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Theoretical Basis
Consider an infinite, flat, uniformly thick plate of a metal subjected to
tensile load along one direction. The load is such that it develops tensile
stresses y all along its skin as shown
y
and also a stress rarification in the vicinity of the hole in the transverse
direction.
Theory provides a quantitative feel of the phenomenon. A formula to
calculate stress levels at a point defined by polar coordinates ( r , ) as shown
in the figure is as follows.
t =
a 2 3a 4
1 2 1 4 cos 2
2
r 2
r
1 2 3 4 5
The calculations and the stress profiles offer important insights into
the implications of making an opening.
Sy
1 .5
This, when coupled with the observed stress intensification around the
opening, indicates the engineering unacceptability of stress intensification.
For example, let the plate be stretched initially such that the tensile stresses
reach the allowable level for the MoC. When the hole is punctured, a stress
intensification factor of 3 would mean that the stresses would reach a level
of 3 Sa or 2 Sy. The plate would thus yield plastically and deform around the
opening. This may not be acceptable. Something therefore needs to be done
around the opening to keep the intensified stresses within the allowable as
much as possible.
One of the possibilities is to opt for a thicker plate (preferably thrice
as thick as the requirement to keep stresses within allowable prior to cutting
an opening). This would be uneconomical. Keeping in mind that the stress
intensification attenuates with a circle of double the radius of the opening
and fall below engineering safely margines, one therefore considers the need
to provide a collar or reinforcing pad to strengthen the stress carrying
cross-section of the plate locally.
We thus carry from the theory two points.
1) Something needs to be done because the stress intensification
might take the stresses beyond engineering safety margines.
Low)
t
t
2d
d
design. This amounts to an extra area available in the affected zone to handle
stress intensification. Compensation area can take advantage of this
discount. Often, this extra area available is more than the area lost. No extra
area by way of reinforcing pad is required in this case. The nozzle is then
said to be self compensating.
The nozzle thickness calculations go through a similar sequence.
There is thus some extra thickness (and hence area) available in the nozzle
itself. It is believed that this extra thickness available in the nozzle up to a
height of H 1 above the header OD can be accounted for in the area available.
If the nozzle is protruding inside the header, its portion up to a depth
of H 2 is also considered as providing extra area to handle stress
intensification.
A reinforcing pad is provided only if the area lost due to cutting an
opening is more than the area available (due to over design) in the header
portion, nozzle portion above the header and the nozzle portion inside the
header. This area accounting has several nuances further to try and avoid
provision of a reinforcing pad.
Consider the area that is lost. As seen earlier, it is a rectangle of width
equal to the diameter of the hole and height equal to the thickness. Each
term requires to be qualified further.
We would like our design to be functional right through the service
life. Corrosion would have caused increase of the nozzle ID (which is the
size of the opening also) to d i 2 over this period. This is therefore
considered as the design basis for the diameter of the opening to be used in
reinforcement calculations. As a consequence, the affected area on the
header extends to a circle of diameter 2d i 2 . Reinforcing pad, if at all
provided, will have this as its OD.
The thickness to be used in calculating area lost is also important.
What is indeed lost is the regulation thickness. The rest which comprised of
the allowances, tolerances and extra is not consequence here. Regulation
thickness would have helped keep the stresses at allowable level. This
thickness is what is missed as an opening is made.
Couple of other points are also very important. The opening for the
nozzle is unlikely to be located on an existing weld joint of the header or its
vicinity. A weld or an opening is a weakness in the structure and fabrication
wisdom would dictate that these should not occur simultaneously. If this is
so, then the regulation thickness for the header should be calculated using
Weld Joint Efficiency value as 1 in the appropriate regulation thickness
formula for the header shape. The regulation thickness thus may not be
imported directly from previous calculations done at the time of header
design. Note that this consideration reduces the value of regulation
thickness, thereby lowering the estimate of area lost.
Another point is regarding the choice of the formula to be used for the
regulation thickness itself. It should be the code formula for a shape seen
by the nozzle. It may not make difference if the nozzle is placed on a sphere,
hemisphere, cylinder, flat plate or an ellipsoidal closure. For a dished
(torispherical) closure or a cone housing a nozzle, it does make a difference.
If the nozzle is on the crown of a dished closure, the shape around it
is actually a sphere with diameter double that of the vessel. While designing
the closure, formula pertaining to the dished closure would have been used.
While calculating regulation thickness to be used in calculating area lost,
one should use formula for a sphere instead. Note that this consideration also
reduces the value of regulation thickness, thereby lowering the estimate of
area lost.
Similar is the case for nozzle on a cone. The thickness of the cone is
arrived at using the base diameter of the cone. As one moves towards the tip
of the cone, the regulation thickness requirement decreases and extra
thickness increases. To avail of this extra thickness in reinforcement
calculation, one should calculate the regulation thickness afresh using cone
diameter at a level corresponding to the center of the opening. Note that this
consideration also reduces the value of regulation thickness, thereby
lowering the estimate of area lost. In fact, a properly located nozzle on a
cone can often be made self compensating.
Let us now put together the balance sheet of the load bearing metal
area affected due to an opening.
Area Lost
AL d i 2 TR
Area Available
From Header:
A1A d i 2 T TR M T
M
100
( mT t
m
)
100
The deficit area is provided in the affected zone welding a reinforcing pad of
thickness t P given as
tP
AD
(d i 2 )
The formula is self explanatory in view of the discussions above and the
figure.
Although not explicitly stated, it is pressumed that the reinforcing pad
is of the same material as that of the header/nozzle. This would normally be
the case, as welding together dissimilar metal could lead to galvanic
corrosion. However, considering the fact that the pad is not exposed to the
corrosive process fluid, if a dissimilar material is chosen for the pad for
economic considerations, an appropriate correction to the pad thickness is
called for.
Codes recommend on upward revision of the thickness if pad material
allowable stress ( S apad ) is lower than that of the header/nozzle (Sa). Logically,
the revision is as follows.
tP
Sa
AD
d i 2 S apad