Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
( UNIT I - NOTES)
MEANING
Research is an endeavour to discover answers to intellectual and practical problems through the
application of scientific method.
Research is a systematized effort to gain new knowledge.
-Redman and Mory.
Research is the systematic process of collecting and analyzing information (data) in order to increase our
understanding of the phenomenon about which we are concerned or interested.
BUSINESS RESEARCH
It is a systematic organised effort to investigate a specific problem encountered in the work setting that
need a solution.
This means that the first step in research is to know where the problem areas exist in the organisation,
and to identify as clearly and specifically as possible the problems that need to be studied and
solved.
OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH
Primary objective:
The main objective of research is to find answer to questions through the application of scientific
procedures.
Secondary objective :
- To find out the truth which is hidden
-
To examine the frequency with which something occurs (or) with which it is associated with something
else
Research enables to sense spot & deal with problems before they go out of hand
Research helps the manager to understand the need for and share share information with consultants
It is useful to solve various operational and planning problems of business and industry
It enable the manager to eliminate or avoid making decisions on subjective or biased manner
CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH
Research is directed towards the solution of a problem.
Research is based upon observable experience or empirical evidence.
Research demands accurate observation and description.
Research involves gathering new data from primary sources or using existing data for a new purpose.
Research activities are characterized by carefully designed procedures.
Research requires expertise i.e., skill necessary to carryout investigation, search the related literature and
to understand and analyze the data gathered.
Research is objective and logical applying every possible test to validate the data collected and
conclusions reached.
Research involves the quest for answers to unsolved problems.
Research requires courage.
Research is characterized by patient and unhurried activity.
Research is carefully recorded and reported.
This enables various other organisations to apply those solutions when they encounter similar problems
Helps the most critical factor at the work place that need specific attention so as to avoid problems
CHARACTERISTICS OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH
1. Purposiveness
2. Rigor (Strictness)
3.Testability
4.Replicability (Repeat)
Observation
Preliminary
information gathering
Deduction
conclusion
Interpreting
results
Formulation of
theory
Data Analysis
Developing
Hypotheses
Scientific data
collection
2. Logical
3. Empirical
4.Replicable
5. Creative
Exploration
Describe
Diagnose
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Hypothesis
SCOPE OF RESEARCH
RESEARCH FOR DECISION MAKING
Throws light on risks and uncertainty
Identify alternative courses of action
Helps in project identification
Solves investment problems
Solves pricing problems
Solves allocation problems
Solves decision making issues in HR
Solves various operational and planning problems of business and industry
Helps social scientists in studying social relationships and in seeking answers to various social
problems.
For students, research means a careerism or a way to attain a high position in the social structure.
For professionals in research, it may mean a source of livelihood.
For philosophers and thinkers, research means the outlet for new ideas and insights.
For literary men and women, research means development of new styles and creative work.
For analysts and intellectuals, research means generalizations of new theories.
PROBLEMS IN RESEARCH
Uncontrollable variables
Human tendencies
Time and money
Lack of computerization
Lack of scientific training in the methodology of research
Insufficient interaction between university research departments and business establishments
Lack of confidence on the part of business units to give information
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6. Diagnostic Research
It is also called clinical research which aims at identifying the causes of a problem, frequency with
which it occurs and the possible solutions for it.
7. Exploratory Research
It is the preliminary study of an unfamiliar problem, about which the researcher has little or no
knowledge. It is aimed to gain familiarity with the problem, to generate new ideas or to make a precise
formulation of the problem. Hence it is also known as formulative research.
8. Experimental Research
It is designed to assess the effect of one particular variable on a phenomenon by keeping the other
variables constant or controlled.
9. Historical Research It is the study of past records and other information sources, with a view to find
the origin and development of a phenomenon and to discover the trends in the past, inorder to
understand the present and to anticipate the future.
RESEARCH PROCESS
F
F
Define
Research
Problem
Review
Concepts
And
theories
Formulate
hypothesis
Design
Research
(Including
Sample
Design)
Review
Previous
Research
findings
Analyse
Data
(Test
Hypothesis
if any)
Collect
Data
(Execution)
F
F
Interpret
and
report
F
1. Formulating the research problems
2. Extensive literature survey
3. Development of working hypotheses
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4. Research design
5. Data Collection
6. Analyse data
7. Preparation of research report
Availability of Guidance
Defining Problem, Results in Clear Cut Research Objectives..
Symptom Detection
Analysis of the Situation
Problem Definition
Statement of Research Objectives
FORMULATION OF HYPOTHESIS
HYPOTHESIS
A hypothesis is an assumption about relations between variables.
Hypothesis can be defined as a logically conjectured relationship between two or more variables
expressed in the form of a testable statement.
Relationships are conjectured on the basis of the network of associations established in the
theoretical framework formulated for the research study.
VARIABLES
Anything that can vary can be considered as a variable.
A variable is anything that can take on differing or varying values.
For example; Age, Production units, Absenteeism, Sex, Motivation, Income, Height, Weight etc.
Note: The values can differ at various times for the same object or person (or) at the same time for different
objects or persons.
Variable / Attribute
A variable is a characteristic that takes on two or more values whereas, an attribute is a specific value on
a variable (qualitative).
For example;
The variable SEX/GENDER has 2 attributes - Male and Female.
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The variable AGREEMENT has 5 attributes Strongly Agree, Agree, Neutral, Disagree, Strongly
Disagree.
Types of Variables
Explanatory vs Extraneous Variable
The variables selected for analysis are called explanatory variables and all other variables that
are not related to the purpose of the study but may affect the dependant variable are extraneous.
Dependant vs Independent Variable
The variable that changes in relationship to changes in another variable(s) is called dependant variable.
The variable whose change results in the change in another variable is called an independent variable.
OR
An independent variable is the one that influences the dependant variable in either a positive or negative way.
HYPOTHESIS
Research Hypothesis is a predictive statement that relates an independent variable to a dependant
variable.
Hypothesis must contain atleast one independent variable and one dependant variable.
Hypothesis are tentative, intelligent guesses as to the solution of the problem.
Hypothesis is a specific statement of prediction. It describes in concrete terms what you expect to
happen in the study.
Hypothesis is an assumption about the population of the study.
It delimits the area of research and keeps the researcher on the right track.
PROBLEM (VS) HYPOTHESIS
Hypothesis is an assumption, that can be tested and can be proved to be right or wrong.
A problem is a broad question which cannot be directly tested. A problem can be scientifically
investigated after converting it into a form of hypothesis.
CHARACTERISTICS OF HYPOTHESIS
Conceptual Clarity - It should be clear and precise.
Specificity - It should be specific and limited in scope.
Consistency - It should be consistent with the objectives of research.
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These are assumptions that describe the relationship between two variables. The relationship
suggested may be positive, negative or causal relationship.
Examples:
Families with higher incomes spend more for recreation.
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Causal Hypothesis state that the existence of or change in one variable causes or leads to an
effect on another variable. The first variable is called the independent variable and the latter is the dependant
variable.
Null Hypothesis
CAUSAL RESEARCH
Studies that engage in hypotheses testing usually explain the nature of certain relationships, or establish
the differences among groups or the independence of two or more factors in a situation.
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This type of research is very complex and the researcher can never be completely certain that there are
not other factors influencing the causal relationship, especially when dealing with peoples attitudes and
motivations.
Causal Research explores the effect of one thing on another and more specifically, the effect of one
variable on another.
It determining cause and effect relationship
Example:
1. In marketing, causal research is used for many types of research including testing marketing scenarios,
such as what might happen to product sales if changes are made to a product's design or if advertising is
changed.
2 .If a clothing company currently sells blue denium jeans,casual research can measure the impact of the
company changing the product design to the colour white.
EXPLORATORY RESEARCH
Exploratory research is a type of research conducted because a problem has not been clearly defined.
Given its fundamental nature, exploratory research often concludes that perceives problem does not
acttualy exist.
Although the results of qualitative research can give some indication as to the "why", "how" and "when"
something occurs, it cannot tell us "how often" or "how many."
Research is exploratory when you use no earlier model as a basis of your study. The most usual reason
for using this approach is that you have no other choice
Example:
Compares smokers and non-smokers with regard to health problems.
THEORETICAL RESEARCH
Theoretical research is a critical component of many scientific fields, because it leads to a greater
understanding of the exact science behind experimental results.
This is certainly true in fusion research. Several major improvements in experimental design have
resulted from the attainment of physical understanding of fusion processes.
This theoretical knowledge is developed through the use of computer modeling programs. Without this
understanding, most advances in efficiency would result only from increasing the scale of the project.
With the aid of computers, new ideas can be tested and developed much more quickly and cheaply.
CROSS-SECTIONAL RESEARCH
Cross-sectional data in statistics and econometrics is a type of one-dimensional data set. Cross-sectional data
refers to data collected by observing many subjects (such as individuals, firms or countries/regions) at the same
point of time, or without regard to differences in time.
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The data are typically collected from multiple groups or types of people in cross-sectional research. For
example, data in a cross-sectional study might be collected from males and females, from people in different
socioeconomic classes, from multiple age groups, and from people with different abilities and accomplishments.
Advantage - cross-sectional research is that data can be collected on many different kinds of people in a
relatively short period of time.
Disadvantage - it is difficult to establish time order (condition 2 of the necessary conditions for causality). If
you collect data from research participants at a single time point only, you cant directly measure changes that
are occurring in them over time.
Theory of evolution
Organizes ideas
Paradigms
A model or framework for observation and understanding, which shapes both what we see and
how we understand it.
Direction of theorizing
Inductive vs. deductive reasoning
Deductive reasoning reasoning from the general to the particular
Process of concluding that something must be true because it is a special case of a general principle that
is known to be true
Examples.
Inductive reasoning reasoning from the particular to the general
Process of reasoning that a general principle is true because the special cases you've seen are true
Example:
More examples
Creation and use of stereotypes
Applying these types of reasoning to theory construction.
Deductive approach build a theory by starting with an abstract, logical idea. Based on the theory,
perform research to test the theory.
Inductive approach build a theory by first looking at the results of many research projects and
offering a theory that can be used to explain the data.
2. Macro-level theory seeks to explain behavior at the level of large groups of people.
Study things like ethnicity, class, or gender
Example:
a. Conflict theory the society or organization functions so that each individual participant and
its groups struggle to maximize their benefits, which inevitably contributes to social change
such as changes in politics and revolutions.
b. Evolution
Much of sociology is at the macro level
3. Meso-level theory seeks to explain the interactions of micro-level organisms.
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