Diseases and immunity

What is the immune system?

The bodys defense against disease causing
organisms, malfunctioning cells, and foreign
particles
Pathogen: as a disease-causing organism
Transmissible disease: as a disease in which the pathogen can
be passed from one host to another
The pathogen for a transmissible disease may be transmitted
either through direct contact, e.g. through blood or other body
fluids, or
indirectly, e.g. from contaminated surfaces or food, from animals,
or from the air.

Cells of the Immune System

White Blood Cells
To protect our body against the invasion of
disease causing organisms (pathogens).
This is done in two ways:
1-Phagocytosis (by phagocytes)
2-Antibody production (by lymphocytes)
1-Phagocytes :
70% of our white blood cells are phagocytes.
These can engulf bacteria by the process of
phagocytosis.

2-Lymphocytes:
Approximately 25% of our white blood cells are
lymphocytes.
produce antibodies which:
Some act as labels(marking) to identify
antigens for phagocytes
Some work as antitoxins i.e. they block toxins
Some attach to bacterial flagella making them
less active and easier for phagocytes to engulf
Some cause agglutination (clumping together)
of bacteria making them less likely to spread
how each pathogen has its own antigens,
which have specific shapes, so specific
antibodies which fit the specific shapes of
the antigens are needed
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 Pathogens have markers on their surface

membranes called antigens.
Antibodies stick to these antigens and
destroy the pathogen. Or marking them for
phagocytes to act on them.

Active and Passive Immunity

1-Active immunity as defence against a pathogen
by antibody production in the body
-Lymphocytes are activated by antigens on the
surface of pathogens.
There are 2 types of active immunity:
a-Natural active immunity - acquired due to
infection by pathogen
b-Artificial active immunity vaccination
Takes time for enough lymphocytes to be produced
to mount an effective response.

Process of Vaccination
1-harmless pathogen given which has antigens
2-antigens trigger an immune response by
lymphocytes which produce antibodies
3-memory cells are produced that give long-term
immunity
Some of the lymphocytes remain in the bloodstream as
memory cells, so if the body is infected with the same
pathogen after the vaccination, a larger amount of
antibodies will be created quickly to kill the pathogen
before it causes any damage.
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The role of vaccination in controlling the

spread of diseases
The vaccinated person is not in danger of developing disease (although some people may
suffer a mild reaction). If the person does get infected by the pathogen later, the required
lymphocytes are able to reproduce rapidly and destroy it.
Vaccines in early childhood can give protection against many serious diseases.
Those especially susceptible include travelers and students
Consider the vaccine for meningitis, which is recommended for all college students
and infects 3,000 people in the U.S., killing 300 annually

2-Passive immunity: is short-term defence against a

pathogen by antibodies acquired from another individual,
e.g. mother to
Infant
lymphocytes cells are not activated and not
produced antibodies.
The antigen doesnt have to be encountered for the
body to make the antibodies.
Antibodies appear immediately in blood but
protection is only temporary.
There are 2 types of passive immunity:
a-Natural passive immunity 1-A mothers antibodies pass across the placenta to
the fetus and remain for several months.
2-Colostrum (the first breast milk) contains lots of
antibodies which pass into blood of fetus.
b-Artificial passive immunity
Used when a very rapid immune response is needed
e.g. after infection with tetanus.
Human antibodies are injected. In the case of
tetanus these are antitoxin antibodies.
Antibodies come from blood donors who have
recently had the tetanus vaccination.
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Only provides short term protection as

antibodies destroyed by phagocytes.

Memory cells are not produced in passive

immunity
The importance of passive immunity for
breast-fed infants
For the fetus and newborn, immunologic defenses are present, but immature. To compensate,
the mother's antibody moves across the placental barrier to provide some protection. After birth,
these maternal antibodies wane in the first 6 to 12 months of human life. The neonate and infant
can receive additional maternal protection from breast milk.

Memory cells
Some lymphocytes develop into memory
cells.
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 Remain in blood for many years and

provide immunity to that specific
pathogen.
If it enters the blood again we will
recognise it faster and mass produce the
antibodies quicker.
This is called the secondary immune
response.
some diseases are caused by the immune
system targeting and destroying body
cells, limited to Type 1 diabetes
Type 1 Diabetes
GCSE: The cells of the pancreas do not produce enough insulin. When the person eats and digests
food the blood sugar level rises. Treatment is with diet, monitoring blood sugar level and injections of
insulin.
A Level: The beta cells of the islets of langerhans of the pancreas do not produce enough insulin.
This is often due to an autoimmune response where the destruction of the beta cells has occurred.
The person needs to monitor their diet for intake of carbohydrates. Also they will need to check their
blood glucose concentration. The diabetes can be treated by injections of insulin.

The body has defences:

1 mechanical barriers, limited to skin and hairs in the
nose
2 chemical barriers, limited to mucus and stomach acid
3 cells, limited to phagocytosis and antibody production
by white blood cells
which can be enhanced by vaccination

Explain the importance of hygienic food preparation, good

personal hygiene, waste disposal and sewage treatment in
controlling
the spread of disease.
1-Good personal hygiene is essential during food preparation
2-Hats, gloves, masks are all provided to prevent the spread of disease
and avoid poisoning, which should be used when required.
3- Disposal of faeces since patients pass bacteria in faeces Supply of
clean and safe drinking water since bacteria is transmitted in
water
4- Untreated sewage reaching a water source and the water consumed
without proper treatment / chlorination with untreated sewage
prevents the spread of disease by killing bacteria and insects.
Diarrhoea is the loss of watery faeces
The treatment of diarrhoea using oral rehydration therapy
Supplement
Cholera as a disease caused by a bacterium
The cholera bacterium produces a toxin that causes secretion of
chloride ions into the small intestine, causing osmotic movement
of water into the gut, causing diarrhoea, dehydration and loss of
salts from blood