907

& IWA Publishing 2010 Water Science & Technology: Water SupplyWSTWS 9 10.6 9 2010

Greywater treatment with biological aerated filter (BAF)

for urban water reuse
A. Meda and P. Cornel

ABSTRACT
Greywater is an excellent resource for service water in intra-urban reuse. By substituting fresh
water with appropriately treated greywater, it is possible to save 3050% of fresh water. In this
paper, an up-flow pilot biological aerated filter (BAF) is tested for the treatment of synthetic
greywater and the design parameters are determined. An organic load of 8 kg COD/(m3 d) allows

A. Meda (corresponding author)

P. Cornel
Technische Universitat Darmstadt,
Petersenstrasse 13,
64287 Darmstadt Germany
E-mail: a.meda@iwar.tu-darmstadt.de;
p.cornel@iwar.tu-darmstadt.de

to achieving a good effluent quality with regard to COD, suspended solids, and anionic
surfactants. By reducing the organic load to 5 kg COD/(m3 d) full nitrification is achieved as well.
A process set-up for a full-scale BAF greywater treatment plant is proposed and dimensioned
using the parameters from the pilot plant tests. Here, the required specific volume is
approx. 3 L/C for the reactor and 16 L/C for the storage tanks. This feature make the BAF a
compact process which can be successfully integrated in intra-urban water reuse schemes.
Key words 9 biological aerated filter, greywater treatment, reactor volume, water reuse

INTRODUCTION
Greywater can be one resource for high quality process water.

Greywater characteristics are highly variable. In Table 1,

Greywater arises from domestic washing operations and is

quality ranges of greywater from bathroom and laundry as

defined as domestic wastewater excluding toilet wastewater

well as greywater light (which comprehends both) are

(Jefferson et al. 1999). In the literature, slightly different

summarized, as reported in current literature reviews (fbr

definitions for greywater can be found. For example, grey-

2005; DWA 2008; Li et al. 2009; Chang 2010) and as measured

water gained solely from showers/bathing and washing

in real cases in Shanghai and Qingdao, PR China (BMBF

machines is called low-strength greywater or greywater

2009). Apart from the extreme values, greywater contains

light (Nolde 1999; Bieker et al. 2010). This definition excludes

fewer pollutants in comparison to mixed domestic waste-

in particular the heavier polluted wastewater originating from

water, e.g. 12% of nitrogen and 47% of BOD5 load (Morel &

kitchen sinks. Typical greywater volumes vary from 65 to

Diener 2007). In addition, due to its origin, it has a higher

150 L/(C d) (C capita) depending on living standards,

water temperature. These features facilitate treatment. Thus,

population structures, customs and habits, water installations,

greywater is an excellent resource for service water in intra-

and the degree of water abundance (DWA 2008). Greywater

urban reuse.

light amounts to approx. 3550% of the domestic water

Treated greywater for non-potable use in private house-

consumption and equals or exceeds the amount of water

holds has to meet high quality standards. There are many

needed for toilet flushing (approx. 2530%). Therefore, ade-

international and national guidelines on the general topic of

quately treated greywater could be used as process water in

water reuse, but very few focus on urban greywater reuse. To

substitution of fresh water, e.g. for domestic use in toilet

date, the only international guideline on greywater reuse is

flushing or intra-urban irrigation.

the 2006 WHO guideline on greywater reuse for irrigation.

doi: 10.2166/ws.2010.627

A. Meda and P. Cornel 9 Greywater treatment with biological aerated filter for reuse

908

Water Science & Technology: Water SupplyWSTWS 9 10.6 9 2010

Table 1 9 Greywater characteristics

BOD5

TSS

TN

bathroom1

100633

50300

7505

3.619.4

0.11448.8

bathroom2

104651

61188

54120

6.610.1

1.55

laundry

2312,950

48472

68465

1.1

40.3

n.d.4171

greywater light3

411,100

151,475

4.345

0.17.4

0.727

greywater light4

250430

125250

greywater (Shanghai)5

430

186

285

38

72

greywater from shower

(Shanghai and Qingdao)5

270280

50130

2123

o1

1012

NH4-N

TP

Anionic
surfactants

COD

1 Li

et al. (2009)
(2008)
3 Chang (2010)
4 fbr (2005)
5 BMBF (2009)
2 DWA

This guideline, however, only outlines the microbiological

such as TDS, TN, NH4-N, and detergents for greywater

requirements without considering physical and chemical

recycling.

parameters. The national guidelines show a considerable

Based on a former research project Semicentralized

variation regarding parameters and limit values. A selective

Supply and Treatment Systems for urban areas in China

overview on guidelines on greywater reuse from different

Part II (BMBF 2006) investigations of greywater treatment

countries and for different applications is given in Table 2

with respect to intra-urban reuse were carried out. Among

(note: not all parameters listed in the guidelines are

other treatment techniques such as SBR (Sequencing Batch

reported in the table). It is noteworthy that the Chinese

Reactor) and MBR (Membrane Bioreactor), a Biological

water reuse guideline is the only one including parameters

Aerated Filter (BAF) was tested. Results of the comparison

Table 2 9 Overview on guidelines for greywater reuse

TDS

Turbidity BOD5

Anion. surf. TN

NH4-N TP

mg/L

NTU

mg/L

mg/L

mg/L

mg/L

Tot. colif.

mg/L

Fecal colif.

Application.

process water in buildings3

Germany
(Nolde 1999)

o100/mL o10/mL

China
(GB/T 18920-2002)

1,500

10

10

o3/L

toilet flushing

0.5

15

0.5

500/L

unrestricted environmental

Japan
(Maeda et al. 1996)

20

1000/mL

toilet flushing

50/ mL

environmental
(limited contact)

USA
(EPA 2004)

302

30

200/100 mL

restricted urban4

10

ND/100 mL

unrestricted urban5

1 BOD
7
2 TSS
3 including

toilet flushing
irrigation, vehicle washing, toilet flushing, fire protection, commercial air conditioners

4 landscape
5 Irrigation

of areas with restricted or infrequent access

909

A. Meda and P. Cornel 9 Greywater treatment with biological aerated filter for reuse

Water Science & Technology: Water SupplyWSTWS 9 10.6 9 2010

of the techniques can be found elsewhere (BMBF 2009;

about 100:6:0.6 is realistic for real greywater light as

Cornel et al. 2009; Chang 2010).

reported in the quoted literature. During the investigation

In this paper, the suitability of BAF for greywater treat-

period, average concentrations were approx. 300750 mg/L

ment and the design parameters are investigated. In the

COD, 155725 mg/L BOD5, 65730 mg/L TSS, 1875 mg/L

second part, a possible configuration for a full-scale BAF

TN, and 1.771 mg/L TP, which is in the range of the

plant for greywater treatment for reuse applications is

reported literature data as well as in the range of data for

proposed.

real greywater measured in the PR China (see Table 1). Only

the concentration of anionic surfactants seems high
(60720 mg/L) compared to real greywater. However,

MATERIALS AND METHODS

reported values differ in analytical methods and definitions.

Quite often they are not regarded at all. The water tempera-

Experimental set-up

ture was 18711C.

The experiments were carried out at an up-flow moving bed

Experimental test phases

pilot BAF (0.21 m diameter, 3.3 m bed height, silica sand

with 12 mm grain size as filling material). The moving bed

No specific inoculation of the sand was carried out. The

biofilter is continuously backwashed from the bottom, result-

biofilm developed spontaneously by feeding the reactor with

ing in a counterflow movement of sand and water. Treated

greywater and gradually increasing the flow. Backwash inten-

water can be recycled to adjust filtration velocity. Aeration is

sity during the start-up phase was kept low (beginning with a

carried out with a perforated hose in the inlet cone of the

discontinuous backwash of one hour per day) in order not to

filter. The effluent is disinfected via a UV disinfection system

rub off the forming biofilm. After a stable effluent quality had

Aquada Proxima 2 (WEDECO, Germany) equipped with a

been achieved, the test phases were carried out (cf. Table 3).

low pressure mercury lamp. The applied irradiation dose is

In phase 1 the organic load was varied, while in test phase 2

9302,300 J/m2.

the recirculation rate (and thus the filtration velocity) was

The tests were carried out using synthetic greywater,

varied. The other parameters were left unchanged. The filtra-

prepared by mixing commercial personal care products and

tion velocity is given as superficial velocity (flow divided by

detergents (shower gel, shampoo, toothpaste, body lotion,

(empty) reactor cross area); the empty bed contact time

washing powder, fabric softener, etc.) according to the statis-

(EBCT) is given by filter bed height divided by filtration

tical consumption per capita and day in Germany (Chang

velocity; the recirculation rate is given as the ratio between

2010). In order to simulate microbial contamination and

influent and recirculation flow.

dirt particles such as grease, dandruff, hairs, and sand,

3% of raw wastewater from a municipal treatment plant

Sampling and analyses

was added. Lack of nutrients seems to be distinctive for

synthetic greywater, as found e.g. by Jefferson et al. (2001a).

Every two days, grab samples of reactor influent and effluent

In contrast, real greywater, even less polluted greywater

were taken and homogenized. Chemical analysis of COD, TN,

light, contains sufficient nitrogen and phosphorus to serve

NH4-N, TP, and anionic surfactants was carried out by using

as nutrients for microbial growth, as reported, for example, by

cuvette tests (Hach Lange, Germany). TSS and BOD5 were

Friedler et al. (2005), Liu et al. (2005), Eriksson et al. (2007),

measured according to standard methods by APHA et al.

Merz et al. (2007), Knerr et al. (2007). No limitation of

(2005). Dissolved oxygen concentration and water tempera-

microbial growth nor poor effluent quality due to the lack

ture in the filter supernatant were measured via an oxygen

of nutrients were served in biological treatment of low

probe (WTW, Germany). The measurement of total coliforms

strength greywater. In order to avoid a lack of nutrients in

and E. coli [MPN/100 mL] were carried out by using the

this

IDEXX Quanti-Trays/2000 for the influent samples and

study,

urea

and

potassium

dihydrogenphosphate

(KH2PO4) were added. The resulting COD:N:P ratio of

Quanti-Trays for the effluent samples (IDEXX 2009).

A. Meda and P. Cornel 9 Greywater treatment with biological aerated filter for reuse

910

Water Science & Technology: Water SupplyWSTWS 9 10.6 9 2010

Table 3 9 Test phases

Test phase 1: Variation of organic load

Organic load
1

Filtration velocity/EBCT

kg COD/(m3 d)

3.7

m/h/minutes

9.6/19

5.1

6.9

8.5

8.8

9.9

11.7

Test phase 2: Variation of recirculation rate

Recirculation rate

510%

306%

163%

95%

0%

Filtration velocity

m/h

8.4

5.6

3.6

3.5

1.8

EBCT

minutes

21

32

50

51

100

Organic load

kg COD/(m3.d)

3.9

1 EBCT:

empty bed contact time

RESULTS

nitrification may not be necessary, since a certain portion of

ammonium (22.5% referred to the eliminated COD) is

The start-up of the biofilter until achieving a stable biological

already removed from the greywater by physiological incor-

degradation took about two months. Some initial operational

poration into the biomass and removed with the backwash

problems occurred due to the clogging of the filter bed and

water.

foaming from the top of the biofilter caused by the stripping of

The loading rates are much higher than other published

non-degraded surfactants. After the sand circulation had been

values for organic load of biofilters for greywater treatment,

optimized, the biofilter was able to cope with the TSS present

e.g. 1.0970.73 kg/(m3 d) (Jefferson et al. 2001b), 1.5 kg/

in the synthetic greywater (on average 65730 mg/L with

(m3 d) (Laine 2001), and 0.8 kg/(m3 d) (Franci Goncalves

peaks of up to 100 mg/L).

et al. 2007). The established organic load is in the same range

as for biofilters for municipal wastewater full treatment
(810 kg/(m3 d) according to Metcalf & Eddy (2003).

Organic load, hydraulic, and effluent quality

For a given organic load, no influence of the filtration

velocity on the effluent quality was found. Therefore a recir-

Low effluent concentrations of COD (41 mg/L), BOD5

culation is not necessary, but rather unfavorable due to the

(5.4 mg/L),

energy demand for pumping.

and

anionic

surfactants

(0.6 mg/L)

were

achieved with organic loads up to 8.8 kg COD/(m3 d). At

higher loads, the anionic surfactant concentration in the
effluent increased (cf. Figure 1) due to insufficient degradation. In addition, the TSS increased due to the higher required
concentration. The NH4-N concentration was approx.
10 mg/L. With a reduction of the organic load below 5 kg
COD/(m3 d), a complete elimination of ammonium (nitrification) and a reduction of the effluent COD (from 41 to
21 mg/L), BOD5 (from 5.4 to 1.6 mg/L) and TSS (from 8 to
4 mg/L) concentration were achieved (cf. Figure 1). Anionic
surfactants were not further reduced. These effluent values
fulfill even the very strict Chinese quality standard for greywater reuse (GB/T 18920-2002). Depending on the ammonium influent concentration and effluent requirements,

2,5

25

BOD5
TSS
NH4-N

20
15

2,0
1,5

an. surfactants
10

1,0

0,5
0,0

0
0

10

COD volume load [kg/(m3d)]

Figure 1 9 Effluent quality of BAF in dependence of the volume load.

12

an. surfactants [mg/L]

air flow rates necessary to maintain a sufficient oxygen

A. Meda and P. Cornel 9 Greywater treatment with biological aerated filter for reuse

Further results

Water Science & Technology: Water SupplyWSTWS 9 10.6 9 2010

12
10

Average concentrations total coliforms and E. coli in the

8
6

greywater (BAF influent) were approx. 1.0107/100 mL and

6.3105/100 mL, respectively. The BAF reduced the microbial

0
8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24

contamination approx. 2 orders of magnitude within 200 cm

bed height. Nevertheless, the microbial contamination of the

BAF effluent is still too high and does not meet the quality
requirements for urban reuse, making disinfection necessary.

filter units in operation [-]

911

grey water
time variation
curve
buffer tank
filling level
filter units
in operation

time
Figure 2 9 Time variation curve for greywater flow (Knerr et al. 2007), filter units in
operation at every hour and filling level in the buffer tank.

The BAF effluent was disinfected successfully at all tested

conditions with UV irradiation at the given irradiation doses.

As greywater flow varies strongly during the day, a buffer

Total coliforms and E. coli were not detected in any sample of

tank has to be installed in order to equalize the influent. For

the UV effluent.

the design a time variation curve for greywater flow according

Aeration is a crucial aspect in BAF operation. The super-

to Knerr et al. (2007) (cf. Figure 2) is assumed. An effluent

ficial air flow rate was adjusted in order to keep the

storage tank and a disinfection unit must also be considered.

DO (dissolved oxygen) concentration in the effluent above

In order to prevent filter bed clogging due to hairs, fibers, and

COD/(m3

d), a

other materials, greywater pre-treatment with a fine sieve

superficial air flow rate of 10 m3/(m2 h) at STP is sufficient

(r2 mm gap size) should be included. It is assumed that the

6 mg/L. With an organic load of approx. 8 kg

for good effluent quality. The backwash turnover (time for a

fine sieve reduces approx. 25% of the COD, BOD5, and TSS

complete circulation of the sand bed) was set at 1.43.3 days.

concentrations (Frechen et al. 2006).

Approx. 58% of the effluent was used as backwash water.

The modular concept facilitates the adaptation of the

This amount is quite low in comparison to discontinuously

operation according to varying greywater flows. The filter

backwashed BAF (1030% according to Rother (2005)).

units can be operated on demand. This means, a filter unit

However, the transferability to a full-scale plant has still to

either runs under optimal conditions (design filtration velo-

be verified.

city, organic load, and aeration) or stays in stand-by. This

strategy avoids an energetically sub-optimal operation of

First estimations for a full-scale BAF greywater

pumps and blowers (due to low flows) as well as an under-

treatment plant

nourishment of the biomass (due to low organic loads).

During stand-by, a filter unit does not need aeration in

Based on the results of the pilot plant, a full-scale BAF

order to maintain biological activity (Meda & Cornel 2010);

greywater treatment plant for effluent reuse in toilet flushing

hence it does not consume energy. Another advantage of such

has been exemplarily designed for a daily greywater

a modular assembling is the redundancy of the plant. In case

m3/d.

This volume corresponds to 2,500

of malfunction or out-of-service of one filter unit, the other(s)

capita assuming the specific greywater amount of Qingdao

can be continuously operated, if necessary also at a higher

(41 L/(C d) (BMBF 2006) or approx. 940 capita assuming the

organic load than under design conditions.

volume of 102.5

specific greywater amount of USA (109 L/(C d) (Asano

2007). The COD concentration in raw greywater is assumed

Dimensioning

to be 300 mg/L.
Based on these assumptions, a BAF unit with 1 m diameter
Description of the proposed process set-up

and 2.7 m sand bed height is proposed. A minimum (theoretical) number of 1.55 filter units is required. Consequently, at

For the full scale treatment plant a modular assembling is

least 2 filter units have to be installed, resulting in a treatment

proposed: an appropriate number (Z2) of identical, standar-

capacity reserve of approx. 22%. The required minimum

dized BAF units is considered.

influent buffer tank volume is 19.4 m3. In case 3 filter units

912

A. Meda and P. Cornel 9 Greywater treatment with biological aerated filter for reuse

Water Science & Technology: Water SupplyWSTWS 9 10.6 9 2010

are installed, the treatment capacity reserve is approx. 48%

at STP is sufficient for good effluent quality. The turnover of

and the minimum influent buffer tank volume is 9.1 m3. Here,

sand backwash should be approx. 1.5 days, in order to

it has to be considered that the buffer tank volume strongly

prevent clogging and ensure good biological degradation. A

depends on the time variation curve for greywater flow. The

process scheme for greywater treatment with BAF for urban

influent buffer volume is dimensioned for the here given time

reuse has been proposed and exemplarily dimensioned. The

variation curve (Knerr et al. 2007) and with the specification

total specific volume of the plant (considering filter units and

that the tank is empty at the beginning of the peak flow in the

buffer tanks) is estimated at approx. 20 L/C.

morning. This way, the hydraulic retention time (HRT) of

greywater in the influent buffer tank is definitely r24 hours,
which is acceptable in order to avoid unpleasant odors and

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

excessive oxygen depletion (Dixon et al. 1999).

Figure 2 illustrates the assumed time variation curve for

The authors would like to thank the German Federal Ministry

greywater flow, the number of filter units in operation during

for Education and Research for financing the project Semi-

the day, and the filling level in the influent buffer tank for the

centralized Supply and Treatment Systems for urban areas in

design with 3 filter units. An effluent storage tank has to be

China Part II (02WD0607).

installed as the toilet water demand varies during the day.

A storage volume of 10 L/C is proposed, enough for at least
one toilet flush. Comparing the two alternative designs with

REFERENCES

2 and 3 filter units, it becomes evident that in both cases the

specific volume for the filter units is small (2.5 to 3.7 L/C),
compared to the buffer and storage tanks, which sum up to
17.8 and 13.7 L/C, respectively. The design with 3 filter units
has the smallest total volume (17.4 L/C) due to the much
smaller influent buffer tank and a higher redundancy (the
installed treatment capacity is twice as high as the minimum
required). However, it implies higher investment costs due to
an additional filter unit. The decision on the adequate configuration depends on the local boundary conditions, such as
space availability, building price, time variation in greywater
flow, etc.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

BAF is a suitable process for greywater treatment. A maximum organic load of 8 kg COD/(m3 d) can be applied. In
case the complete elimination of ammonium (nitrification) is
required, the volumetric organic load has to be reduced below
5 kg/(m3 d). The proposed organic load is much higher than
other published values for organic load of biofilters for greywater treatment and is in the same range as for biofilters in
municipal wastewater full treatment. Aeration is a crucial
aspect in BAF operation. With an organic load of approx.
8 kg COD/(m3 d), a superficial air flow rate of 10 m3/(m2 h)

APHA, AWWA and WEF 2005 Standard Methods for the Examination
of Water and Wastewater, 21st Edition Standard Methods for the
Examination of Wastewater and Wastewater. American Public
Health Association, American Water Works Association and
Water Environment Federation, Washington, DC.
Asano, T. 2007 Water Reuse Issues. Technologies, and Applications.
McGraw Hill.
Bieker, S., Cornel, P. & Wagner, M. 2010 Semicentralized Supply and
Treatment Systems Integrated Infrastructure Solutions for Fast
Growing Urban Areas. Water Science and Technology 61(11),
29052913.
BMBF 2006 German Ministery for Education and Research, (BMBF),
Semizentrale Ver- und Entsorgungssysteme fur urbane Raume
Chinas (Semicentralized Supply and Disposal Systems for Urban
Areas in China). Subproject 1, project code 02WD0398, Final
Report.
BMBF 2009 German Ministery for Education and Research, (BMBF),
Semizentrale Ver- und Entsorgungssysteme fur urbane Raume
Chinas (Semicentralized Supply and Disposal Systems for Urban
Areas in China). Subproject 2, project code 02WD0607, Final
Report.
Chang, Y. 2010 Greywater treatment within semi-centralized supply and
treatment systems by the example of the Peoples Republic of
China, PhD Thesis, Technische Universitat Darmstadt, Germany.
Cornel, P., Wagner, M., Meda, A. & Bieker, S. 2009 Semicentralized
Supply and Treatment Systems Integrated Solutions for Fast
Growing Urban Areas, 7th IWA international conference on
water reclamation & reuse. Brisbane, Australia, 2125 September
2009.
Dixon, A., Butler, D., Fewkes, A. & Robinson, M. 1999 Measurement
and modelling of quality changes in stored untreated grey water.
Urban Water 1(1999), 293306.

913

A. Meda and P. Cornel 9 Greywater treatment with biological aerated filter for reuse

DWA 2008 Neuartige Sanitarsysteme (Innovative sanitation systems),

edited by: DWA (German Association for Water, Wastewater and
Waste). Hennef, Germany. ISBN: 978-3-941089-37-2.
EPA 2004 Guidelines for Water Reuse. EPA/625/R-04/108.
Eriksson, E., Yan, X., Lundsbye, M., Madsen, T. S., Andersen, H. R. &
Ledin, A. 2007 Variation in grey wastewater quality reused for
toilet flushing, 6th IWA Specialty Conference on Wastewater
Reclamation and Reuse of Sustainability, 9th12th October
2007, Antwerp, Belgium; 2007.
fbr 2005 fbr Hinweiseblatt H201, Grauwasser-Recycling, Planungsgrundlagen und Betriebshinweise (fbr information sheet H 201,
Greywater Recycling Planning fundamentals and operation
information) Fachvereinigung Betriebs- und Regenwassernutzung
e.V. (fbr), Darmstadt, 2005 http://www.fbr.de/publikation/
H201_Grauwasser.pdf, downloaded on 22th June 2010.
Franci Goncalves, R., Bazzarella, B. & Cassini, S. T. 2007 Graywater
reuse in edifications using combined anaerobic/aerobic compact
treatment system, 6th IWA specialist conference on wastewater
reclamation & reuse for sustainability, 9th to 12th October 2007,
Antwerp, Belgium.
Frechen, F.-B., Schier, W. & Wett, M. 2006 Pre-Treatment of Municipal
MBR Applications in Germany - Current Status and Treatment
Efficiency. Water Practice & Technology 1(3).
Friedler, E., Kovalio, R. & Galil, N. I. 2005 On-site greywater treatment
and reuse in multi-storey buildings. Water Science and Technology
51(10), 18794.
GB/T 18920-2002: Quality standard of intra-urban water reuse in
China, Ministry of Housing and Urban-Rural Development, P.
R. China, enacted in 2003.
IDEXX 2009 Product information about Quanti-Trays and QuantiTrays/2000 (IDEXX Laboratories, Inc., USA), http://www.
idexx.de, downloaded on 30th November 2009.
Jefferson, B., Burgess, J. E., Pichon, A., Harkness, J. & Judd, S. 2001a
Nutrient addition to enhance biological treatment of greywater.
Water Research 35(11), 270210.
Jefferson, B., Laine, A., Parsons, S., Stephensons, T. & Juss, S. 1999
Technologies for domestic wastewater recycling. Urban Water 1,
285292.

Water Science & Technology: Water SupplyWSTWS 9 10.6 9 2010

Jefferson, B., Laine, A. L., Stephenson, T. & Judd, S. 2001b Advanced

biological unit processes for domestic water recycling. Water
Science and Technology 43(10), 211218.
Knerr, H., Engelhardt, M., Hansen, J., Sagawe, G. & Steinmetz, H. 2007
The Project KOMPLETT - A new approach for closed loop urban
water cycles, 2nd International Conference SmallWat07 on Wasteweater Treatment in Small Units, 11.-15.11.2007, Sevilla/Spain.
Laine, A. T. 2001 Technologies for greywater recycling in buildings, PhD
thesis, Cranfield Unniversity, UK.
Li, F., Wichmann, K. & Otterpohl, R. 2009 Review of the technological
approaches for grey water treatment and reuses. Science of the
Total Environment 407(11), 34313610.
Liu, R., Huang, H., Chen, L., Wen, X. & Qian, Y. 2005 Operational
performance of a submerged membrane bioreactor for reclamation of bath wastewater. Process Biochem 40(1), 12530.
Maeda, M., Nakada, K., Kawamoto, K. & Ikeda, M. 1996 Area-wide use
of reclaimed water in Tokyo, Japan. Water Science and Technology
33(1011), 5157.
Meda, A. & Cornel, P. 2010 Aerated Biofilter with Seasonal Varied
Operation Modes for the Production of Irrigation Water, Water
Science and Technology 61(5), 11731181.
Merz, C., Scheumann, R., Hamouri, B. E. & Kraume, M. 2007 Membrane bioreactor technology for the treatment of greywater from a
sports and leisure club. Desalination 215(13), 3743.
Metcalf and Eddy, Inc. 2003 Wastewater engineering, treatment and
reuse. 4th ed. McGraw-Hill Publishing Co., New York.
Morel, A. & Diener, S. 2007 Grey water management in low and
middle-income countries.Water and Sanitation in Developing
Countries (Sandec). Eawag: Swiss Federal institute of Aquatic
Science and Technology; 2006. http://www.sandec.ch, downloaded on 30th November 2008.
Nolde, E. 1999 Greywater reuse systems for toilet flushing in multistorey buildings over ten years experience in Berlin. Urban
Water 1, 275284.
Rother, E. 2005 Optimising design and operation of the biofiltration
process for municipal wastewater treatment, PhD Thesis, Technische Universitat Darmstadt, Germany ISBN: 3-932518-59-4.

Copyright of Water Science & Technology: Water Supply is the property of IWA Publishing and its content
may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express
written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use.