Contributions of Corelli and Vivaldi

to Baroque Concerto Form

Presented to Dr. Charles Mueller

by Christian Kaltwasser (http://kaltwassermusic.com)

March 4, 2013
MUS 361: Music History II
Western Oregon University

Kaltwasser 2

Both sonata and vocal forms influenced the development of concerto form as
instrumental music practices and writing evolved from the middle to late Baroque (ca. 1680
1730). This paper will examine the development of the instrumental concerto during the
Baroque, focusing on analysis of the works and contributions to the form by Arcangelo Corelli
(16531713) and Antonio Vivaldi (16781741). Representing a span of one generation in time,
and working in different musical centers within Italy, Corelli and Vivaldi each made major
contributions to the development of the Baroque concerto grosso and solo concerto forms,
helping establish instrumental music as an independent entity from vocal music, and moving
orchestra music practices toward what would evolve into the Classical era concerto and
symphony later in the 18th century. Their respective scoring, texture, number and form of
movements (e.g., ritornello, fugue, or dance-based), and use of affect (tempo and feel) will each
be evaluated using Corellis Christmas Night concerto and Vivaldis Winter from The Four
Seasons as primary examples. How the composition of established Roman and Venetian largescale musical ensembles affected the scoring for the respective composers concertos will also be
examined.
Arcangelo Corelli was born on the 17th of February in 1653, in the northern Italian town
of Fusignano, midway between Bologna and Ravenna. 1 From a young age he studied music and
violin performance, and was accepted into the distinguished Accademia Filarmonica of Bologna
in 1670.2 By 1675, he was employed as a violinist at a church in Rome, S. Luigi dei Francesi.3
1

Marc Pincherle, Corelli: His Life, His Work, trans. Hubert E. M. Russell (Norton, 1956), 16.

Ibid., 20.

Ibid., 267.

http://kaltwassermusic.com

Kaltwasser 3

He published in Rome his first opus, a set of twelve trio sonatas, in 1681. More published
collections of trio sonatas followed in 1685, 1689, and 1694, and his opus five of twelve sonatas
for solo violin and accompaniment was published in 1700. All these publications constituted
carefully prepared and edited versions of works covering the course of his career.
The late seventeenth century was a pivotal period in the development of instrumental
music, as the concept of the orchestra was beginning to take definite shape, and instrumental
writing was becoming more independent from vocal music. There was not, as yet, a definite
concept of large-scale orchestra scoring as differentiated from chamber performance.4 Yet late
17th century performances for major occasions or prestigious academies could involve upward
of 80 or 100 players, such as one directed by Corelli in 1689.5 The typical practice involved
scaling a performance by doubling on each part to produce a more or less musically balanced
result.
Different notions of opposing contrasting groups of voices or instruments also existed,
going back to Gabrieli and others around 1600. The separation of players into a concertino of
soloists and a reinforcing concerto grosso was particular to the Roman practice as early as 1666,
and soon spread to music centers under Roman influence, including Bologna.6 Corelli did not
publish any concerto works during his lifetime, but likely was composing for this scoring by the
1680s.7 The set of concerti grossi published as his sixth opus in 1714, a year after Corellis death,
are scored for a trio sonata (two violins and basso continuo) and string ensemble, also with basso
4

Simon Harris, Lully, Corelli, Muffat and the Eighteenth-Century Orchestral String Body, Music & Letters 54, no.
2 (Spr. 1973), 197.
5

Frederick Hammond, liner notes to Arcangelo Corelli, Concerti Grossi Op. 6, 712, Nicholas McGegan and
Philharmonic Baroque Orchestra, Harmonia Mundi HMU 907015, compact disc, 1990.
6

Peter Allsop, Arcangelo Corelli: New Orpheus of Our Times (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), 1412.

Ibid, 1434.

http://kaltwassermusic.com

Kaltwasser 4

continuo. This scoring reflects Roman conventions as far back as 1675 with Alessandro
Stradellos oratorio San Giovanni Battista.8
In his first four published opuses, Corellis church trio sonatas typically follow a plan of
four movements. The chamber sonatas range from three to five or six. The number of movement
in Corellis published concertos was typically five, with the last being a fast movement. The
eighth concerto from Corellis collection, Fatto per la notte di natale (made for Christmas
night) is in six movements in alternating fast/slow/fast tempos, with the final Largo Pastorale
marked in the score as optional. The emotional character also ranges significantly, from a grand
fugal introduction, serious and stately allemande-based Allegro, tender, lullaby-quality Adagios
framing an expectant Allegro in the third movement, stately Vivace sarabande, expansive Allegro
gavotte, and plain and festive optional gigue-based pastoral.
Corellis writing style for string ensemble, exemplified well in this concerto grosso,
includes such trademarks as a walking bass line, with passing tones between chordal notes,
circle of fifth harmonic sequences, sequenced suspensions in seconds, and patterned string
figuration. The second and fifth Allegro movements use the walking bass line extensively
throughout, for instance, stepping in eighth notes between the suspensions of measures 1518 in
movement II (fig. A, below), and walking quarter notes between slow moving chords in 6064 of
movement V (fig. B). The B section of the Vivace fourth movement begins with a complete
harmonic circuit by descending fifths sequence from D Major in measure 9 through d minor at
the end of 14 (fig. C). Finally, the middle Allegro section of movement III is a fine example of

George J. Buelow, A History of Baroque Music (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 2004), 127.

http://kaltwassermusic.com

Kaltwasser 5

Corellis use of figurational homophony, having no melody line, only a progression of triads
broken up across the parts (fig. D).
Corellis use of the concerto grosso scoring gives very little independence to the
concertino in tutti sections. Mostly, the ripienists are used for harmonic reinforcement, often
simply doubling the trio sonata parts (e.g., consider fig. A through D, below). However, there are
instances where the material of the concertino is more independent, such as the outer Adagio
sections of the third movement of the Christmas concerto. Here, a lyric, gentle duet between
the concertino violins is truly accompanied rather than being doubled by the ripieno in the first
two measures (fig. E), and the trio violoncello has explicit divisions that are not given to the
ripieno cello at measures 68 and 2729 (fig. F). Similarly, the final pastoral movement employs
solo sections in which the ripieno provides harmonic support or drones against the concertino
theme.
In fact, the main orchestrational effect of the Roman type concerto grosso of the midBaroque is that of color and texture contrast between the concertino and full ensemble. 9
Furthermore, as published music, Corellis opus six concertos would serve the broadest possible
market by being adaptable to varying ensemble complements, from trio sonata up to full
concerto grosso, so this may explain why the ripieno parts are largely dispensable in terms of
musical content.10 However, examination of the musical content that is not duplicative across
soloists and ripieno, especially in fugal movements, shows that more than likely, the music was
conceived in more than three parts and had to be tailored to allow the concertino to cover enough

9 Allsop,
10

1401.

Ibid., 143.

http://kaltwassermusic.com

Kaltwasser 6

of the musical material for trio sonata performances.11 In regards to the form, the solo versus tutti
contrast is mainly used to reinforce parallels in antecedent-consequent phrasing and important
tonal center-affirming cadences.
Although Corelli is typically credited with clarifying the distinction between church and
chamber instrumental works, his letter of dedication for the opus six concertos states he had
actually worked toward a more general-purpose musical style that suited both situations. 12 By
opus five his chamber and church sonatas tend toward five movements, the variety chosen to
show off different capabilities of the violin for technical dexterity, realization of counterpoint in
double-stops and figuration, and cadenza-like display.13 The plan of the Christmas concerto,
with its abstract movement naming, dominance of dance-based binary form movements, and lack
of a true fugue movement, also reflects the objectives of generalized music showing off the
violins eloquent strengths.
Corelli was explicit in the intention to show off the capabilities of the violin as a stronglyspeaking, expressive, and versatile instrument. 14 And in fact, the wide appeal of his output helped
secure the future of the violin family as the center of the growing orchestra. It also contributed to
the influence of Italian-style music throughout Europe. 15 His solo violin sonatas (opus five) and
measured but idiomatic use of the violins voice in all his published works including the opus six
concerti grossi influenced contemporary and subsequent composers including Franois Couperin,

11

Ibid., 1456.

12

Ibid., 147.

13

Michael Talbot, Corelli, Archangelo, New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, 2nd ed., edited by Stanley
Sadie and John Tyrrell, 6:457463, (London: Macmillan, 2001), 461.
14

Ibid., 460.

15

Buelow, 132.

http://kaltwassermusic.com

Kaltwasser 7

J.S. Bach, and Antonio Vivaldi.16 Finally, Corelli applied great care in his systematic use of
harmonic language, to the point that he is largely credited with setting up tonal functional
harmony for instrumental music.17
Significantly, Corelli published no vocal works. He is perhaps best known for his trio and
solo violin sonatas, and for his legacy of violin teaching and playing style. Still, his contribution
to the baroque concerto form is secured by the fact of his musics popularity and influence
among contemporaries, in Italy and beyond. His final opus of concertos was published and wellregarded as paradigm of harmony, string writing, and orchestral sound for centuries after his
death.
Antonio Lucio Vivaldi was born in Venice on March 4, 1678, the first son of a barberturned-violinist and a tailors daughter. He first learned violin from his father. Vivaldi entered the
priesthood, being fully ordained in 1703, but a chronic health problem interfered with his ability
to sing mass.18 That September he was hired to teach violin to the orphan girls of the Pio
Ospedale della Piet, a prominent venue for concerts. His employment at the Piet continued,
with a few interruptions, for many years. In 1718, Vivaldi brought a new opera to Mantua, and
stayed until 1720, writing three more operas for performance in the carnival seasons. He also
spent some years having his operas performed in Rome during 1723 and 1724. From 1723 until
1729 Vivaldi was hired to compose two concertos per month for the Piet, coming to a recorded
total of 140 concertos.19 For some time in the height of his career, Vivaldi traveled often and
16

Pincherle, 140ff.

17

Dennis Libby, Interrelationships in Corelli, Journal of the American Musicological Society 26, no. 2 (Sum.
1973), 267.
18

Michael Talbot, Vivaldi, 2nd ed. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000), 31.

19

Michael Talbot, Vivaldi, Antonio, New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, 2nd ed., edited by Stanley
Sadie and John Tyrrell, 26:817ff, (London: Macmillan, 2001), 819.

http://kaltwassermusic.com

Kaltwasser 8

widely. Despite the limitations of his chronic illness, he managed to maintain a very active career
as virtuoso violin performer, teacher, composer, and opera impresario.20
Vivaldis earliest published works show his debt to the form and style of Corelli. In fact,
Vivaldis opus one, a set of trio sonatas published around 17031705, closes with a set of
variations on the sarabande-like folla theme, an homage perhaps to Corellis opus five.21
Nonetheless, over the course of his career, Vivaldi wrote approximately 500 concertos, scored for
a large variety of instruments and ensemble combinations, including solo concertos, double
concertos, chamber concertos for three to six soloists with continuo, concertos for two string
orchestras and one or more soloists, and ensemble concertos for more than two soloists.22 The
bulk of his concertos were scored for one violin soloist and string orchestra, but he also wrote
solo concertos for wind instruments such as flute or oboe, and for violoncello and even viola
damore soloists. Although he died a pauper and his music lay forgotten for many years, the
esteem in which Vivaldis violin concertos were held during his career is attested to by the fact
that J.S. Bach studied and transcribed a number of them for keyboard.23
Vivaldis concertos established dramatic conflict in instrumental works, anticipating in a
sense the narrative sonata-allegro form. His programmatic concertos in particular, such as his
most famous works, The Four Seasons bring the drama of miniature operas to purely
instrumental music. These and three other program pieces were published in 1725 in his eighth
opus. The Winter concerto in f minor, the fourth of the collection, is scored for solo violin and
20

Talbot, Vivaldi, 4243.

21

Karl Heller, Antonio Vivaldi: The Red Priest of Venice, translated by David Marinelli (Portland, OR: Amadeus
Press, 1997), 46.
22

Buelow, 469.

23

Talbot, Vivaldi, 3.

http://kaltwassermusic.com

Kaltwasser 9

four-part orchestra with basso continuo. It will serve here as the main example for Vivaldis
concerto style.
Vivaldi generally followed the three movement fast-slow-fast plan for his violin
concertos that had been introduced in Venice by composer Tomaso Albinoni by 1700, though he
occasionally included introductory or transitional movements.24 Vivaldi thus helped solidify the
standard number and affect of movements, which would continue into the Classical concerto
form. He also may have been the first composer to use ritornello form extensively in his fast
concerto movements. 25 Ritornello alternation was already common in the A sections of da
capo form arias from dramatic vocal works, and Vivaldi applied this form to the concerto with
unequivocal success. Many of his slow concerto movements also use a stripped-down ritornello
form, with perhaps only two ritornello sections framing a single episode. Table 2 below outlines
the ritornello form of the first movement of Vivaldis Winter concerto from his opus eight.
Three main motivic ideas (labelled shivering, running about, and stamping to reflect the
program sonnet and parallel descriptive markings in the score) constitute material that is used in
the tutti refrain and developed in the mostly solo-dominated episodes. The major key areas of the
movement are the tonic f minor, and minor dominant c minor, with brief explorations of Bb
minor and Ab Major. The key areas of each section of the movement are generally established in
the ritornellos, with sequences moving by falling fifth a major mechanism for moving between
related and more distant harmonies.
To an even greater degree that that of Corelli, Vivaldis instrumental writing style of
applying expressive figurations to harmonic musical phrases established an orchestra timbral
24

Buelow, 470.

25

Talbot, Vivaldi, Antonio, 821.

http://kaltwassermusic.com

Kaltwasser 10

palette that anticipated the basic sound form of the symphony. Examples of such figurations are
given as figures G through I below. In the given three measures of the Storm at Sea, concerto
(op. 8 no. 5) he animates a cadential 6-4 chord through a suspension to a perfect authentic
cadence at the beginning of measure 15. The feeling of waves at sea is clearly evoked. In excerpt
H from the first movement of Winter, a falling-fifth harmonic sequence is colorfully animated
from F minor, to Bb minor, Eb, Ab, Db, and G half-diminished, to return to F minor in the
subsequent measure. In example I from the last movement of Winter, a dramatically angular
solo violin figure moves in stepwise sequence over an actively animated G pedal point. These are
not singable melodies in any sense, but pure illustration of experiences through sound and
rhythm textures.
The influence of Vivaldis instrumental style was so strong that even established
composers in mid-career such as DallAbaco and Albinoni were obliged to modify their style to
accomodate his.26 The solo concerto was, at the time of Vivaldis early to middle career, a new
performance genre whose development can be attributed largely to him. His use in the allegro
movements of soloist against orchestra interplay with developmental episodes and purposeful
modulations following the form normalized ritornello as an orchestral movement form and
foreshadowed later eighteenth century practices such as sonata form.27
In conclusion, Arcangelo Corelli and Antonio Vivaldi each made major respective
contributions to instrumental writing, the establishment of the string-centered orchestra,
distinctly instrumental genres, and the concerto grosso and solo concerto forms. Corelli elevated
writing for the violin family and helped pave the way for the solo concerto. His Roman-style
26

Talbot, Vivaldi, Antonio, 823.

27

Heller, 274.

http://kaltwassermusic.com

Kaltwasser 11

concerto grosso works became immensely popular and looked to as a model of orchestra writing
throughout Italy and Western Europe in the eighteenth century. He also helped establish
functional tonal harmony, which would be linked to form by the work of later composers,
including Vivaldi. Vivaldis concertos would become the paradigms of a new form of solo
concerto, establishing the fast-slow-fast movement format and instrumental ritornello form for
the outer movements. His dramatic use of solo violin and other instruments, and his innovation
of program concertos, helped pave the way for the more narrative and developmental
instrumental forms that later became the Classical sonata and concerto allegro forms.

http://kaltwassermusic.com

Kaltwasser 12

Table 1 Corelli Op. 6 Concerto VIII Movement styles and forms

I. Vivace, Grave
Section

Measures

Musical Features

Vivace

16

G minor. Tutti short, fast, dramatic introduction ending in

half cadence on V.

Grave

710

G minor fugal movement. Short subject enters in

violoncello, then viola & concertino violin I, then violin II,
then violin I.

1117

Loose fugue with stretto imitative texture.

1819

Perfect authentic cadence in G (picardy third).

II. Allegro
Section

Measures

Musical Features

122

G minor key. Serious, allemande-style rhythm in

interlocking violin melody, running eighths in violoncello.
Leap-frog suspension sequences. H.C. continuous binary
ending.

2331

Contrasting sequential melody with dotted rhythm.

Harmony moves by descending fifths: D-g-C-F-Bb-e-A-dG-c-F-Bb.

3240

Suspension sequence and terraced dynamic echo.

4142

Key-affirming movement to perfect authentic cadence in g

minor.

142

G minor key allemande-style continuous binary

movement. Ripieno doubles the concertino in tutti
sections. Viola adds harmonic support and some doubling.

overall

http://kaltwassermusic.com

Kaltwasser 13

Table 1 (continued)
III. Adagio, Allegro, Adagio
Section

Measures

Musical Features

Adagio

18

Eb Major key. Slow, lyric concertino violins duet with

arpeggiated triad figures. Violin lines cross, interweave.
Violoncello takes over 16th note figures in 34 and 68.
Ripieno provides harmonic support in 14, part doubling
in measures 58. Half cadence leads into next section.

Allegro

921

Active figurational homophony in Eb Major, with circle of

fifth sequences building a sense of excitement. Halfcadence ending on Bb.

Adagio

2229

Return of material from measures 18.

3031

Closing tag with waterfall arpeggios on Eb over walking

bass line, parallel thirds over Ab pedal point, preparing for
strong closing V-I cadence on Eb.

IV. Vivace
Section

Measures

Musical Features

18

G minor key. Elegant, sarabande-style triple meter

repeated A section. 2-2-4 sentence structured phrase with
ripieno doubling of the 4-bar motion to half cadence. H.C.
continuous binary ending.

916

Circle of fifth harmonic sequence with melody based on

motives from A section, ending on half cadence with no
third (D5).

1724

Consequent phrase with similar harmonic and melodic

shape to 916, ending with a weakened perfect authentic
cadence on i.

2528

Key-affirming movement to perfect authentic cadence in g

minor. Hemiola rhythm at 2627.

http://kaltwassermusic.com

Kaltwasser 14

Table 1 (continued)
V. Allegro
Section

Measures

Musical Features

124a

G minor key. Fast gavotte binary movement repeated A

section. Ripieno doubling to reinforce phrase structure.
First violin bariolage on fingered notes at 89 and 1215.
H.C. continuous binary ending.

24b35

Slurred figure contrast phrase begins B section. Melodic

sequence. Walking bass line at 3135.

3646a

Sequential material with solo violin neighbor tone eighth

note figures against orchestral accompaniment.

46b54a

Fugal treatment of the main gavotte subject.

54b64a

Hocket-like offset drone figures in violins against walking

bass.

64b68

Reinforcement of key center of g minor ending in perfect

authentic V-i cadence. (Or cadence in G Major, if second
ending attached to following movement is taken.)

VI. Largo Pastorale ad libitum optional Pastoral

Section
A

Measures

Musical Features

182

G Major key. Moderate gigue-like binary movement A

section. Compound metered folk-like melody with held
pedal point drone accompaniment texture. Suggestion is
a pastoral bagpipe serenade. Melody trades between parts
including the violoncello.

8385

Solos passage. Expressive dissonant series of suspensions

evocative of sadness.

8693

Broken figure parallel sequence of first inversion triads

linked by suspensions at 8990. Closing of A section with
dramatic pauses at 92.

http://kaltwassermusic.com

Kaltwasser 15

Section

Measures

Musical Features

94102

Contrasting middle section with sequential material in

distantly related keys (B, E, F#). Hocket-like drone in
violins against walking bass at 99b100. End cadence on b
minor.

103124

Return of material from the A section, rounding out the

binary form. Dissonant solo passage from 8385 is
replaced by thematic material against a high D drone in the
first violins. Repeat of the basic gigue melody in a lower
register and V-I-V-I tag close the piece.

Table 2 Vivaldi Op. 8 Concerto no. 4 in F minor, Winter formal analysis

I. Allegro non molto
Section

Measures

Musical Features

ritornello 1

111

Tutti scoring. F minor key moving to strong cadence in c

minor at 12. Shivering cold motive corresponds to the
program sonnet.

episode 1

1218

Solo plays virtuosic arpeggiated figuration of c minor triad

with orchestra accompaniment. Running to keep warm
motive.

ritornello 2

1926

Tutti in f minor after weak imperfect cadence at 20.

Shivering motive gives way to stamping feet motive at
22b. Harmonic sequence through diatonic circle of fifths
starts at 23: f-Bb-Eb-Ab-Db-g-C7-f.

episode 2

26b38

Scored for solo with orchestra accompaniment, active

figuration of neighbor tones and runs a sequence over Bb
minor and Ab and returns key to f minor. The shivering
motive becomes a cruel wind at 33b for another sequence
through Bb Major and c minor.

ritornello 3

3943

Tutti scoring, shivering motive. Harmonic ambiguity

resolves into short sequences Bb7-Eb-Ab and F7-Bb-Eb.

episode 3

4446

Solo dominates orchestra with more lyric version of the

running about motive in rising 2nd sequence: Eb-Ab-FBb-G7.
http://kaltwassermusic.com

Kaltwasser 16

Section
ritornello 4

Measures
4763

Musical Features
Tutti. Shivering motive explores large harmonic
sequence. Closing section brings together all the motives,
running and stamping in a sort of recapitulation of the
movement.

http://kaltwassermusic.com

Kaltwasser 17

Fig. A Walking bass from Corelli Op. 6, Concerto VIII, II. Allegro

Fig B. Corelli Op. 6, Concerto VIII, V. Allegro

http://kaltwassermusic.com

Kaltwasser 18

Fig. C Corelli Op. 6, Concerto VIII, IV. Vivace

Fig. D Corelli Op. 6, Concerto VIII, Mvmt. III Allegro section

http://kaltwassermusic.com

Kaltwasser 19

Fig. E Corelli Op. 6, Concerto VIII, Mvmt. III Adagio section beginning

Fig. F Corelli Op. 6, Concerto VIII, Mvmt. III Adagio section cello divisions

http://kaltwassermusic.com

Kaltwasser 20

Fig. G Concerto No. 5 in Eb Major, La Tempesti di Mare (The Storm at Sea)

Fig. H Concerto No. 4 in F minor, LInverno (Winter), I. Allegro non molto

Fig. I Concerto No. 4 in F minor, LInverno (Winter), III. Allegro

http://kaltwassermusic.com

Kaltwasser 21

Annotated Bibliography
Books
Allsop, Peter. Arcangelo Corelli: New Orpheus of Our Times. New York: Oxford University
Press, 1999. Chapter 9 analyzes the concertos of opus 6. with historic commentary,
analysis of some of the form, and comparison and contrast to Corellis sonatas.
Blume, Friedrich. Renaissance and Baroque Music. Trans. M. D. Herter Norton. London: Faber
and Faber, 1968. Discusses concerted style generally and concerto form specifically as
the culmination of Baroque instrumental form (pp. 137, 148). Mentions Corelli and
Vivaldi specifically for their contributions.
Buelow, George J. A History of Baroque Music. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press,
2004. Ch. 4 discusses development of new instrumental forms in Italy in mid-17th
century. Ch. 5 has major section on Corellis compositions, brief bio, and musical
contributions. Includes musical examples from op. 6 concerti grossi. Ch. 14 has major
sections on the concerto and Vivaldi.
Bukofzer, Manfred F. Music in the Baroque Era. New York: Norton, 1947. Section on concerto
grosso and solo concerto at pp. 222232. Discusses Corelli, Torelli, and Vivaldi as three
central figures of the Baroque concerto.
Burkholder, J. Peter, Donald Jay Grout, and Claudia V. Palisca. A History of Western Music. 8th
ed. New York: Norton, 2010. Gives background on Corelli (392) and Vivaldi (421), and
discusses development of concerto form out of opera (397, 421ff).
Heller, Karl. Antonio Vivaldi: The Red Priest of Venice. Translated by David Marinelli. Portland,
OR: Amadeus Press, 1997. Has a well-organized list of works (pp. 32742). Very
chronological. Discusses concertos pp. 164201.
Kolneder, Walter. Antonio Vivaldi: His Life and Work. Translated by Bill Hopkins. Berkeley:
University of California Press, 1970. Huge section on his concertos. Quotes Quantz
extensively.
Martin, Arlan Stone. Vivaldi Violin Concertos; A Handbook. Metuchen, N.J.: Scarecrow Press,
1972. Cross-reference of all of Vivaldis violin concertos, indexed by Rinaldi catalog,
Pincherle number, and Fanna number. Predates RV numbers (introduced by Peter Ryom
in 1973), but an interesting way to browse the violin concertos and spot those few that
may deviate from the three-movement fast/slow/fast plan.
Maunder, C. R. F. The Scoring of Baroque Concertos. Woodbridge, Suffolk, UK: Boydell Press,
2004. Scholarly argument that the traditional view of Baroque concertos as orchestral
http://kaltwassermusic.com

Kaltwasser 22

works is mistaken, and that they were rather regarded as chamber works with typically
one player per part.
Palisca, Claude V. Baroque Music. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1968. Discussion of
Corellis output begins on p. 141. List of those who were influenced by his sonatas on p.
144. Section on concerto at pp. 145157 includes discussion of the development of
concerto form and musical examples from Corelli, Torelli, Vivaldi, and J.S. Bach.
Pincherle, Marc. Corelli: His Life, His Work. Trans. Hubert E. M. Russell. New York: Norton,
1956. Section on opus 6 and Corellis contributions to the concerto grosso form begins on
p. 120. Chart on 126 lists number of movements and scheme for the 12 concerti grossi.
Next chapter discusses his musical influences and legacy.
. Vivaldi: Genius of the Baroque. Trans. Christopher Hatch. New York: Norton, 1957.
Great bio and influence sections. Section on concerto pp. 141166 is detailed and
technical.
Talbot, Michael. Vivaldi. 2nd ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000. Includes bibliography
(pp. 212220) and list of works (pp. 180202). Section discussing concertos starts on p.
106.
Encyclopedia and Dictionary Articles
Hutchings, Arthur, Michael Talbot, Cliff Eisen, et al. Concerto. New Grove Dictionary of
Music and Musicians. 2nd ed. Edited by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell, 6:240260.
London: Macmillan, 2001. Overview, history of the form. Discusses Corelli as early
Roman concerto composer (242), and Vivaldis major contribution to the form (243).
Rice, Timothy, James Porter, and Chris Goertzen, eds. The Garland Encyclopedia of World
Music. Vol. 8. New York: Garland Publishing, 2000. Includes a section (pp. 7679)
discussing European music practices from the 16th through 18th century, specifically
mentioning Corelli and Vivaldi in connection with the rise of the orchestra and concerto
form.
Slonimsky, Nicolas, Laura Kuhn, and Dennis McIntire. Corelli, Arcangelo. Bakers
Biographical Dictionary of Musicians. 8th ed. New York: Schirmer, 2001. Relatively
brief bio sketch. Broadly-stated contributions to instrumental writing, including sonatas
and concerti grossi that became models.
. Vivaldi, Antonio (Lucio). Bakers Biographical Dictionary of Musicians. 8th ed.
6:37956. New York: Schirmer, 2001. Mostly short biographical sketch.

http://kaltwassermusic.com

Kaltwasser 23

Talbot, Michael. Corelli, Archangelo. New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians. 2nd ed.
Edited by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell, 6:457463. London: Macmillan, 2001. Detailed
biography, discussion of op. 6 concertos on last page relates them to his sonatas. Notes
that the ripieno serves mainly to double or reinforce the concertino, giving an
orchestrated terraced dynamic effect, but the viola part becomes an issue if the ripieno is
omitted (461).
. Vivaldi, Antonio (Lucio). New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, 2nd ed.
Edited by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell, 26:817ff. London: Macmillan, 2001. Extensive
bio and list of works. Credits him as first composer to regularly employ ritornello form in
fast movements. Notes that some concertos are scored for ripieno alone, and some for
concertino alone. Briefly discusses orchestration techniques.
Music Scores
Corelli, Arcangelo. Xii Concerti per 2 Flauti e Basso. Mnster: Mieroprint, 1990. Reproduced
edition of transposition of the 12 concerti grossi of opus 6 for flutes and string orchestra.
Unfortunately, the parts are in separate books.
, Hans Oesch, Max Ltolf, Jrg Stenzl, Cristina Urchuegua, Rudolf Bossard, and Hans
Joachim Marx. Historisch-kritische Gesamtausgabe der musikalischen Werke. Laaber:
Laaber-Verlag, 1976. Book 4 includes opus 6 concerti grossi.
. Sonate a Violino e Violone o Cimbalo, Opera Quinta. Firenze: Studio per Edizioni
Scelte, 1979. Musical score. Reproduction of the first Roman edition, with the first six
sonatas of the 1710 Amsterdam edition in an appendix. May bear to compare with opus
six concerti grossi in terms of form, scoring, and instrumental writing.
Vivaldi, Antonio, and Eleanor Selfridge-Field. The Four Seasons and Other Violin Concertos:
In Full Score, Opus 8, Complete. New York: Dover, 1995.
Vivaldi, Antonio. Spring from the Four Seasons. From Christine Forney and Roger Hickman.
The Norton Scores: A Study Anthology, Vol. 1. New York: Norton, 2011. Vivaldis most
famous work.
, Tadeusz Ochlewski, Maria Dziewulska, and Ewa Gabry. Concerto in a Minor for Two
Violins, String Ensemble and Harpsichord : L'estro Armonico Op. 3, No. 8. Krakw:
Polskie Wydawn. Muzyczne, 1975. Musical score. Example Vivaldi concerto scored for
two violins and ripieno.

http://kaltwassermusic.com

Kaltwasser 24

Recordings
Corelli, Arcangelo. Corelli: Sonate a violino e violone o cimbalo op. V. Chirara Banchini, Jesper
Christensen, and Luciano Contini. Harmonia Mundi HMA 1951307, 2000. Compact disc.
Liner notes quote several primary sources from the 18th century and discuss the
invention of sonata and concerto forms.
. Concerti Grossi Op. 6, 712. Nicholas McGegan and Philharmonic Baroque Orchestra.
Harmonia Mundi HMU 907015, 1990. Compact disc. These are Corellis published
concerti grossi. Liner notes include details on origins of the opus and quotes from
contemporaries discussing early performances.
Vivaldi, Antonio. Concerto for Mandolin, String Orchestra, and Harpsichord in C Major, RV
425. From The Worlds Greatest Composers: Vivaldi. Musici di San Marco. Madacy
Entertainment #53755, 2008. Compact disc set. Example of a Vivaldi concerto scored for
mandolin and strings. Three movement fast/slow/fast.
. Concerto in C Major for Two Oboes, Two clarinets and Strings, RV560. From Wind
Concertos. Paul Goodwin and Robert King. London: Hyperion, 1990. Compact disc.
. Concerto in F Major for Two Oboes, Bassoon, Two Horns, Violin & Strings, RV 571.
From The Worlds Greatest Composers: Vivaldi. Alberto Lizzio, conductor. Madacy
Entertainment #53755, 2008. Compact disc set. Example of a Vivaldi concerto grosso
scored for wind and horn concertino.
. L'estro Armonico, No. 8 in A minor, Op. 3, RV 522. From The Worlds Greatest
Composers: Vivaldi. Albert Bucher and Bamberg String Orchestra. Madacy
Entertainment #53755, 2008. Compact disc set. Example of a Vivaldi concerto scored for
double violin concertino.
. Spring from The Four Seasons. From The Norton Recordings: Gregorian Chant to
Beethoven. Christine Forney and Joseph Machlis. New York: Norton, 2003. Compact disc
set. This program concerto is Vivaldis most famous work.
. Concerto R.V. 187 in C Major and R.V. 209 in D Major. From Bach & Vivaldi: Violin
Concertos. Zukerman, Pinchas and English Chamber Orchestra. 74321 68002 2 BMG,
2001. Compact disc. Liner note gives short composer bio and background on the specific
pieces.

http://kaltwassermusic.com

Kaltwasser 25

Articles
Crawford, Ardella. Baroque Concertos. American Record Guide 63, no. 6 (November 2000):
258. Academic Search Premier, EBSCOhost. Accessed November 30, 2012. Mentions
Corellis famous Christmas concerto on a re-released 1960s recording.
Crutchfield, Will. Oratorio: San Giovanni Battista. The New York Times, Feb. 18, 1986.
Accessed Mar. 1, 2013. http://www.nytimes.com/1986/02/18/arts/oratorio-san-giovannibattista.html. Discusses scoring and form of Stradellas 1675 oratorio that uses Roman
concerto grosso orchestration.
Harris, Simon. Lully, Corelli, Muffat and the Eighteenth-Century Orchestral String Body.
Music & Letters 54, no. 2 (Spr. 1973): 197202.
Libby, Dennis. Interrelationships in Corelli. Journal of the American Musicological Society 26,
no. 2 (Sum. 1973): 263287.
Markow, Robert. Work in Progress. Strad 118, no. 1408 (August 2007): 4044. Academic
Search Premier, EBSCOhost. Accessed Nov. 29, 2012. Mostly unrelated, but talks about
the constituents of the concertino in concerto grossi in the Baroque, and mentions that
Vivaldi didnt write for string quartet plus orchestra, though he did write for four violins
and for a pair of violins and two celli. (Of course, the string quartet form wasnt even
invented until the time of Haydn.)
Maunder, Richard. Correspondence. Music & Letters. 87, no. 3 (2006), 507-508. Letter to the
editor about Michael Talbot book on Baroque concerto scoring.
Preussner, Eberhard. Die musikalischen Reisen des Herrn von Uffenbach. Kassel: BrenreiterVerlag, 1949, 67, 71. Trans. Piero Weiss. Quoted in Piero Weiss & Richard Taruskin. A
Travelers impressions of Vivaldi. Music in the Western World: A History in Documents,
2nd ed, 199200. Belmont, CA: Schirmer, 2008. First-hand account of Vivaldis work as
an opera impresario, performer, composer, and teacher.
Williams, Peter. Band practice. Musical Times 145, no. 1889 (Winter 2004): 859. Academic
Search Premier, EBSCOhost. Accessed November 30, 2012. Review of three books
talking about the evolution of the orchestra, including questions of scoring in Corelli and
Vivaldi concerti grossi.
Internet Websites
Estrella, Steven G. Corelli, Arcangelo. Dr. Estrellas Incredibly Abridged Dictionary of
Composers. Accessed Oct. 27, 2012. http://www.stevenestrella.com/composers/

http://kaltwassermusic.com

Kaltwasser 26

index.html?composerfiles/corelli1713.html. Terse bio, bibliography with five print and

two online entries.
Laux, Charles. Antonio Vivaldi: An Annotated Bibliography. Accessed Oct. 27, 2012. http://
www.charleslaux.com/?page_id=211. Significant annotated research bibliography
organized by resource type (biography, dissertation, encyclopedia, recordings, scores,
etc.).
Sartorius, Michael. Vivaldi: Four Seasons Sonnets texts in Italian & English. Accessed Feb.
16, 2013. http://www.baroquemusic.org/vivaldiseasons.html.
Vitali, Giovanni Battista. IMSLP/Petrucci Music Library. Accessed Mar. 2, 2013. http://
imslp.org/wiki/Category:Vitali,_Giovanni_Battista. 17th C. Bolognese composer, likely
influence of Corelli, scores for comparison.

http://kaltwassermusic.com