sumed that pearlite, bainite, and martensite result from continuous cooling treatments; furthermore, the formation of bainite

is possible only for alloy steels (not

plain carbon ones) as outlined earlier.
Furthermore, microstructural characteristics and mechanical properties of the
several microconstituents for ironcarbon alloys are summarized in Table 10.2.

melting temperatures; these include the superalloys, the stainless steels, and the
666 Chapter 16 / Composites
refractory metals. Various processing techniques are employed to improve the
creep properties of these materials.
JWCL187_ch15_569-625.qxd 11/14/09 3:27 AM Page
619of Fiber-Reinforced Composites
Processing

564 Chapter 14 / Polymer

SeveralStructures
composite processing techniques have been developed that provide a uniTable 10.2 Summary of Microstructures
form fiber distribution and a high degree of alignment.
With pultrusion, components
of continuous
length
constant cross section are
For a copolymer,
average repeat
unit and
molecular
551
m !formed
fjmj as resin-impregnated fiber tows are pulled through a die.
14.7
Microconstituent
Phases Present
weight
Composites used for many structural applications are commonly prepared using
Spheroidite
!-Ferrite ! Fe3C
Page
1!s " !a 2operation (either hand or automated), wherein prepreg tape plies are
a!clay-up
% crystallinity !
14.8
# 100
Percent crystallinity, by weight
554
Solving for JWCL187_ch09_281-341.qxd
Number 9/18/09
laid
down on a tooled surface and are subsequently fully cured by the simulta!s 1!
11:54 AM Page
298
c " !a 2
!-Ferrite ! Fe3C
Coarse pearlite
neous application of heat and pressure.
Summary
619
Maximum stress at tip of
Some
may flux
be fabricated
using
automated
proP hollow structures
Diffusion
for steady-state
diffusion
throughfilament winding
JWCL187_ch12_451-500.qxd
10/9/09
2:25 PM
Page 455
243
J ! PM
559
14.9
elliptically shaped crack
a polymer membrane
cedures,
whereby resin-coated
strands or tows or prepreg tape are continuously
x
!-Ferrite ! Fe3C
Fine pearlite
wound onto a mandrel, followed by a curing operation.

Page 274

Number
8.1
8.4

Equation
sm ! 2s0 a

Kc ! Ysc 2pa

4 Chapter 8 / Failure
8.5
JWCL187_ch09_281-341.qxd

8.6

8.7
8.14
8.15
8.16
8.17
8.18
8.19
8.20
JWCL187_ch10_342-390.qxd

8.21

a 1/2
b
rt

Fracture toughness

YsPM
2pa
KIc !
11/12/09
7:11
Page 333

sc "

KIc

Two general kinds of structural composites were discussed: laminar composites

Equation
245
Symbol
Meaning
panels.
298 Chapter 9 / Number
Phase Diagrams and sandwich
Equation
Solving
Fortwo-dimensional plane. This
f
Mole fractionare
of repeat
unit jisotropic
in a copolymer
Laminar composites
virtually
in a chain
j

247

Maximum allowable flaw size

247
Summary 333

smax ! smin
Development
of Microstructure
IronCarbon
Alloys
sm "
Meanin stress
(fatigue
tests)
255
2
The development of microstructure for many ironcarbon alloys and steels depends
a eutectoid
in whichofthe
austenite
phase
of composition255
0.76 wt% C
sr " on
smax
# smin reaction Range
stress
(fatigue
tests)
transforms isothermally (at 727!C) to !-ferrite (0.022 wt% C) and cementite
(i.e.,
Ss!min
" Fe3C).
smax" #
sa "
Stressofamplitude
(fatigue
255
The microstructural
product
an ironcarbon
alloytests)
of eutectoid composition
is
2
pearlite, a microconstituent consisting of alternating layers of ferrite and cementite.
The s
microstructures
of alloys having carbon contents less than the eutectoid (i.e.,
min
R"
Stress ratio (fatigue tests)
255
hypoeutectoid
alloys) are composed of a proeutectoid ferrite phase in addition
smax
to pearlite.
"
Pearlite
cementite
for
s
alETand proeutectoid
Thermal
stress constitute the microconstituents
264
hypereutectoid alloysthose with carbon contents in excess of the eutectoid
# composition.
Steady-state creep rate
!s " K1sn
267
Mass fractions of a proeutectoid
(ferrite or cementite) and pearlite may
(constant phase
temperature)
be computed using the lever rule and a tie line that extends to the eutectoid comQc wt% C) [e.g., Equations 9.20 and 9.21 (for hypoeutectoid alloys)
position
(0.76
#
n
!s " K2sand
exp
a#
b9.22 andSteady-state
creep rate alloys)].
268
Equations
9.23
(for
hypereutectoid
RT
9.11 BINARY
9/18/09

1:58 PM

T1C ! log tr 2

Page 383

LarsonMiller parameter

268

List
of Symbols
Equation
Number
9.1b

a
C

Structural
Composites
List
of Symbols

Equation
WL #

Solving for

Meaning

PM

15.3

membrane
TS ! TS
Polymer tensile strength
q " 50
Fraction of the
number of molecular chains that lie within the
Mtotal
n

xi

Equation Summar y
300
Equation
Number

16.1

Symbol
200
16.20

s1t(Cu)
2
!16.3
0

40

Alternating layers of !-ferrite

and Fe3C that are relatively
thick

Harder and stronger than

spheroidite, but not as
ductile as spheroidite
Harder and stronger than
coarse pearlite, but not as
ductile as coarse pearlite

Very fine and elongated particles

of Fe3C in an !-ferrite matrix

Hardness and strength

greater than fine pearlite;
hardness less than
martensite; ductility
greater than martensite

Tempered
575 martensite

!-Ferrite ! Fe3C

Table 12.2

matrixNumbers and Geometries

ductile than martensite
Coordination
Body-centered,
grains
Very hard and
very brittle
for VariousNeedle-shaped
CationAnion
Radius
Ratios
tetragonal, single
(r
C/rA)
phase

Very small Fe3C spherelike

particles in an !-ferrite

Strong; not as hard as

martensite, but much more

585

components
for polymers,
as discussed
in this chapter
(as well
as Chapter
2), that and
Figure 9.6 For the
coppernickel
system,
(a) tensile
strength
versus
composition,
viscoelastic
relaxation
modulus
tests
Modulus of of
elasticity
for continuous
and alignedin
influence
the Eproperties
and processing
polymer
fibers, as discussed
638
Ecl !versus
EmVm "composition
16.10a
fVf
(b)M
ductility
(%EL)
atfibrous
roomcomposite
temperature.
A solidweight
solution
Number-average
molecular
in
the longitudinal
direction exists over
n
Chapter 15.
all
compositions
for
this
system.
TS , A
Material constants

CationAnion
Radius Ratio

0.1550.225

bonding
Polymer molecules
Molecular
loys
shown in chart
Figuresummarizes
9.7 Covalent
for
the
coppersilver
system;
this
is structure
known
as a binary
The isfollowing
properties
of polymer
fibers, mech-4
(Chapter 2) the mechanical
(Chapter 14)
Electron
Molecular
configuration
lc
Longitudinalof
tensile
strength
for
discontinuous

eutectic
phase
diagram.
of factors
features
this
phase
diagram
are important
s*
s*
1 #C, Hdeform,
bA"number
sm
11#Vand
16.18 by
643
configuration:
cwhich
d !
f2
f Vf a
anisms
they
influence
their
2l
l 7 lcmechanical properties
and alignedthat
fibrous
composite, and
(Chapter First,
2)
and
worth
noting.
three
single-phase
regions
are
found
on
the
diagram:
!,
",
Polymer
Fibers
van derchapter.
Waals/
topics of discussion
in this
ltc
and(Structure)
liquid. The
! phase
is a hydrogen
solid bonding
solution
rich in
copper;
has
silver as the643
solute
Longitudinal
tensile
strengthitfor
discontinuous
s* ! V " s 11#V 2
16.19

0.2250.414

16.16

Ect !

EmEf

Modulus of elasticity for continuous and aligned

VmEf " VfEm

cl

cd

383

aligned fibrous composite

f
(Chapter
2)

and aligned fibrous composite, and l 6 lc

Composition (at% Ag)

Creep constant; normally has a value of about (Properties)

20 (for T in
CL
C0 $ Spheroiditeis
Masscomposed
fraction of of
! solid-solution
phase, binary
spherelike cementite
particles that are291embed0
20
40
60
80
100
9.2b
Wa #
K and tr in h)
Polymer crystals
Polymer crystallinity
isomorphous
system
Ca $ CLded in a ferrite
2200
matrix.
Heating fine/coarse pearlite
or bainite at about 1200
JWCL187_ch16_626-672.qxd
10/28/09
9:56 AM Page
637
(spherulites)
(semicrystallinity)
E
Modulus of elasticity
Molecular weight
6
(Chapter 14)
(Chapter 14)
for
several hours
produces
spheroidite.
va 700!C
K1, 9.5
K2, n
Creep
constants
that
are
independent
of
stress
and
Degree of crystallinity
Volume fraction of ! phase
293
Va #
Deformation
mechanisms
Factors
that
influence
the
or
needlelike
grains
of
an
ironcarbon
solid
solution
A
2000
va " Martensiteplatelike
vb
temperature
Predeformation
Liquidus
mechanical properties
has a body-centered
tetragonal crystal structure. Martensite is proQc
Activation
energy for creep
(semicrystalline polymers)
Wa that
by drawing
Mechanical
Liquid
by rapidly
quenching
austenite to a sufficiently
low temperature
so 1000
R
Gas constant
(8.31
J/mol.K)
Stressstrain
ra duced
1800
For ! phase, conversion of mass fraction to
Heat-treating
293bainite.
Va #
behavior
T9.6a
Absolute
temperature
to prevent
carbon
diffusion and the formation
of pearlite and/or
Solidus
F
behavior
Wa Wbas
volume
fraction
"
(definitions)
T
difference or change
martensiteconsists
of very small cementite
particles within a ferra Tempered
rb Temperature
1600
! +L
tr
Rupture
rite
matrix.lifetime
Heating martensite at temperatures within the range of about
!
"+L
Macroscopic
deformation
Vara Dimensionless
779C (TE)
For
!
phase,
conversion
of
volume
fraction
to
E
Y9.7a
parameter
or
function
800
B
250 to 650!C will result in its transformation to tempered martensite.
293
Wa #
G
(necking phenomenon)
mass fraction
V ra " VbrLinear
b
coefficient
of thermal
expansion
al
1400
8
8.0
71.9
91.2
"
a The
addition
of
some alloying
elements
(other than carbon) shift pearlite and
(C! E)
(CE)
radius
rt
(C" E)
P Crack
fraction
of eutectic
bainite
noses tip
onMass
a continuous
coolingmicroconstituent
transformationfordiagram to longer
times,
JWCL187_ch10_342-390.qxd
9/18/09
1:58 PM
Page 364
310
We #
"9.10
Applied stress
binary
eutectic
system
(per
Figure
9.18)
P
"
Q
1200
the
to martensite more favorable (and an alloy more heatJWCL187_ch09_281-341.qxd
11/12/09making
7:17Applied
PM transformation
Page
334 stress
"0
tensile
600
treatable).
Q
The processing and upper-use temperatures of polymer fibers depend on their
Mass
fraction
of primary ! microconstituent for
"max
Maximum
stress
(cyclic)
Wa #
9.11
310
eutectic
system (per Figure 9.18)
P " Q Minimumbinary
1000
melting temperatures.The
relationships among melting, melting temperature,
and struc"min
(cyclic)
Solvus
Mechanical
Behaviorstress
of IronCarbon
Alloys

0.4140.732

Temperature (F)

Temperature (C)

Coordination
Geometry

641

fibrous composite in the transverse direction

EUTECTIC SYSTEMS
Polymer chemistry
Longitudinal tensile strengthMolecular
for continuous
and
Processing/Structure/Properties/Performance
weight Summar
Another
of!common
found
for binary
s 11#V 2 "and
s*V relatively simple phase diagram
642 yal16.17 type s*

12.2 Crystal Struc

"0.155

Mechanical
Properties (Relative)
Soft and ductile

Alternating layers of !-ferrite

and Fe3C that are relatively
thin

Martensite

Arrangement of
Phases
Relatively small Fe3C spherelike
particles in an !-ferrite matrix

!-Ferrite ! Fe3C

size range i
Coordination
$x
Thickness of polymer membrane across which diffusion is occurring
Number
wi
Weight fraction
Page
40 of molecules that lie within the size range i
!a Equation
Density of a totally
amorphous
Solving
for 30 polymer
Number
!c
Density of a completely crystalline polymer
Ec 1u 2 ! EmVm " EpVp
Rule-of-mixtures expressionlower bound
630
!s
Density of polymer specimen for which percent crystallinity is to be
2
Meaning
30
determined
EmEp
20
0 expressionupper
20
40 bound
60
80 630100
20 Ec 1l 240
60
80
100 Rule-of-mixtures
!
VmEp " VpEm
Time-dependent
(Cu) stressmeasured during viscoelastic
(Ni)
(Ni)
Composition (wt% Ni)
Composition (wt% Ni)
Processing/Structure/Properties/Performance
Summary
relaxation modulus tests
s*f d
!
Criticalrelationships
fiber length among the various
635
(a)
(b) structural
In thelcfollowing
we illustrate
levelwhich
is maintained
constant
during
2tc diagram, Strain

List of Symbols

Page
Number

Ca $ C0
Mass fraction of liquid phase, binary isomorphous Summary
291
a surface crack
Polymer Fibers
Ca $ CL Length ofsystem

400

and Mechanical Properties for IronCarbon Alloys

Bainite

Page
Number

unit molecular
weight
is made Repeat
possible
sheets of a highly anisotropic composite, which
s1twith
2 several
60
Mean molecular
within
thethat
size the
range
i
are cemented
onto oneweight
another
such
high-strength
direction is varied
Er 1t Molecular
2 !
Relaxation
modulus
of repeat unit
j in a copolymer
chain
with each
successive
!0weight
60gaslayer.
Difference
in
pressure
from one
side
of asheet
polymer
membrane
to separated
Sandwich panels consist of two strong
and
stiff
faces
that are
the other side
50These structures combine relatively high
by a core material or structure.
Permeability coefficient
for steady-state diffusion through a polymer
A with
strengths and stiffnesses
low densities.

m
Mi
mj
$P

15.1

Equation Summary

Symbol

Equation Summar y

244

Plane-strain fracture toughness

Design (or critical) stress

Y2pa

1 KIc 2
b
ac " a
p sY

Tensile strength (ksi)

11/12/09
7:44 PM
Equation

Tensile strength (MPa)

34-280.qxd

Elongation (% in 50 mm [2 in.])

Equation Summar y

0.7321.0

16.5 Influence of Fiber Orientation and Concentration 637

Source: W. D. Kingery, H. K. Bowen, and D. R. Uhlmann,

Mass fraction of total ! phase for a binary eutectic
tural factors that affect the magnitude
! + " of Tm are illustrated in the following diagram.
310
steels
are the
and strongest, yet most brittle.
system
(perhardest
Figure 9.18)
800
Introduction to Ceramics, 2nd edition. Copyright 1976 by John
*
!400
martensite is very strong but relatively ductile.
f
portant Terms and Concepts Tempered
Wiley & Sons, New York. Reprinted by permission of John Wiley
P
Mass fraction of # phase for a binary eutectic
9.13
311as temWb # Bainite has desirable strength-ductility combination but is not as strong
C
& Sons, Inc.
system (per Figure ductile-to-brittle
9.18)
P"Q
"R
600
tle fracture
corrosion
fatigue
transition
pered Diagrams
martensite.
334 Chapter 9 / Phase
H
e hardening
creep
fatigue
Fiber
9.16
P " F #Fine
C "pearlite
N
Gibbs phase
rule (general
form)brittle
Fiber
is harder,
stronger,
and more
pearlite. 316
364than coarse
Chapter
10 / Phase Transformations
400
arpy test
ductile fracture
fatigue life
Molecular
weight
200

Spheroidite
is
the
softest
and
most
ductile
of
the
microstructures
discussed.
0
20
40
60
80
100
JWCL187_ch14_532-568.qxd 10/15/09 10:06 PM Page 563
In addition, the charge on an ion will influence its radius. For e
C0 " 0.022
For a hypoeutectoid FeC alloy, the mass fraction
Factors
that affect the
Melting
9.20
326 Melting
Wr ! Embrittlement of some steel alloys results when specific alloying and impurity
Table
12.3,
the
radii
for
Fe2! and Fe3! are 0.077 and 0.069 nm, respe
(Cu)
Composition
(wt%
Ag)
(Ag)
Degree of branching
of pearlite
(pertempering
Figure 9.31)
Figure 10.22Stage
The
0.74
800
elements
are present
and upon
within a definite
temperature
Polymer
Fibers range. phenomenon
temperature
melting temperature
values may Ibe contrasted
to the radius of an iron atom0.124 nm. W
Composite
(polymer structure)
Figure 9.7 The coppersilver phase diagram. [Adapted from Binary Alloy Phase
(Properties/Processing)
complete
isothermalfrom an atom or ion, the remaining valence electrons
A
0.76 " C0
For
a
hypoeutectoid
FeC
alloy,
the
mass
fraction
1400
tron
is
removed
Ef
Eutectoid temperature
Vol. 1, T. B. Massalski (Editor-in-Chief),
1990. Reprinted by
Wa !Shape-Memory Alloys
9.21
326Diagrams, 2nd edition,
* bound to the nucleus, which results in a decrease in ionic radiu
of proeutectoid ! ferrite phase (per Figure 9.31)
0.74
!cl
Chain stiffnesstransformation
tightly
Failure
permission of ASM International, Materials Park, OH.]
These alloys may be deformed and then return to their predeformed sizes/shapes
(polymer chemistry)
700
diagram
for an
ionic size
increases when electrons are added to an atom or ion.
6.70 " C1
For a hypereutectoid FeC alloy, the mass fraction
Wp ! upon heating.
9.22
328
Matrix
* 563
ironcarbon alloy
Summary
!m
pearlite
(per Figure
9.31)boundaries. A martensite-to-austenite
5.94
Deformation
occursofby
the migration
of twin
A
1200
phase transformation accompanies the reversion back to the original size/shape.
of eutectoid
A
C1 " 0.76
For a hypereutectoid FeC alloy, the mass fraction
+
P
Polymer
Crystallinity
WFe3C' !
9.23
328
600
composition: A,
Matrix
of proeutectoid Fe3C (per Figure 9.31)
5.94
P
austenite; B, bainite;
arrange'
Equation Summary When the molecular chains are aligned and packed in an ordered atomic
!m
ment, the condition of crystallinity is said to exist.
1000
M, martensite; P,
List Amorphous
of Symbols polymers are also possible wherein the chains are
Equation
Page misaligned and
500
pearlite.
9.12

Q"R
Wa # Martensitic
P"Q"R

Equation

Stress

Solving For

Number

disordered.
Meaning
Critical
radius for
stable solid particle
In addition to being
entirely
amorphous,
polymers may also
346 exhibit varying

Symbol2!

r* " $

Temperature (F)

10.3

Temperature (C)

Number

Stress

C (Gibbs
Number
of components
in a system
(homogeneous
Gyphase rule)
800
A
degrees
of crystallinity;
that
is,nucleation)
crystalline
regions are interdispersed within
400
C0
Composition of alloy (in terms of one of the components)
+
amorphous
areas.
3
16p!
Em
Composition
a hypoeutectoid
C0
Activation
free of
energy
for formationalloy
of (in weight
B
10.4
346
G* " Crystallinity
is facilitated
for particle
polymers
that are nucleation)
chemically simple and that have
stable
solid
(homogeneous
31Gy 2 2
percent
carbon)
JWCL187_ch10_342-390.qxd 11/13/09 12:50
AM Page 384
regular
chain structures.
Composition
of a hypereutectoid alloy (in weight
C1 and symmetrical
A
600
2!T
300
percent
crystallinity
ofradiusin
a semicrystalline
polymer is dependent on its density
m The 1
Critical
terms of latent
percent
carbon)
10.6
r* " a $
ba
b
347
heat
of
and melting
temperature
Hf asTwell
of fusion
theof totally
crystalline
and
totally
materials
m
F $ Tas the densities
Number
externally
controlled
variables
thatamorphous
must be
*
according to Equation specified
14.8. to completely define the state of a system
"m
M(start)"*
f
16p! 3T m2 N 1
Activation
freenoncompositional
energyin termsvariables
of latent for a system
Number of
G* " a
b
10.7
347
50%
200
heat
of fusion
and melting
temperature
400
3Hf2 P, 1T
T2 2
M + Strain
A
Q,mR$
Lengths
of tieline
segments
JWCL187_ch10_342-390.qxd
9/18/09 1:58 PM M(50%)
Page 378
Polymer
Crystals
P (Gibbs phase rule)
Number of phases present in a given system
(a)
384 Chapter !10 "/! Phase
Transformations
Relationship
among
interfacial
energies
M(90%)

Crystalline
regions
(or
crystallites)
are
plate-shaped
and
have
a
chain-folded
Volumes
of
!
and
"
phases
v
,
v
IL
SI # !SL acosbu
10.12
351
forDensities
heterogeneous
nucleation
of !within
and
" phases
ra, rb
structure
(Figure 14.12)chains
the platelet are aligned and fold back
Figure100and
16.9 (a) Schematic stressstrain curves
200
forth
2! on themselves, with folds occurring at the faces.
!

Stage
II

" ym

"*f

Strain
(b)

for brittle fiber and ductile matrix

Fracture stresses and strains for both materials are noted. (b) Schematic
lection of ribbonlike chain-folded lamellar crystallites that radiate
outward from
curve for an aligned fiberreinforced composite that is exposed to a uniaxial
For ironcarbon
alloys (i.e., steels), an understanding of microstructures stressstrain
that de3
0
its
16p!
JWCL187_ch12_451-500.qxd 11/13/09
2:12
AM Page 494 Activation free energy for formation of stable
SLcenter.
pearlite and a proeutectoid351
phase)
10.14
b S1u2relatively slow rates of cooling (i.e.,378
G* !velop
a during
101 Transformations
1 in the
10 direction
102
103of alignment;
104
105
stress
applied
curves for the fiber and matrix materials
Chapter 10
/ Phase
solidcarbide
particle phase
(heterogeneous
3G2y
is facilitated
by the ironiron
diagram.nucleation)
Other concepts in this chapTime (s) superimposed.
Defects in Polymers
shown in part (a) are also
ter were presented as a prelude to the introduction of this diagramthe concepts
10.13

SL
Critical radius for stable solid particle
r* ! " Many semicrystalline polymers form spherulites; each spherulite351
consists of a colProcessing/Structure/Properties/Performance
Summary materials.
(heterogeneous nucleation)
Gy

n
y ! of
1"exp!1"kt
2
ofconcept
transformation
equation)
355
a phase,
phase
equilibrium,
metastability,
and
the(Avrami
eutectoid
reaction.10.36
In
Chapter
Although
the
pointFraction
defect
in polymers
isFigure
different
than
in metals and
Austenite
10 weceramics,
other microstructures
that form
ironcarbon
alloysand
aregroups of
vacancies,
interstitial atoms,
and when
impurity
atoms/ions
Possible
1explore yet
10.18
rate
!
Transformation
rate
355
494 Chapter 12 cooled
/ Structures
andasProperties
of have
Ceramics
from elevated
temperatures
at more
Thesein concepts
areregions.
sumatoms/ions
interstitials
been rapid
foundrates.
to transformations
exist
crystalline
longitudinal
t0.5
these lines indicates that the martensitic transformation is independent of time; it
marized
in thedefects
following
diagram:
Other
include
chain ends, dangling and involving
loose chains,
and of
dislocations
the
Equation Summary (Figure 14.15). direction
is a function only of the temperature to which the alloy is quenched or rapidly cooled.

10.17

Equation
Number
12.1

12.7a

12.7b
12.9
12.10

Equation

The presencethat
of alloying
than is
carbon
(e.g., Cr, Ni,
Mo,case.
and W)
(Chapter T9)pR states
(Chapter
Temperature
(K) 9)
7 !*f , other
!*m elements
itFicks
is first
assumed
which
normally
the
Permeation flow
rates are solidification
expressed temperature
using aDevelopment
modified form
of
law
9) Equilibrium
of other
Elastic modulus of a porous
ceramic(K)
489 may cause significant changes in the positions and shapes of the curves in the isotherA fiber-reinforced composite consisting of these fiber
t (Equation 14.9). Time required for a transformation tomicrostructures
proceed to 50%

2
Tm1.9P # 0.9P
(Chapter
E ! E0 11 "
2

and matrix materials will

490 mal transformation diagrams. These include (1) shifting to longer times the nose of
Tempered martensite
exhibit
the
uniaxial
stressstrain
response
illustrated
in
Figure
16.9b; the fiber and
the
austenite-to-pearlite
transformation
(and
also
a
proeutectoid
phase
nose,
if
such
!
Summary
!
!
matrix
fromofFigure
16.9a
to provide
perspective. In the iniexists), behaviors
and (2) the formation
a separate
bainiteare
nose.included
These alterations
may be
List
of
Symbols
!
Page
byIcomparing
Figures
and 10.23,
are isothermal
10.9 REVIEW
OF
PHASE
TRANSFORMATIONS
tialobserved
Stage
region,
both10.22
fibers
and which
matrix
deformtransformaelastically; normally this portion
Symbol
!
Equation
Number
tion
diagrams forPROPERTIES
carbon
and Typically,
alloyFOR
steels, respectively.
A
u M ! x M
AND
MECHANICAL
of
the
linear.
for
a
composite
of this type, the matrix yields and
541 curve is
Sum of the atomic weights of all cations in a formula unit
A
Steels
in
which
carbon
is
the
prime
alloying
element
are
termed
plain
carbon
plain
carbon
steel
b, d
Width and height of flexural specimenIRONCARBON
having a
ALLOYS (at Pym, Figure 16.9b) while the fibers
deforms
plastically
continue to stretch elastiWeight-average
molecularSummary
weight
542 whereas
M ! w M
rectangular
cross section
steels,
alloy steels contain appreciable concentrations of other elements,
Processing/Structure/Properties/Performance
E
Modulus of elasticity
of a nonporous
alloy
steel ceramic
In this
chapter
we
have
discussed
several
different
microstructures
that
may about
beis
procally,
inasmuch
as
the
tensile
strength
of
the
fibers
significantly
higher than the
including
those
cited
in
the
preceding
paragraph.
Section
11.2
tells
more
the
M
Appliedtoload
at fracture
For Fironcarbon
alloys, in addition
discussions
of the heat treatments that proDegree
of polymerization
542 in ironcarbon alloys depending on heat treatment. Figure 10.36 summarizes
DP !
duced
Distance between support points for flexural specimen
m microconstituents
duceL the several
(fine/coarse pearlite, bainite, martensite,
etc.) classification
yield
strength
of the matrix.
and properties
of ferrous This
alloys. process constitutes Stage II as noted in the figure;
!
n
Experimental constant
the
transformation
paths
that
produce
these
various
microstructures.
Here,
it
is
asandnthe mechanical propertiesNumber
of same,
correlations
made
of formula
units were
in a unit
cellbetween mechanithis stage is ordinarily very nearly linear, but of diminished slope relative to Stage I.
Avogadros
(6.022 $ 10 formula units/mol)
cal N
properties and structural elements
of number
these microconstituents.These
correlations sumed that pearlite, bainite, and martensite result from continuous cooling treatP
Volume fraction porosity
Furthermore,
in the
passing
from
Stage
I to only
Stage
II, steels
the proportion
of the applied load
are indicated
in
the
following
diagram.
ments; furthermore,
formation
of bainite
is possible
for alloy
(not
R
Radius of a cylindrical flexural specimen
Concept
Check
10.2
Unit cell volume
V
plain
ones)
outlined
earlier.increases.
that
is carbon
borne
byas the
fibers
s
Flexural strength of a nonporous
ceramic
Steel Alloys
Steel Alloys
Cite Furthermore,
two major differences
between
martensitic and
pearlitic transformations.
characteristics
mechanical
of the
(Structure)
(Properties)
The
onset microstructural
of composite
failureand
begins
asproperties
the fibers
start to fracture, which corseveral
microconstituents
ironcarbon alloys are summarized
in Table 10.2.
[The
answer
may be found atfor
www.wiley.com/college/callister
(Student Companion
Site).]
Processing/Structure/Properties/Performance Summary
!*
responds
to
a
strain
of
approximately
as
noted
in
Figure 16.9b. Composite failPearlite (coarse and fine)
f
One stage in the fabrication of glass-ceramics involves the formation of a silica glass,
!

0.5

sfs ! s0 exp 1"nP2

IL

Equation
Number
14.5a
14.5b

SL
SI

A
C

Flexural strength of a porous ceramic

23

C
0

Development of

completion
(Chapter 10)
Surface free energy
Liquid-surface interfacial energy (Figure 10.5)
Solid-liquid interfacial energy
Meaning
Solid-surface
interfacial
Solving
for energy
Sumangle
of the(angle
atomic
weights
all !anions
in a (Figure
formula10.5)
unit
Wetting
between
!SIofand
vectors)
SL weight
Number-average
molecular

14.6

the direction of alignment, the longitudinal direction, which is indicated in

Figure 16.8a.

Slow
Moderate
Rapid
decomposition of
Page A transformation
cooling
quench
athermalaustenite.
of this type
is termed
an athermal transformation.
Processing
Structure Solid
List of Symbols
To begin,cooling
assume
the
stress-versus-strain
behaviors for fiber and matrix phases
Equation
Solving For
Number
Diffusion in Polymeric Materials
transformationarrows,
Consider an alloy of eutectoid composition that is very rapidly cooled from a
2
n1AC # AAEutectoid
that
are
represented schematically in Figure 16.9a; in this treatment we consider the
Development of microstructure
Meaning
Densityin
of polymers,
a ceramic material
462
r ! Symbol
With regard to diffusion
small
molecules
of
foreign
substances
diftransformations
VCNA
Pearlite above 727!C (1341!F) to, say, 165!C (330!F). From the isothermal transreaction
(pearlite
and a proeutectoid temperature
Bainite
Martensite
chains
by an interstitial-type mechanism
from +one
void be phase
fiber
totally
brittle
matrix
phase
be reasonably
ductile. Also indiVolume free
energy
Gy fuse between molecular
a to
proeutectoid
involving
diffusion;
(Chapter 9)
phase)
formation
diagram
(Figure
10.22) and
it maythe
be noted
that 50%
of theto
austenite
will
3F
Flexural
having a
tof Lan adjacent one.
Latent
heatstrength
of fusionfor a bar specimen
sfsH
!f 2
485
(Chapter
9)
dashed
arrow,
cated
in
figureto are
fracture
in tension
for fiber and matrix, s*f , and
rectangular
cross
section
transform
martensite;
as longstrengths
as this temperature
is maintained,
2bd
Diffusion (or permeation) of gaseous species is often characterizedimmediately
in terms of this
Phase k, n
Metastable vs.Time-independent
Ironiron carbide
constants
diffusionless
the permeability coefficient,
whichforisathe
product having
of
theadiffusion
and
there
will be no further
transformation.
s486coefficient
*,
respectively,
and
their corresponding fracture strains, !*f , and !*m; furthermore,
Flexural
strength
m
equilibria
phase
diagram bar specimen
S(u) Ff L equilibrium Nucleus
shape
function
sfs ! solubility
transformation.
in the polymer
3
circular (Equation
cross section 14.10).
Reheat

Mechanical properties