Legumes and oilseeds

Prepared by Sofia for Pengetahuan Bahan class 2015 meeting#4-5

Legumes are all members of the Fabaceae or Leguminosae, a large family with more than 18,000 species
Oilseeds are seeds or crops grown mainly for oil

Legumes

Legumes
and
oilseeds

Chick pea, black gram, mung bean, pigeon pea, peanuts, jack bean,
soybean, hyacinth bean, lentil, lupin, african locust bean, lima bean,
common bean, faba bean, bambara groundnut, rice bean, cow pea etc

Compositae

Safflower, sun flower

Cucurbitae

Melon, flutted pumpkin, bottle gourd, buffalo gourd

Palmae

Miscellaneo
us oilseeds

Tree-nuts

Coconut, palm oil, babassu

Rubber, castor, sal seed

Brazilian nut, walnut, macadamia, almond, cashew, etc

Varies of legumes

Chick pea

lupin,
african locust
bean,
lima bean,
common bean,
faba bean,
etc

pigeon pea

lentil
black gram
bambara groundnut
jack bean

peanuts

hyacinth bean
cow pea

rice bean

soybean

mung bean

Introduction
Good sources of protein, dietary fiber, starch, minerals and
vitamins
Contains considerable amount of phenolic compounds
Daily consumption of legumes has benefits: controlling (body
weight) and preventing various metabolic diseases; diabetes
mellitus (because legumes elicit the lowest blood glucose
response), CHD (because legumes cause hypocholesteremic
response and colon cancer(legumes are source of dietary
fibers)

Legumes as food
Harvested for their immature or mature seeds
Sig. source of dietary carbohydrate (but less starch than cereals) and protein, (calcium, iron,
thiamine and riboflavine) but not primarily oil

Usually consumed as human diet

Contain less sulphur amino acids = consider nutritionally inferior to meat and fish

Utilization of legumes as food products

Legumes are staple food and low-cost source of protein
Utilization, nutritional content and bioavailability of legumes
depends on: bean cultivars, cropping environment, storage and
handling, processing, and final products preparation
Constrains:
presence of anti-nutritional factors: trypsin inhibitors,
lectins and phytic acid, ( tannin and phenolics compounds)
Legumes-based products: required labor and time intensive
preparation (processing)

Legumes proteins
A good source of proteins; 19-25% (average 22%)
Classified into:
(1) Globulins 70%
(2) albumins 10-20%
(3) glutelins 10-20%
Other proteins: enzymes, protease and carbohydrase inhibitors, and lectins
(hemagglutinins)
Digestibility of raw legume seeds is very poor (low-moderate) partly due to
1. the presence of protease inhibitor (the digestibility can be improved by heat
treatments/ cooking)
2. deficiency of sulphur amino acids thus hindering protein utilization
3. Presence of polyphenols and other antimetabolites
4. Tertiary structure of native protein making them refractory to enzymatic proteolysis
Most of uncooked legumes proteins are toxic

Legumes carbohydrates

70% of the seed by weight

Starch is primary carbohydrate
Sucrose and oligosaccharides (minor amounts)
Oligosaccharides (raffinose, stachyose and verbascose) are
associated with flatulence

Raffinose (C18H32O16)
MW 504 g/mol
Galactose-glucose-fructose

Stachyose (C24H42O21)
MW 667 g/mol
Gal(1-6)Gal(1-6)Glu(1-2)Fru

verbascose (C30H52O26)
MW 829 g/mol

legumes as source of dietary fiber

Excellent sources of dietary fiber

to
6.1%

25.5%

Components such as saponins, pectins, gums, and galactans can absorb bile salts, convey the
hypocholesterolaemic effects
Soy fiber product has 66-77% dietary fiber.

To provide 10 g dietary fiber, required:

13 g of soy fiber

58 g of oat bran
23 g of wheat bran

735 g of lettuce

502 g of apple

Anti-nutritional factors
Chemical substances, non-toxic, but generate adverse physical
responses in who consume the legume, interfere the utilization of
nutrients
Soybeans: protease inhibitors, haemagglutinins (lectins), goitrogens,
antivitamins and phytates.
Also saponins, oestrogens, flatulence factors, allergens and
lysinoalanine
Other legumes have cyanogens, favism factors, lathyrism factors,
amylase inhibitors, tannins, aflatoxin and pressor amines.
Most of them can be destroyed by heat treatments

Peanut allergy
1.5 million people suffer from the allergy.
Exposure to a small amount (just 2 mgor around 1% of one peanut) of
peanut protein can trigger a potentially fatal reaction.
The immune system develops antibodies as a first reaction to the peanut
protein.
The next time the body comes in contact with these proteins, the antibodies
attack the peanut proteins.
the allergic reaction can be caused by direct contact, cross-contact and even
inhalation.
With subsequent exposure, when the IgE antibodies on the mast cells make
contact with the allergens, the mast cells release chemicals such as histamine
into the bloodstream.
The histamine causes such allergic reactions as a runny nose, tearing eyes,
sore throat, diarrhea, skin rashes, or difficulty breathing and swelling. A
severe reaction is termed anaphylaxis. Loss of consciousness or even death
may ensue if not treated.

Physical (seed structure)

Chemical and bioactive compounds

Selected Legumes and their

Characteristics

Soybean (Glycine max)

Origin from China

world's most valuable crop
used as feed by billions of livestock,
a source of dietary protein and oil
Raw material in the industrial manufacture of thousands of
products.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3RYY8TbbkYI

World soybean producers

World soybean Exporters-Importers

Soybean meal as livestock

World vegetable oil source

Genotype variations
Soybeans have more than 200 varieties,
differentiated by
Performance: yield, disease and stress resistance
Chemical composition: oil and protein content,
fatty acid composition, types of storage proteins
Physical appearance: seed size and shape
(spherical to long oval), seed coat and hilum color

Size variations
Range 7.6 to 30.3 g/100 seeds
Most soybeans for oil and meal production have size 15 to 23
g/100 seeds
Most wild varieties, and those grown under environmental
stresses tend to have smaller seeds

http://www.omafra.gov.on.ca/english/crops/pub811/2variety.htm

Color variations
A great variety of colors and
seed patterns, mostly yellow,
green, black and shades of
brown
Most commercial cultivars are
yellow-seeded

Food beans vs oil beans

Food beans
In the far east, soybean are made into
various foods for human consumption-tofu,
tempeh, soymilk, sprouts, miso, natto etc Lighter seed coat, clean hilum, higher
protein and lower oil content
Requirement: superior seed grade
Low beany flavor, low lipoxygenase
activities, high soluble protein fraction, high
ratio 11S/7S storage protein, low levels
oligosaccharides, white cotyledon tissues.
For tofu and soymilk: prefer large-seeded
with high protein content
For natto: round and small-seeded beans
with soft texture
For immature consumption: large seed size,
high sugar and free amino acids content,
tender texture

Oil beans
In the west-most
soybeans are
extracted for oil
production, oil is for
human consumption,
but soy meal mostly
for animal feed

Tofu
cultivars
Oil
culti
vars

Natto
cultivar

Visual differences between oil (left) and food (right) soybeans cultivar

Cultivation and harvest

plant 30-70 cm in height; grow optimally in 25-32oC, moderate rainfall 400-800 mm
Production cycle of 90-110 days (harvested when the leaves drop, the pods turn
brown, and seed moisture drops below 14%) if they are harvested in too high moisture
content, it needs to dry before safely stored; too dry may cause cracked seed coats or
split seeds

http://weedsoft.unl.edu/documents/growthstagesmodule/soybean/soy.htm#

Seed structure
8% hull
90% cotyledons
2% Hypocotyl axis

https://cropview.wordpress.com/page/4/

Soybean grading
USDA no. 1 grade: 10% split soybeans, 2%
damaged soybeans, and 1% foreign material
split soybeans pass through a 4.0 mm x 19.0 mm slotted sieve
but are held on a 3.2 mm round-hole sieve]
damaged soybeans (soybeans with cracked seed coat visible
to naked eye),

foreign material [smaller pieces passing through a 3.2 mm

round-hole sieve]
Check https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jBgZqvwoy_E

Soybean Stored
can be stored up to three years at 12% moisture
FFA level of the oil in stored soybeans is a commonly used quality indicator
are subject to invasion by fungi (that may produce mycotoxins) and insects

Nutrient composition
the highest protein
content among other
legumes
the 2nd highest oil after
peanuts 48% db
Other valuable
components: isoflavones,
phospholipids, vitamins,
and minerals
Check USDA data

4,40%
Ash

13%
water

31%
carbohydrate

35%
protein

oil

17%

Lipids
stored in oil bodies
homogeneous in size, 0.2 and 0.5 m in diameter
Fatty acids: C14:0 (0.1%), C16:0 (11%), C16:1 (0.1%),
C18:0 (14%), C18:1 (23.4%), C18:2 (53.2%), C18:3
(7.8%), C20:0 (0.3%), C22:0 (0.1%)

 Crude soybean oil contains 1-3% phospholipids. Among the

total phospholipids in soybeans, there are about 35%
phosphatidyl choline, about 25% phosphatidyl ethanolamine,
about 15% phosphatidyl inositol, 5-10% phosphatidic acid, and
the minor phospholipid compounds.

proteins
Most soy protein is globulin
Major storage protein : -Conglycinin (7S Globulin) and
Glycinin (11S Fraction-the largest single fraction of total seed protein (25-35%)
and accounts over 40% of the total seed globulin )
the lIS protein has a better gel formation ability and water
holding capacity; the 7S protein has a greater emulsifying
capacity and emulsion stability
the 11 S globulin contains 3-4 times more methionine and
cysteine per unit protein than 7S protein

 Genistin
Genestein
Deidzin
Deidzein

Are hydrolized by intestinal

glucosidase to produce equol
(aglycones)

Facts:
Western daily intake of isoflavones is 2mg; Asian is about 1550mg
Predominant form: glucosides (genistin, deidzin)
Bioavailability aglycones are higher than glucosides
Food processing, fermentation alters some glucosides to be
aglycones (genistein, deidzein)

Anti-nutritional factors
Heat labile (can be destroyed by application of moist/ dry
heat): protease inhibitors, haemaglutinins, goitrogens,
antivitamins, phytates
The heat stable: saponins, oestrogens, flatulence factors (can
be reduced by 80%-ethanol extraction and fermentation),
allergens, and lysinoalanine

References
Lawrence A. Johnson, Pamela J. White, and Richard Galloway.
2008. Soybeans Chemistry, Production, Processing, and
Utilization. AOCS Press, Urbana, IL 61 802
Keshun Liu. 1997. Soybeans, chemistry, technology and
utilization. Chapman & Hall. Singapore 0315
Nwokolo E and Smartt J. 1996. Food and Feed from Legumes
and Oilseeds. Chapman &. Hall. NY

Native to: South America

Cultivated in: Asia, Africa and America
Used for: vegetable oil production, natural/processed foods for human consumption
and feedstock
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3ZiYR8MadeM
Prepared by Sofia for pengetahuan bahan class
1/28/15

Peanut types (in the USA)

http://nationalpeanutboard.org/the-facts/types-of-usa-grown-peanuts-2/

RUNNER PEANUTS
Uniform in kernel size (which allows for even roasting), used for making peanut butter.
VIRGINIA PEANUTS
The largest of all peanuts, is often used in gourmet snacks. Virginias are a popular peanut used for all-natural peanut
butter.
SPANISH PEANUTS
red skins, has smaller sized kernels and is used predominantly for peanut candy, salted peanuts and peanut butter. Its
reputation of having the nuttiest flavor when roasted is due to its higher oil content.
VALENCIA PEANUTS
Having three or more kernels per shell, has a sweet flavor and is commonly used for all-natural peanut butter. Also, they
are excellent for use as boiled peanuts.

Seed structure

Proximate composition
Shell =25%
Kernel = 75%

Two fleshy cotyledons = 93%

Germ = 4%

Testa = 3%
Cotyledons are main nutrient storage tissues and
source of protein, lipids and dietary energy
Shell is high in crude fiber

Protein peanut
low in sulphur amino acids
The most limiting factor amino acids : Lysine,
Methionin, and also threonine, isoleucine and
valine
PER of extrusion-textured peanut protein and
peanut flour as 1.54 and 1.57 (compare to
2.50 of casein)

Fatty acids

Palmitic (16:0), = 1%
Stearic (18:0),
Oleic
(18:1),
Linoleic (18:2), >80%
Arachidic (20:0),
eicosenoic (20:1),
behenic (22:0),
lignoceric (24:0) acids

Minerals and vitamins

Reasonable source of
potassium (705mg/100g),
phosphorus (376
mg/100g)(mostly as salts of
phytic acid) and
magnesium (168 mg/100g).

Very poor vitamins A, D

and K, and only a moderate
source of vitamin E.

Anti-nutrition factors
Raw peanut contains trypsin inhibitor (5.8-9.4
TIU) = 20% lower than of the level of raw
soybean
Lectins
Goitrogenic factor (in testa)
Saponin-like compound (bitter taste, in the
germ)
Skin contains trypsin inhibitors and growthretarding principles (removing skin can reduce
headache and stomach cramp risk of eating
peanuts)

Peanuts allergic

Caused by Peanut proteins,

Ara h1, Ara h2, and Ara h3
The fat does not cause
allergic reactions

immune system malfunction.

immune system identifies
peanuts as harmful triggering the
production of immunoglobulin E
(IgE) antibodies to neutralize the
peanut protein (allergen).
IgE antibodies recognize it and
signal immune system to release
histamine and other chemicals
into bloodstream.
Histamine is partly responsible
for most allergic reaction
responses including: runny nose,
itchy eyes, dry itchy throat,
rashes and hives, tingling of lips
or tongue and more severe
reactions

Biological active compounds

Phenylpropanoid derivatives: avonoids, stilbenes (like resveratrol in red
wine), phenolic acids (vanillic, protocatechuic, ferulic, p-coumaric acids, 4-hydroxy
benzoicacid, caeic acid, and chlorogenic acid), phytosterols (-sitosterol,
campesterol, stigmasterol, Rspinasterol, 5-avenasterol, 7-avenasterol, sitostanol,and
campestanol), and alkaloids (arachine/choline, myosmine-alkaloid in tobacco and
has low toxicity to mammal).

Role: involved in a defense mechanism against physical injuries and

microbial contamination
Therapeutic eects of peanut seed extracts: antioxidative,
antibacterial, antifungal, and anti-inammatory activities
Lopes, RM et al, 2011. Chemical composition and biological activities of arachis sp.J. Agric. Food Chem 59:4321-4330

Other compounds
The inositol D-pinitol
vitamins, 5-formyltetrahydrofolate - the most important folate
vitamin
good source of tocopherol (vitamin E)
rich source of magnesium, folate, ber, -tocopherol, copper,
and arginine

Roasted peanut
Europe, North America
Proper roasting is critical to flavor and texture development, and
nutritional content of the final product
Roasting reduces moisture content (MC) and modifies the internal
microstructure of peanuts to create the characteristic crunchy and
crispy texture
final seed color is a good indicator quality
Color are resulted from Maillard and caramelization
Maillard reactions produce various volatiles contributes to roasted
peanut flavor

During roasting
some antioxidants are lost due to heat instability (releases
phenolic compounds such as p-coumaric acid and
hydroxybenzoic acid from the cellular matrix)
degradation of tocopherols
Formed Maillard reaction (Maillard reaction products have high
antioxidant capacities)

McDaniel KA, et al. 2012. Compositional and Mechanical Properties of Peanuts Roasted to Equivalent Colors using Different
Time/Temperature Combinations. USDA Agricultural Research Service-Lincoln Nebraska

 A HTST roasting process resulted in peanuts with higher

moisture, and favorable soluble protein contents.
Maillard browning products help protective against tocopherol
degradation and lipid oxidation

Reference

The most material was taken from the book

chapter : Nwokolo E. Peanut (Arachis
hypogaea L) in Food and Feed from Legumes
and Oilseeds. Ed. by Nwokolo E and Smartt J.
1996. Chapman & Hall, NY.

Legumes Technology

Some of peanuts products

Peanut flour
Raw peanut
Cleaned

blanched
Sorted only high
quality peanut
Roasted
Milled

used in: confectionery products,

seasoning blends, bakery mixes,
frostings, fillings, cereal bars and
nutritional bars, confection centers.
Using peanut flour 4-8% can extend
the shelf life of confections and can
contribute a peanut flavor to the
product.
is a good protein (45%-50%) source

Peanut paste and peanut butter

Peanut paste: 100% ground

peanuts, is used in a variety of
industrial food recipes
Raw peanut
Peanut butter : available in varies
form products. It must contain Dry Blanched 190oF
>90% peanuts; sweeteners and salt
roasted
can be added to enhance flavor, and
Sorted
small amount of stabilizer added to
prevent oil separation
Grinding
including the reduced fat peanut
Peanut butter
provide a fat reduction of at least
25%

Soybean products
http://www.ccur.iastate.edu/education/soyposter.pdf
Soybeans
Whole bean products
Whole Soybeans
- Food:
Bean sprout
Soy milk
Soy sauce
Tofu
Tempe
Miso
etc
- Industrial
- Feed

Full fat flour

Roasted Soybeans
Food :
- Food:
- bread,
Candy
- Candy
Cookie mixes
- Pancake flour
Soy coffe
- Pie crusts
Soynut butter
- Instant milk drink
Diet food
- Crackers
Snack food
- etc
- Feed

Fractionated products
Hull products
- Fiber for
industrial,
food and
feed

Oil products
- Refined oil:
Food
Industrial
- Lecithin
- Minor coproducts:
Glycerol
Fatty acids
Sterols
tocopherol

Protein products
- Meal
- Soy flour, protein
concentrate and
protein isolate
- Nutraceuticals:
Isoflavones
Saponins
Phytic acids
Protease
inhibitors

Check these videos out

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5rpQi8VcFCY
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uh752bxHEeU