Fall 2015

Dynamics II
Term Project
Riley Welsh
Basic Aerodynamics
1. Bernoullis Principle
The principle simply states that as the velocity of a fluid or gas increases, its
pressure decreases. He also found that with a constant velocity the pressure
of the air remains the same at both ends of the tube.

Figure 1 Bernoulli's Principle

2. Airfoil Design and Terminology

A chord line is an imaginary line from the leading edge to the trailing edge on
the airfoil. The camber is the curve of its surfaces. The angle formed
between the chord line and the relative wind is called the angle of attack.

Figure 2 Airfoil Terminology

3. How a Pilot Controls Lift

There are three ways that a pilot can control lift. Changing the airplanes
airspeed, its angle of attack, and the wing configuration.

Figure 3 Angle of Attack

Figure 4 Wing Configuration

4. What Causes Stalls

If the angle of attack becomes too great and the airflow becomes turbulent it
no longer creates the lift forces. Airplane stalls whenever the critical angle of
attack is exceeded.

Figure 5 Stalling

5. Thrust/Drag Relationships
Thrust causes and opposite force called drag. There are two types of drag,
parasite and induced. Parasite is non-streamlined parts on the plane causing
drag. Parasite drag is greatest at slow speeds and high angle of attack. Its
also a direct byproduct of thrust. Induced drag decreases with speed and
lower angle of attack.

Figure 6 Thrust/Drag

6. Maneuvering Flight
When an airplane is banked it rolls about an imaginary line that passes
through the nose and tail. This line is called the longitudinal axis. For a right
bank, rotate the control wheel to the right and vice versa for a left roll. The
elevator creates a pitching movement around a lateral axis. Elevator controls
pitch, where yaw is controlled by the rudder.

Figure 7 Control Wheel

7. Centrifugal/Centripetal Force
The force acting opposite of the turn is called centrifugal force. In an airplane
you create centripetal force by initiating a bank. In a banked turn centripetal
and centrifugal forces are balanced. The wings must hold the force created by
these forces.

Figure 8 Centripetal/Centrifugal

8. Load Factor
The resultant of weight and centrifugal force is a load that the wings must
support. It can be expressed as load factor or Gs. It is the ratio of the load
supported by the wings. Load factor = load supported divided by weight.

Figure 9 Centripetal/Centrifugal

9. Adverse Yaw
When the wing is creating more lift to bank than its also creating more drag
which creates a yawing force causing the airplanes nose to turn to the
outside of the turn. You overcome this yawing tendency by applying rudder in
the direction of the roll.

Figure 10 Adverse Yaw

10.

Left-Turning Tendencies

Propeller airplanes have left turning tendencies. One of these forces is torque
from the propeller. As the propeller spins clockwise the plane has a counter
clockwise opposing force. Another force from the propeller is P-factor. When
the propellers plan e of rotation is perpendicular to the wind, the angle of
attacks are the same on the propeller blades, but when the nose is higher the
lower blade has a higher angle of attack. The net result is there is more thrust
on the right side of the airplane than on the left. This causes a turning
tendency to the left. The last force is spiraling slip stream. The stream of air
from the propeller spins around the plane and hits the rudder on the right
causing the nose of the airplane to yaw to the left.

Figure 11 Left Turning Tendencies

11.

Aircraft Stability

By definition stability is a design characteristic that causes an airplane to

return to steady flight after being disturbed. Two types of stability are static
and dynamic. General aviation is designed to have both. Lateral stability is

the tendency to roll back after a displacement by a gust of wind. Directional

stability about yaw axis, the shape of the plane creates a weather vane shape
and creates stability. Longitudinal stability is obtained by adding a stability
tail piece.

Figure 12 Stability

12.

Three Axes of Flight

Roll Pitch and Yaw.

Figure 13 Three axis

13.

Airplane Design Considerations

Wing shape/design. A straight wing has good slow flight characteristics but
isnt structurally efficient when it comes to lift and drag. A swept back is
much better at higher speeds. The Thetford wing has good flow flight
characteristics and a relatively effective design. There is also the aspect ratio
of the wing that plays a role. Where the weight in the aircraft goes is very
important.

Figure 14 Wing Shape