindless obeyance to its edicts as was the case of ancient
Greek oracles, the I Ching demanded rigorous internal meditation of its Taoist practitioners,
requiring them to reflect on what constitutes an appropriate course of conduct in a given
circumstance. The I Ching, in contrast to other religious texts, is to be interpreted by its reader
Confucius's Commentaries on the meanings of the hexagrams being one of the most
admired, have long been adopted as a key canonical interpretation often included in historical
editions of the text itself (see for example Richard Wilhelm's translated edition). There are also
often debates regarding different interpretations of the text and symbols, and Zhuangzi was
one of the major critics of some of Confucian and Neo-Confucian interpretations of the I Ching.
The I Ching remains a "live" text to this day with Taoist masters adding to the interpretive

canon over the ages, creating a secondary theological and philosophical literature the
"Daozang".
The I Ching itself, shorn of its commentaries, consists of 64 combinations of 8 trigrams (called
"hexagrams"), traditionally chosen by throwing coins or yarrow sticks, to give the diviner some
idea of the situation at hand and, through reading of the "changing lines", some idea of what
is developing.[79]
The 64 original notations of the hexagrams in the I Ching can also be read as a meditation on
how change occurs, so it assists Taoists with managing yin and yang cycles as Laozi advocated
in the Tao Te Ching (the oldest known version of this text was dated to 400 BC). More recently
as recorded in the 18th century, the Taoist master Liu Yiming continued to advocate this
usage.[78]
Tao Te Ching[edit]
Main article: Tao Te Ching
The Tao Te Ching or Daodejing is widely considered the most influential Taoist text.[80]
According to legend, it was written by Laozi,[81] and often the book is simply referred to as
the "Laozi." However, authorship, precise date of origin, and even unity of the text are still
subject of debate,[82] and will probably never be known with certainty.[83] The earliest texts
of the Tao Te Ching that have been excavated (written on bamboo tablets) date back to the
late 4th century BCE.[84] Throughout the history of religious Taoism, the Tao Te Ching has
been used as a ritual text.[85]
The famous opening lines of the Tao Te Ching are:
(pinyin: do k do fi chng do)
"The Tao that can be told is not the eternal Tao"
(pinyin: mng k mng fi chng mng)
"The name that can be named is not the eternal name."[86]
There is significant, at times acrimonious debate regarding which English translation of the Tao
Te Ching is preferable, and which particular translation methodology is best.[87] The Tao Te
Ching is not thematically ordered. However, the main themes of the text are repeatedly
expressed using variant formulations, often with only a slight difference.[88]
The leading themes revolve around the nature of Tao and how to attain it. Tao is said to be
ineffable, and accomplishing great things through small means.[89] Ancient commentaries on
the Tao Te Ching are important texts in their own right. Perhaps the oldest one, the Heshang
Gong commentary, was most likely written in the 2nd century CE.[90] Other important
commentaries include the one from Wang Bi and the Xiang'er.[91]
Zhuangzi[edit]
Main article: Zhuangzi (book)
The Taoist book Zhuangzi (simplified Chinese: ; traditional Chinese: ; pinyin: Zhungz),
named after its purported author Zhuangzi, is a composite of writings from various sources,
and is considered one of the most important texts in Taoism. The commentator Guo Xiang
(circa 300 AD) helped establish the text as an important source for Taoist thought. The
traditional view is that Zhuangzi himself wrote the first seven chapters (the "inner chapters")
and his students and related thinkers were responsible for the other parts (the "outer" and

"miscellaneous" chapters). The work uses anecdotes, parables and dialogues to express one of
its main themes, that is aligning oneself to the laws of the natural world and "the way" of the
elements.[92][93]
Daozang[edit]
Main article: Daozang
The Daozang (, Treasury of Tao) is also referred to as the Taoist canon. It was originally
compiled during the Jin, Tang, and Song dynasties. The version surviving today was published
during the Ming Dynasty.[94][95] The Ming Daozang includes almost 1500 texts.[96] Following
the example of the Buddhist Tripiaka, it is divided into three dong (, "caves", "grottoes").
They are arranged from "highest" to "lowest":[97][98]
The Zhen ("real" or "truth" ) grotto. Includes the Shangqing texts.
The Xuan ("mystery" ) grotto. Includes the Lingbao scriptures.
The Shen ("divine" ) grotto. Includes texts predating the Maoshan () revelations.
Daoshi generally do not consult published versions of the Daozang, but individually choose, or
inherit, texts included in the Daozang. These texts have been passed down for generations
from teacher to student.[99]
The Shangqing school has a tradition of approaching Taoism through scriptural study. It is
believed that by reciting certain texts often enough one will be rewarded with immortality.
[100]
Other texts[edit]
See also: Mozi
While the Tao Te Ching is most famous, there are many other important texts in traditional
Taoism including Mohism. Taishang Ganying Pian ("Treatise of the Exalted One on Response
and Retribution") discusses sin and ethics, and has become a popular morality tract in the last
few centuries.[101] It asserts that those in harmony with Tao will live long and fruitful lives.
The wicked, and their descendants, will suffer and have shortened lives.[89]
Symbols and images[edit]

A zaojing depicting a taijitu surrounded by the bagua.

Ruyi motifs of a Taoist temple roof in Kaohsiung, Taiwan.

The taijitu (simplified Chinese: ; traditional Chinese: ; pinyin: tijt; commonly
known as the "yin and yang symbol" or simply the "yin yang") as well as the bagua
("Eight Trigrams") are associated with Taoist symbolism.[102] The taijitu is not an exclusive
symbol of Taoism, however. While almost all Taoist organizations make use of it, one could
actually also call it Confucian, Neo-Confucian or pan-Chinese. One is likely to see this symbol
as decorations on Taoist organization flags and logos, temple floors, or stitched into clerical
robes. According to Song dynasty sources, it originated around the 10th century.[103]
Previously, yin and yang were symbolized by a tiger and dragon.[103]

Taoist temples may fly square or triangular flags. They typically feature mystical writing or
diagrams and are intended to fulfill various functions including providing guidance for the
spirits of the dead, to bring good fortune, increase life span, etc.[104] Other flags and banners
may be those of the gods or immortals themselves.[105]
A zigzag with seven stars is sometimes displayed, representing the Big Dipper (or the Bushel,
the Chinese equivalent). In the Shang Dynasty the Big Dipper was considered a deity, while
during the Han Dynasty, it was considered a qi path of the circumpolar god, Taiyi.[106]
Taoist temples in southern China and Taiwan may often be identified by their roofs, which
feature dragons and phoenixes made from multi-colored ceramic tiles. They also stand for the
harmony of yin and yang (with the phoenix being yin). A related symbol is the flaming pearl
which may be seen on such roofs between two dragons, as well as on the hairpin of a Celestial
Master.[107] In general though, Chinese Taoist architecture has no universal features that
distinguish it from other structures.[108]
Practices[edit]
Vegetarian diet[edit]
Main article: Taoist diet
Taoist diet encourages fasting and vegetarianism.
Rituals[edit]

A hall of worship of the Erwang Temple, a Taoist temple in Dujiangyan, Sichuan. There are
elements of the jingxiang religious practice (incense and candle offerings).

An ancestral worship ceremony led by Taoist priests at the pyramidal shaped Great Temple of
Zhang Hui ( Zhng Hu gng ddin), the main ancestral shrine dedicated to the
progenitor of the Zhang lineage, located at Zhangs' ancestral home in Qinghe, Hebei.
At certain dates, food may be set out as a sacrifice to the spirits of the deceased or the gods,
such as during the Qingming Festival. This may include slaughtered animals, such as pigs and
ducks, or fruit. Another form of sacrifice involves the burning of Joss paper, or Hell Bank Notes,
on the assumption that images thus consumed by the fire will reappearnot as a mere image,
but as the actual itemin the spirit world, making them available for revered ancestors and
departed loved ones. At other points, a vegan diet or full fast may be observed.
Also on particular holidays, street parades take place. These are lively affairs which invariably
involve firecrackers and flower-covered floats broadcasting traditional music. They also
variously include lion dances and dragon dances; human-occupied puppets (often of the
"Seventh Lord" and "Eighth Lord"); tongji ( "spirit-medium; shaman") who cut their skin
with knives; Bajiajiang, which are Kungfu-practicing honor guards in demonic makeup; and
palanquins carrying god-images. The various participants are not considered performers, but
rather possessed by the gods and spirits in question.[109]
Fortune-tellingincluding astrology, I Ching, and other forms of divinationhas long been
considered a traditional Taoist pursuit. Mediumship is also widely encountered in some sects.
There is an academic and social distinction between martial forms of mediumship (such as
tongji) and the spirit-writing that is typically practiced through planchette writing.[110]

Physical cultivation[edit]
Main article: Neidan
See also: Taoist alchemy, Taoist sexual practices and Neijia
A recurrent and important element of Taoism are rituals, exercises and substances aiming at
aligning oneself spiritually with cosmic forces, at undertaking ecstatic spiritual journeys, or at
improving physical health and thereby extending one's life, ideally to the point of immortality.
[111][112] Enlightened and immortal beings are referred to as xian.
A characteristic method aiming for longevity is Taoist alchemy. Already in very early Taoist
scriptures - like the Taiping Jing and the Baopuzi - alchemical formulas for achieving
immortality were outlined.[113][114]
A number of martial arts traditions, particularly the ones falling under the category of Neijia
(like T'ai Chi Ch'uan, Bagua Zhang and Xing Yi Quan) embody Taoist principles to a significant
extent, and some practitioners consider their art a means of practicing Taoism.[115]
Society[edit]

Demographics of adherence to Taoism according to the most recent data.

Adherents[edit]
The number of Taoists is difficult to estimate, due to a variety of factors including defining
Taoism. According to a survey of religion in China in the year 2010, the number of people
practicing some form of Chinese folk religion is near to 950 million (70% of the Chinese).[116]
Among these, 173 million (13%) practice some form of Taoist-defined folk faith.[116] Further in
detail, 12 million people have passed some formal initiation into Taoism, or adhere exclusively
to it.[116]
Most Chinese people and many others have been influenced in some way by Taoist tradition.
Recently, there have been some efforts to revive the practice of Taoist religion. In 1956, the
Chinese Taoist Association was formed, and received official approval in 1957. It was
disbanded during the Cultural Revolution under Mao, but re-established in 1980. The
headquarters of the Association are at the Baiyun guan, or White Cloud Temple, of the
Longmen branch of Quanzhen Taoism.[117]
Since 1980, many Taoist monasteries and temples have been reopened or rebuilt, most of
them belonging to the Zhengyi or Quanzhen schools. For these two schools, ordination has
been officially allowed again. However, "the Chinese government prefers the celibate model of
... Quanzhen clergy", while "Zhengyi clergy are often married, and often reside at home."[118]
Geographically, Taoism flourishes best in regions populated by Chinese people: mainland
China, Hong Kong, Taiwan, India, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, and various Chinese
diaspora communities. Taoist literature and art has influenced the cultures of Korea, Japan, and
Vietnam. Organized Taoism seems not to have attracted a large non-Chinese following until
modern times. In Taiwan 7.5 million people (33% of the population) identify themselves as
Taoists.[119] Data collected in 2010 for religious demographics of Hong Kong[120] and
Singapore[121] show that, respectively, 14% and 11% of the people of these cities identify as
Taoists.
Art and poetry[edit]

Six Persimmons, a Taoist-influenced 13th-century Chinese painting by the monk, Mu Qi.

Throughout Chinese history there have been many examples of art being influenced by Taoist
thought. Notable painters influenced by Taoism include Wu Wei, Huang Gongwang, Mi Fu, Muqi
Fachang, Shitao, Ni Zan, T'ang Mi, and Wang Tseng-tsu.[122] Taoist arts represents the diverse
regions, dialects, and time spans that are commonly associated with Taoism. Ancient Taoist art
was commissioned by the aristocracy, however scholars masters and adepts also directly
engaged in the art themselves.[123]
Political aspects[edit]
Unlike Confucianism, Taoism favors philosophical anarchism, pluralism and laissez-fairegovernment.[124] Laozi has been cited as an early example of a proponent of liberalism.[125]
[126] On the other hand, politics never have been a main issue in Taoism.
Relations with other religions and philosophies[edit]

Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism are one, a painting in the litang style portraying three
men laughing by a river stream, 12th century, Song dynasty.
See also: Vinegar tasters
Many scholars believe Taoism arose as a countermovement to Confucianism.[127] The
philosophical terms Tao and De are indeed shared by both Taoism and Confucianism,[128] and
Laozi is traditionally held to have been a teacher of Confucius.[129] Zhuangzi explicitly
criticized Confucianist and Mohist tenets in his work. In general, Taoism rejects the
Confucianist emphasis on rituals, hierarchical social order, and conventional morality, and
favors naturalness, spontaneity, and individualism instead.[130]
The entry of Buddhism into China was marked by significant interaction and syncretism with
Taoism.[131] Originally seen as a kind of "foreign Taoism", Buddhism's scriptures were
translated into Chinese using the Taoist vocabulary.[132] Representatives of early Chinese
Buddhism, like Sengzhao and Tao Sheng, knew and were deeply influenced by the Taoist
keystone texts.[133]
Taoism especially shaped the development of Chan (Zen) Buddhism,[134] introducing
elements like the concept of naturalness, distrust of scripture and text, and emphasis on
embracing "this life" and living in the "every-moment".[135]
Taoism on the other hand also incorporated Buddhist elements during the Tang period, such as
monasteries, vegetarianism, prohibition of alcohol, the doctrine of emptiness, and collecting
scripture in tripartite organisation.
Ideological and political rivals for centuries, Taoism, Confucianism, and Buddhism deeply
influenced one another.[136] For example, Wang Bi, one of the most influential philosophical
commentators on Laozi (and Yijing), was a Confucian.[137] The three rivals also share some
similar values, with all three embracing a humanist philosophy emphasizing moral behavior
and human perfection. In time, most Chinese people identified to some extent with all three
traditions simultaneously.[138] This became institutionalised when aspects of the three
schools were synthesised in the Neo-Confucian school.[139]
Some authors have dealt with comparative studies between Taoism and Christianity. This has
been of interest for students of history of religion such as J.J.M. de Groot,[140] among others.

The comparison of the teachings of Laozi and Jesus of Nazareth has been done by several
authors such as Martin Aronson,[141] and Toropov & Hansen (2002), who believe that they
have pararells that should not to be ignored.[142] In the opinion of J. Isamu Yamamoto [143]
the main difference is that Christianity preaches a personal God while Theist Taoism does not.
Yet, a number of authors, including Lin Yutang,[144] have argued that some moral and ethical
tenets of these religions are similar.[145][146] The work "Christ the Eternal Tao"[147] by
Hieromonk Damascene provides a study of "The Tao Te Ching" of Lao Tzu, in the light of
Christian revelation.
Practical Taoist Advice

At times the process of learning Taoism is also a process of healing. Take time to heal (dont
rush and hurt yourself more in the rushing). Taoism teaches to embrace your body with
patience.
There are 6.5 billon people in the world , and so 6.5 billion paths to Taoism, every person can
teach us something.
Sometimes you need quietness; its ok to take time off to only hear yourself and not the noise
of civilization at times.
People expect and think that the goal of life is perfection its not you should desire for
being good at something and to embrace the various little imperfections that end up
actually being defining characteristics of each of us.The little bits of imperfection we each
have
are elements of chaos
that give each person individuality and distinction!Without our little flaws we wouldnt be
individuals at all! Taoism teaches us how to accept both the best and worse parts of our life.
Taoism teaches a person to drop expectations. The more expectations you have for your life,
the less you will become.A Taoist lives life without expectations, living in the here and now
fully.Since most people need a few expectations especially when dealing with important future
experiences. Here is a trick.Create only a single expectation at a time for that future
experience. For example: An expectation you will smile or have some fun. Thats it! Dont place
any learning or changing into your expectation. If you do , this actually plants the seed for the
opposite to occur, By creating a single simple expectation such as smiling, this then becomes
something you can always fulfill since you can empower that action to happen. Any
expectation more complicated or relying on something outside of yourself, just sets up the
future to not meeting your needs.Dropping expectation is very very important within Taoism.
Lather, Rinse and Repeat , and then toss the instructions away to do what is right for
yourself This is Taoism at the very elemental level, so be open, experiment and embrace
what works for you.Taoism as a tradition has teachers who work with students on an individual
basis. In the end no guide or Master can be right for everyone. For this reason , we are always
our own best teacher. Give yourself credit and patience to be such a teacher to your own life.
Taoism is an ancient tradition of philosophy and religious belief that is deeply rooted in
Chinese customs and worldview.

Taoism is also referred to as Daoism, which is a more accurate way of representing in English
the sound of the Chinese word.

Taoism is about the Tao. This is usually translated as the Way. But it's hard to say exactly what
this means. The Tao is the ultimate creative principle of the universe. All things are unified and
connected in the Tao.

Taoism originated in China 2000 years ago

It is a religion of unity and opposites; Yin and Yang. The principle of Yin Yang sees the world as
filled with complementary forces - action and non-action, light and dark, hot and cold, and so
on
The Tao is not God and is not worshipped. Taoism includes many deities, that are worshipped
in Taoist temples, they are part of the universe and depend, like everything, on the Tao
Taoism promotes:
achieving harmony or union with nature
the pursuit of spiritual immortality
being 'virtuous' (but not ostentatiously so)
self-development
Taoist practices include:
meditation
feng shui
fortune telling
reading and chanting of scriptures
Before the Communist revolution fifty years ago, Taoism was one of the strongest religions in
China. After a campaign to destroy non-Communist religion, however, the numbers
significantly reduced, and it has become difficult to assess the statistical popularity of Taoism
in the world.

The primary religious figures in Taoism are Lao Tzu and Chuang Tzu, two scholars who
dedicated their lives two balancing their inner spirits.

The most common graphic representation of Taoist theology is the circular Yin Yang figure. It
represents the balance of opposites in the universe. When they are equally present, all is
calm. When one is outweighed by the other, there is confusion and disarray. The Yin and Yang
are a model that the faithful follow, an aid that allows each person to contemplate the state of
his or her lives.

More a mode of living than an actual theology, Taoism asks that each person focuses on the
world around him or her in order to understand the inner harmonies of the universe. It is a
kind of religious system heavily focused on meditation and contemplation. The Tao surrounds
everyone and one must listen to find enlightenment.

Taoism is a religio-philosophical tradition that has, along with Confucianism, has shaped
Chinese life for more than 2,000 years. The Taoist heritage, with its emphasis on individual
freedom and spontaneity, laissez-faire government and social primitivism, mystical
experience, and techniques of self-transformation, represents in many ways the antithesis to
Confucian concern with individual moral duties, community standards, and governmental
responsibilities.

Taoism encompasses both a Taoist philosophical tradition (Tao-chia) associated with the Tao-te
Ching (Lao-tzu), Chuang-tzu, Lieh-tzu, and other texts, and a Taoist religious tradition (Taochiao) with organized doctrine, formalized cultic activity, and institutional leadership. These
two forms of Taoist expression are clearly interrelated, though at many points in tension.
Aspects of both philosophical and religious Taoism were appropriated in East Asian cultures
influenced by China, especially Korea, Japan, and Vietnam.

Traditionally, Taoism has been attributed to three sources, the oldest being the legendary
'Yellow Emperor', but the most famous is Lao Tse's Tao Teh Ching. According to tradition, Lao
Tse was an older contemporary of Kung Fu Tse (Confucius). The third source is Chuang Tse's
(untitled) work.

But the original source of Taoism is said to be the ancient I Ching, The Book Of Changes.

The Tao was written in a time of feudal warfare and constant conflict. Lao Tzu was reflecting
on a way which would stop the warfare, a realistic path for humanity to follow which would end
the conflict. And so he came up with a few pages of short verses, which became the Tao Te
Ching. This is the original book of Tao.

It was shortly followed by a series of commentaries, and commentaries on the commentaries,

and then hybridized with Confucianism, Buddhism, and a clutch of other Eastern religions.
Books of Tao from around the time of Christ more closely resemble an unexpurgated 10
commandments than the poetic Tao Te Ching, carefully delineating everything from the proper
system of greetings to the proper way to clean one's house. Most modern Taoists consider this
to be a radical departure from the true Tao, since Lao Tzu abhorred the caste systems of
Confucianism that riddled the later Taoist books.

However, Lao Tzu did leave us a problem in translation. Ancient Chinese was extremely
succinct, having no verb tense or other complex grammatical construction. The first sentence,
for instance, of the Tao Te Ching, is usually translated as, "The Tao that can be named is not
the true Tao." Literally, that sentence reads, "The Tao that can be Tao'd is not the true Tao."

Likewise, one of the better-known phrases from the Tao Te Ching is, "I am good to the man
who is good to me, likewise, I am also good to the bad man." Literally, this sentence would
read, "The good man, I good him. The bad man, I good him too."

Does this mean the Sage is good to him, as most translations suggest, or that he makes him
good, or both? There's as much room for interpretation in the Tao as in just about any text in
existence.

Much of the essence of Tao is in the art of wu wei, action through inaction. This does not
mean, "sit on your ass and wait for everything to fall into your lap."

What it really means is a practice of minimal action, particularly violent action. It is the
practice of going against the stream not by struggling against it and thrashing about, but by
standing still and letting the stream do all the work.

Thus the sage knows that relative to the river, he still moves against the current. To the
outside world the sage appears to take no action - but in fact he takes action long before
others ever foresee the need for action. Thinking well about one's actions before making them
is another aspect of the Tao.

Likewise, the Taoist is not precisely a pacifist. He will take military action when he has not seen
far enough ahead to prevent the need for violence in the first place. When violence is needed,
the Taoist leader will fight until he has achieved his goal, and then stop, saddened at the need
for bloodshed and with resolve to foresee better into the future.

Taoism can also be called "the other way," for during its entire history, it has coexisted
alongside the Confucian tradition, which served as the ethical and religious basis of the
institutions and arrangements of the Chinese empire.

Taoism, while not radically subversive, offered a range of alternatives to the Confucian way of
life and point of view. These alternatives, however, were not mutually exclusive. For the vast
majority of Chinese, there was no question of choosing between Confucianism and Taoism.
Except for a few straight-laced Confucians and a few pious Taoists, the Chinese man or woman
practiced both -- either at different phases of life or as different sides of personality and taste.

Classical Taoist philosophy, formulated by Laozi (the Old Master, 5th century B.C.), the
anonymous editor of the Daodejing (Classic of the Way and its Power), and Zhuangzi (3rd
century B.C.), was a reinterpretation and development of an ancient nameless tradition of
nature worship and divination.

Laozi and Zhuangzi, living at a time of social disorder and great religious skepticism (see
article on Confucianism), developed the notion of the Dao (Tao - way, or path) as the origin of
all creation and the force - unknowable in its essence but observable in its manifestations that lies behind the functioning's and changes of the natural world. They saw in Dao and
nature the basis of a spiritual approach to living. This, they believed, was the answer to the
burning issue of the day: what is the basis of a stable, unified, and enduring social order?

The order and harmony of nature, they said, was far more stable and enduring than either the
power of the state or the civilized institutions constructed by human learning. Healthy human
life could flourish only in accord with Dao -- nature, simplicity, a free-and-easy approach to life.
The early Taoists taught the art of living and surviving by conforming with the natural way of
things; they called their approach to action wuwei (wu-wei -- lit. no-action), action modeled on
nature.

Their sages were wise, but not in the way the Confucian teacher was wise, learned and a
moral paragon. Zhuangzi's sages were often artisans, butchers or woodcarvers. The lowly
artisans understood the secret of art and the art of living. To be skillful and creative, they had
to have inner spiritual concentration and put aside concern with externals, such as monetary
rewards, fame, and praise. Art, like life, followed the creative path of nature, not the values of
human society.

Throughout Chinese history, people weary of social activism and aware of the fragility of
human achievements would retire from the world and turn to nature. They might retreat to a
countryside or mountain setting to commune with natural beauty.

They would compose or recite poetry about nature, or paint a picture of the scene, attempting
to capture the creative forces at the center of nature's vitality. They might share their outing
with friends or more rarely -- a spouse, drinking a bite of wine, and enjoying the autumn
leaves or the moon.

Chinese utopian writings also often bore a Taoist stamp. Tao Qian's (T'ao Ch'ien, 372? -427?
A.D.) famous "Peach Blossom Spring" told the story of a fisherman who discovered by chance
an idyllic community of Chinese who centuries earlier had fled a war-torn land, and had since
lived in perfect simplicity, harmony, and peace, obliviously unaware of the turmoil of history
beyond their grove.

Although these utopians urged him to stay, the fisherman left to share his discovery with
friends and a local official. He could never find his way back. He did not understand that this
ideal world was to be found not by following an external path, but a spiritual path. It was a
state of mind, an attitude, that comprised the utopia.

If Taoist ideas and images inspired in the Chinese a love of nature and an occasional retreat to
it from the cares of the world to rest and heal, it also inspired an intense affirmation of life:
physical life -- health, Well being, vitality, longevity, and even immortality.

Laozi and Zhuangzi had reinterpreted the ancient nature worship and esoteric arts, but they
crept back into the tradition as ways of using knowledge of the Dao to enhance and prolong
life.

Some Taoists searched for "isles of the immortals," or for herbs or chemical compounds that
could ensure immortality. More often, Taoists were interested in health and vitality; they
experimented with herbal medicine and pharmacology, greatly advancing these arts; they
developed principles of macrobiotic cooking and other healthy diets; they developed systems
of gymnastics and massage to keep the body strong and youthful.

Taoists were supporters both of magic and of proto-science; they were the element of Chinese
culture most interested in the study of and experiments with nature.

Some Taoists believed that spirits pervaded nature (both the natural world and the internal
world within the human body). Theologically, these myriad spirits were simply many
manifestations of the one Dao, which could not be represented as an image or a particular
thing.

As the Taoist pantheon developed, it came to mirror the imperial bureaucracy in heaven and
hell. The head of the heavenly bureaucracy was the jade Emperor, who governed spirits
assigned to oversee the workings of the natural world and the administration of moral justice.

The gods in heaven acted like and were treated like the officials in the world of men;
worshipping the gods was a kind of rehearsal of attitudes toward secular authorities. On the
other hand, the demons and ghosts of hell acted like and were treated like the bullies, outlaws,
and threatening strangers in the real world; they were bribed by the people and were ritually
arrested by the martial forces of the spirit officials. The common people, who after all had little
influence with their earthly rulers, sought by worshipping spirits to keep troubles at bay and
ensure the blessings of health, wealth, and longevity.

The initiated Taoist priest saw the many gods as manifestations of the one Dao. He had been
ritually trained to know the names, ranks, and powers of important spirits, and to ritually
direct them through meditation and visualization. In his meditations, he harmonized and
reunited them into their unity with the one Dao. However, only the educated believers knew
anything of the complex theological system of the priest.

Taoism is a religio-philosophical tradition that has, along with Confucianism, shaped Chinese
life for more than 2,000 years. The Taoist heritage, with its emphasis on individual freedom
and spontaneity, laissez-faire government and social primitivism, mystical experience, and
techniques of self-transformation, represents in many ways the antithesis to Confucian
concern with individual moral duties, community standards, and governmental responsibilities.

Taoism encompasses both a Taoist philosophical tradition (Tao-chia) associated with the Tao-te
Ching (Lao-tzu), Chuang-tzu, Lieh-tzu, and other texts, and a Taoist religious tradition (Taochiao) with organized doctrine, formalized cultic activity, and institutional leadership.

These two forms of Taoist expression are clearly interrelated, though at many points in
tension. Aspects of both philosophical and religious Taoism were appropriated in East Asian
cultures influenced by China, especially Korea, Japan, and Vietnam.

Philosophical Taoism
The text central to all expressions of the Taoist spirit is the Tao-te Ching ("Classic of the Way
and Its Power"), previously known as Lao-tzu after the name of the mysterious master
traditionally said to have been its author. The cardinal concept is that of the Tao, the ineffable,
eternal, creative reality that is the source and end of all things.

Tao is the Absolute, the "Uncarved Block" experienced only in mystical ecstasy.

Te is the manifestation of the Tao within all things. Thus, to possess the fullness of te means to
be in perfect harmony with one's original nature.According to Chuang-tzu (fl. 4th century BC),
an individual in harmony with the Tao comprehends the course of Nature's constant change
and fears not the rhythm of life and death.

As is accomplished at death, so in life must the individual return to the original purity and
simplicity of the Tao.

In contrast to the Confucian program of social reform through moral principle, ritual, and
government regulation, the true way of restoration for the Taoists consisted in the banishment
of learned sageliness and the discarding of wisdom. "Manifest the simple," urged Lao-tzu,
"embrace the primitive, reduce selfishness, have few desires."

As the Tao operates impartially in the universe, so should mankind disavow assertive,
purposive action. The Taoist life is not, however, a life of total inactivity. It is rather a life of
nonpurposive action (wu-wei). Stated positively, it is a life expressing the essence of
spontaneity (tzu-jan, "self-so").

While the Chuang-tzu and Lieh-tzu are guides directing all persons in the realization of total
freedom, the Tao-te Ching is addressed in particular to rulers. Great rulers, taught Lao-tzu,
simply follow Nature and the people only know of their existence.

Religious Taoism
The themes and texts of philosophical Taoism became established during the Warring States
period (481-221 BC). Religious or esoteric Taoism as a movement of organized religious
communities developed only in the 2nd century AD, appropriating a variety of themes and
spiritual techniques associated with the common objective of immortality.

While in fundamental ways such a goal was incompatible with the aims of philosophical
Taoism, there were hints in the texts of the philosophical tradition to the extension of life and
the protection from harm possible for those in harmony with the Tao.

The lives of such 'perfected ones', or 'hsien' (Immortals) as they came to be called, became
the central paradigms of religious Taoism.

Lao-tzu became deified as a revealer of sacred texts and a savior, and techniques of spiritual
attainment became fully elaborated.

Techniques for achieving immortality included dietary regimens, breath control and
meditation, sexual disciplines, alchemy, the use of magical talismans, and the search for the
fabled Isle of Bliss. Dietary concerns focused on necessary nourishment while abstaining from
foods that benefited the "three worms" in the body (which caused disease, old age, and
death). In meditation, the Taoist adept visualized the thousands of gods that inhabited the
human body (microcosm) as they inhabited the universe (macrocosm).

Through breath control and the movement of breath throughout the fields of the body, the
individual both approached immortality in this life and achieved it finally through the
nourishment within of a mysterious "embryonic body," which became the immortal self after
death.

By avoiding ejaculation during the sexual act, it was believed that semen could be mixed with
breath to further nourish the embryonic body or be forced back through the spinal passage to
repair the brain. In its search for an elixir of immortality, Taoist alchemy developed both
chemical experimentation (wai-tan) and a theoretical internal alchemy (nei-tan).

Nei-tan sought to invert the normal aging processes by an energizing marriage of the cosmic
Yin and Yang forces within the body. Talismans (fu) were used for healing, protection from
demons, and communication with Taoist immortals.

Historical Development
Of the two early organized Taoist communities, the religio-political movement known as the
"Way of the Great Peace" was destroyed as a threat to the Han dynasty in AD 184. A more
important and enduring tradition was that of the "Way of the Celestial Masters," founded by
Chang Tao-ling in AD 142.

Two late 4th-century movements were also very important: (1) the Shang-ch'ing (Supreme
Purity) Mao Shan sect, and (2) the Ling Pao (Sacred Jewel) scriptural tradition. During the T'ang
dynasty (618-907), Taoism received special favor at court and was characterized by doctrinal
and liturgical syntheses. Despite attempts during the Ming dynasty (1368-1644) to curb a
growing sectarianism, there remained in the late 20th century a polarization between classical
orthodox tradition and heterodox traditions. On Taiwan, orders of the former tradition are
referred to as "Blackheads" and those of the latter as "Redheads."

While the future of Taoist practice on the mainland remains in question, there has been in
recent decades some renewed interest in the religion on Taiwan. In addition, Western scholars
have recently begun to investigate carefully the many contributions of Taoism to the
development of Chinese culture.

Hsein
Hsien, in Chinese Taoism, is an immortal who has achieved divinity through devotion to Taoist
practices and teachings. Early Taoist sages, including Chuang-tzu, referred perhaps
allegorically to immortal beings with magical powers; some followers interpreted these
references literally and devoted themselves to discovering the "drug of immortality" and
prolonging their lives through breath control, yoga like exercises, and abstention from grains.
Adepts in these practices, though appearing to die, were believed to achieve physical
immortality and admission to heavenly realms inaccessible to the spirits of mere mortals. The

pursuit of this state gave rise to a vast body of Taoist alchemical and other esoteric techniques
and lore.