CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION
1.1 GENERAL
With environmental and energy problems increasingly serious, many
countries around the world are committed to the development of the new energy.
Meanwhile, they also advocate energy saving in every field. Electricity is one of
the important and indispensable resources. However, there is massive energy loss
in the process of power production and transmission.
Therefore, the power industry energy-saving task brooks no delay. Main
energy loss in electric power industry contains coal consumption and the network
loss. Network loss includes line loss and transformer loss. As essential equipment,
the distribution transformer undertakes the vital task of voltage transformation and
power distribution in the power distribution system.
Nevertheless, transformers loss occupies a large proportion of the
distribution network loss. Thus it is inevitable to take some measures to reduce the
transformer loss. This will do good to safety and economy of the distribution
network. Economic operation mode of transformer is an operation mode that
transformer power loss is minimized on the basis of ensuring safe and reliable
operation and meeting the demand of power supply.
In addition, load balancing can reduce the life loss of the transformers when
the electric load is close to or more than the rated capacity of transformer. At
present, scholars at home and abroad do much research about the distribution
network loss reduction problem.
We discussed transformer economical operation problem and yet it was not
applied to the distribution network. It studies about load distribution of multiple
1

distribution substations. However, this reference didn't take the operation modes of
several transformers in a substation into account.
AS a result, combining distribution network load distribution with the
transformer operation mode is of feasibility and necessary. Distribution network
load distribution strategy considering the economy of parallel transformers is put
forward in this paper. It is emphasized that the object of study are all double
winding transformer.
A distribution network load distribution model is proposed which takes
distribution network reliability, transformer economic operation and load balancing
as the object function. Expected energy not supplied (EENS), comprehensive
power loss of transformer and the maximum difference among the load factor are
regarded as the evaluation indicators of distribution network reliability, transformer
economic operation and load balancing, respectively.
1.2 LITERATURE SURVEY
Haibo Liu, Chengxiong Mao, Jiming Lu, Dan Wang

in their paper

Parallel operation of electronic power transformer based on distributed

logic control proposed that an ac/dc hybrid parallel operation control
scheme of EPT based on distributed logic control is proposed in order to
eliminate circulation current and further improve redundancy performance in
this paper. The proposed ac/dc hybrid parallel operation control scheme
consists of a dc side current-sharing control scheme and an ac side currentsharing control scheme. The realization of current-sharing no matter in the
ac side or in the dc side is based upon instantaneous average current method.
Detailed computer simulations based on MATLAB/SIMULINK for the two
EPTs parallel operation is conducted, and this parallel system is also
implemented in laboratory based on DSP TMS320F2812. Simulation results
2

and experimental results show that the proposed control scheme has good
current-sharing performance under both steady-state and dynamic operation.
Yanguang Huang, Yanan Cai, Youyuan Wang, Hang Liu in their paper
Distribution network load distribution strategy considering the economy of
parallel transformers proposed that in order to save energy, it is essential to
consider the transformer economical operation mode during distribution
network load distribution. Combining with the comprehensive power loss
curve and critical load of transformer in parallel, the interval of economic
operation of transformers in different operation modes is deduced in this
paper. Then the unavailability of transformers in different operation mode is
calculated. The distribution network load distribution model is proposed
which takes distribution network reliability, the economy of parallel
transformers and load balancing as the object function. The topological
structure, load capacity and operating limits are given as the restriction
conditions. Using optimization algorithm to analyze the model, the
appropriate transformer operation mode and the load distribution scheme can
be determined.
1.3 EXISTING SYSTEM
In the existing system considering a 75KVA rated power transformer the losses
which are inherited with the transformer has been shown in the figure
During the operation of the transformer these losses will associated with it.
1.3.1 NO LOAD LOSSES
It occurs whenever the transformer is energized and it doesnt vary with the
load
3

Fig 1.1 Loss profile of a 75KVA Transformer

1.3.2 LOAD LOSS
Associated with the full load current flow in the transformer windings and
varies with the square of the load current (I2R).Along with it there is linear loss
which is due to the temperature rise in the windings.

Fig 1.2 Linear Loss of a 75KVA Transformer

These losses are directly proportional to the rating of the transformers that is
when the transformer rating increases these losses value will also increase.
4

1.4 PROPOSED SYSTEM

In the proposed system we are splitting the transformer rating i.e. we are
using two small transformers instead of a single high rated transformer. Then we
are sensing the load current and switching the transformer according to the load
requirement. During the lighter load conditions both the transformers are not
employed instead we are using anyone transformer that is most suitable for the
load. So the losses are minimized and the efficiency, reliability of the transformers
are improved and thus improving the whole systems efficiency.

CHAPTER 2
BLOCK DIAGRAM

Fig 2.1 Block diagram of the Load optimization by implementing

embedded system in parallel operated transformers
6

The block diagram consists of Transformers, Relays, Microcontroller

(PIC16F887), LCD Display, Current Sensor and Load.
When we switch ON the power supply the Microcontroller starts it
functions. Initially the Transformer (T1) is connected to the bus and driving the
load the Current Sensor senses the load current and produces proportional voltage
to the current in the circuit and gives it to the Microcontroller. Depending upon the
load current the Microcontroller switches the Transformers i.e. connects or
disconnect the Transformers to the bus using Relays.
If the load current is minimum the Microcontroller connects Transformer
(T1) alone to the bus so that it get energizes and drive the load. Suppose if the load
increases then the Microcontroller connects Transformer (T2) to the bus along with
Transformer (T1) so that both the Transformers get energizes and drives the load.
In addition to that the Microcontroller disconnects both the transformers from the
bus and the load when over current occurs.
The Microcontroller shows the load current value and the status of the
Transformers in an LCD Display.

CHAPTER 3
OVERALL CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

Fig 3.1 Circuit diagram of the Load optimization by implementing

embedded system in parallel operated transformers
3.1 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM DESCRIPTION.
3.1.1 POWER SUPPLY
The main function of a power source is to convert the AC
voltage to DC voltage at the required level. Since all electronic
circuits works only with low DC voltage we need a power source
unit to provide the appropriate voltage supply.A +5V DC supply is
required for microcontroller, LCD MODULE, LEDs used in this
project and +12V DC voltage is required for the 12V RELAYS.
3.1.2 TRANSFORMER
An isolation transformer is employed to step down the voltage from AC
mains required level of smaller AC voltage. The transformer rating used here is
230V (12-0-12)V and operates at the frequency of 50Hz. The secondary of the
transformer is connected to the rectifier block.
3.1.3 RECTIFIER
It is a circuit which converts AC voltage into the pulsating DC voltage. Here
bridge rectifier is used which consists of 4 diodes, that converts 12V AC voltage
from the output of transformer is converted to 12V DC voltage.
3.1.4 FILTER
The rectified DC voltage consists of ripple and fluctuations. A
capacitor filter of 1000uF is employed to remove the ripple from
the DC output of the bridge rectifier. The property of a capacitor is
allowDC component and the blocks the AC component.
9

3.1.5 REGULATOR
The regulator is a device which maintains the terminal
voltage constant even if the input voltage or load current varies.
An IC7805, IC7812 fixed voltage regulators are used in this circuit.
The function of theseregulator is to provide a +5V ,+12V constant
DC supply, even there are fluctuation in the regulator input. This
regulator helps to maintain a constant voltage throughout the
circuit operation.
3.1.6 DARLINGTON DRIVER
The output of the microcontroller is +5V.But there will be a situation where
we need to drive 12v relays. These Darlington drivers are open collector they
can sink current, but they cannot sourcecurrent. They are used as a ground-side
switch for all kinds of things very popular with hobbyists to control stepper motors
and relays basically, higher current loads than standard TTL levels support. Here
we have used ULN2803 which consists of 8 channel darlington array

Fig 3.2 Pin diagram of ULN2803

10

3.1.7CURRENT SENSOR
This is a device that detects electric AC or DC current flowing in a
conductor and gives out a corresponding signal (analogue voltage/current/digital
pulse). The detected signal can be used for various purposes like measuring the
amount of current in the conductor, controlling of another device etc.
The Allegro ACS712ELCTR-30A-T has a low-offset linear Hall sensor
circuit that has a conduction path made of copper located next to the die. A
magnetic field is caused by the current flowing through the copper conductor. This
magnetic field is detected by the integrated Hall IC which converts it into a voltage
proportional to the magnetic flux. A current of 1A flowing in a conductor produces
66mV. The close proximity of the magnetic signal to the Hall transducer optimizes
the device accuracy. To attain precision, in terms of voltage produced, a low-offset,
chopper-stabilized Bi-CMOS Hall IC is used.

Fig 3.3 Pin diagram of ACS712

3.1.8 MICROCONTROLLER
The Microcontroller acts as the main interface between the
inputs and outputs. The Microcontroller is programmed to control
the entire process. A brief description is given in the chapter 4.
3.1.9 RELAY
11

Relay is a component, which allows a low power circuit to

switch a relatively high current on and off, or to control signals
that must be electrically isolated from the controlling circuit itself.
Relays are composed of a coil of wire around a steel core, a switch
and a spring that holds one or more contacts.
When an electrical current flows through the coil it gets
energized, acting like an electromagnet. The refuse field opens
the contacts and also closes the circuit. When the electrical
current stops flowing, the opposite occurs.

Fig 3.4 Schematic of Relay

3.1.10 LCD MODULE

12

Fig 3.5 LCD module with Pin Outs.

LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) screen is an electronic display module and

find a wide range of applications. A 16x2 LCD display is very basic module and is
very commonly used in various devices and circuits. These modules are preferred
over seven segments and other multi segment LEDs.
There as on being: LCDs are economical; easily programmable; have no
limitation of displaying special &even custom characters (unlike in seven
segments), animations and so on.
A 16x2 LCD means it can display 16 characters per line and there are 2 such
lines. In this LCD each character is displayed in 5x7 pixel matrix. This LCD has
two registers, namely, Command and Data.
The command register stores the command instructions given to the LCD. A
command is an instruction given to LCD to do a predefined task like initializing it,
clearing its screen, setting the cursor position, controlling display etc.
The data register stores the data to be displayed on the LCD. The data is the
ASCII value of the character to be displayed on the LCD.

13

CHAPTER 4
MICROCONTROLLER
4.1 INTRODUCTION
A microcontroller (sometimes abbreviated C, uC or MCU) is a small computer on
a single integrated circuit containing a processor core, memory, and programmable
input/output peripherals. Program memory in the form of NOR flash or OTPROM
is also often included on chip, as well as a typically small amount of RAM.
4.2 PIC16F887- INTRODUCTION
Microcontroller PIC16F887 is one of the PICMicro Family microcontroller
which is popular at this moment, start from beginner until all professionals.
Because very easy using PIC16F887 and use FLASH memory technology so that
can be write-erase until thousand times.
14

The superiority this RISC Microcontroller compared to with other

microcontroller 8-bit especially at a speed of and his code compression.
PIC16F887 have 40 pin by 33 path of I/O.
PIC16F887 perfectly fits many uses, from automotive industries and
controlling home appliances to industrial instruments, remote sensors, electrical
door locks and safety devices. It is also ideal for smart cards as well as for battery
supplied devices because of its low consumption.
EEPROM memory makes it easier to apply microcontrollers to devices
where permanent storage of various parameters is needed (codes for transmitters,
motor speed, receiver frequencies, etc.).
Low cost, low consumption, easy handling and flexibility make PIC16F887
applicable even in areas where microcontrollers had not previously been
considered (example: timer functions, interface replacement in larger systems,
coprocessor applications, etc.).
In System Programmability of this chip (along with using only two pins in
data transfer) makes possible the flexibility of a product, after assembling and
testing have been completed.
This capability can be used to create assembly-line production, to store
calibration data available only after final testing, or it can be used to improve
programs on finished products.
CPU is not different from other microcontrollers CPU. PIC microcontroller
CPU consists of Arithmetic logic unit (ALU), memory unit (MU), control unit
(CU), Accumulator etc. we know that ALU mainly used for arithmetic operations
and taking the logical decisions, memory used for storing the instruction which is
to processed and also storing the instructions after processing, Control unit is used
15

for controlling the all the peripherals which are connected to the CPU both internal
peripherals and external peripherals. Accumulator is used for storing the results
and used for further processing. As I said earlier PIC micro controller supports the
RISC architecture that is reduced instruction set computer

\4.3 ARCHITECTURE OF PIC16F887

16

Fig 4.1 Architecture of PIC16F887

4.3.1 Memory
17

This microcontroller has three types of memory- ROM, RAM and

EEPROM. All of them will be separately discussed since each has specific
functions, features and organization.
4.3.1.1 ROM Memory
ROM memory is used to permanently save the program being executed. This
is why it is often called program memory. The PIC16F887 has 8Kb of ROM (in
total of 8192 locations). Since this ROM is made with FLASH technology, its
contents can be changed by providing a special programming voltage (13V).
Anyway, there is no need to explain it in detail because it is automatically
performed by means of a special program on the PC and a simple electronic device
called the Programmer.
4.3.1.2 EEPROM Memory
Similar to program memory, the contents of EEPROM is permanently saved,
even the power goes off. However, unlike ROM, the contents of the EEPROM can
be changed during operation of the microcontroller. That is why this memory (256
locations) is a perfect one for permanently saving results created and used during
the operation.
4.3.1.3 RAM Memory
This is the third and the most complex part of microcontroller memory. In
this case, it consists of two parts: general-purpose registers and special-function
registers (SFR).Even though both groups of registers are cleared when power goes
off and even though they are manufactured in the same way and act in the similar
way, their functions do not have many things in common.

18

4.3.2 General-Purpose Registers

General-Purpose registers are used for storing temporary data and results
created during operation. For example, if the program performs a counting (for
example, counting products on the assembly line), it is necessary to have a register
which stands for what we in everyday life call sum.
Since the microcontroller is not creative at all, it is necessary to specify the
address of some general purpose register and assign it a new function. A simple
program to increment the value of this register by 1, after each product passes
through a sensor, should be created.
Therefore, the microcontroller can execute that program because it now
knows what and where the sum which must be incremented is. Similarly to this
simple example, each program variable must be pre assigned some of generalpurpose register.
4.3.3 SFR Registers
Special-Function registers are also RAM memory locations, but unlike
general-purpose registers, their purpose is predetermined during manufacturing
process and cannot be changed. Since their bits are physically connected to
particular circuits on the chip (A/D converter, serial communication module, etc.),
any change of their contents directly affects the operation of the microcontroller or
some of its circuits.
For example, by changing the TRISA register, the function of each port A
pin can be changed in a way it acts as input or output. Another feature of these
memory locations is that they have their names (registers and their bits), which
considerably facilitates program writing. Since high-level programming language
can use the list of all registers with their exact addresses, it is enough to specify the
19

registers name in order to read or change its contents.

4.3.4 RAM Memory Banks
The data memory is partitioned into four banks. Prior to accessing some
register during program writing (in order to read or change its contents), it is
necessary to select the bank which contains that register. Two bits of the STATUS
register are used for bank selecting, which will be discussed later. In order to
facilitate operation, the most commonly used SFRs have the same address in all
banks which enables them to be easily accessed.
4.3.5 STACK
A part of the RAM used for the stack consists of eight 13-bit registers.
Before the microcontroller starts to execute a subroutine (CALL instruction) or
when an interrupt occurs, the address of first next instruction being currently
executed is pushed onto the stack, i.e. onto one of its registers.
In that way, upon subroutine or interrupt execution, the microcontroller
knows from where to continue regular program execution. This address is cleared
upon return to the main program because there is no need to save it any longer, and
one location of the stack is automatically available for further use.
It is important to understand that data is always circularly pushed onto the
stack. It means that after the stack has been pushed eight times, the ninth push
overwrites the value that was stored with the first push. The tenth push overwrites
the second push and so on. Data overwritten in this way is not recoverable. In
addition, the programmer cannot access these registers for write or read and there
is no Status bit to indicate stack overflow or stack underflow conditions. For that
reason, one should take special care of it during program writing.

20

4.3.6 Interrupt System

The first thing that the microcontroller does when an interrupt request
arrives is to execute the current instruction and then stop regular program
execution. Immediately after that, the current program memory address is
automatically pushed onto the stack and the default address (predefined by the
manufacturer) is written to the program counter.That location from where the
program continues execution is called the interrupt vector. For the PIC16F887
microcontroller, this address is 0004h. As seen in Fig. 1-7 below, the location
containing interrupt vector is passed over during regular program execution. Part
of the program being activated when an interrupt request arrives is called the
interrupt routine. Its first instruction is located at the interrupt vector.
How long this subroutine will be and what it will be like depends on the
skills of the programmer as well as the interrupt source itself. Some
microcontrollers have more interrupt vectors (every interrupt request has its
vector), but in this case there is only one. Consequently, the first part of the
interrupt routine consists in interrupt source recognition. Finally, when the
interrupt source is recognized and interrupt routine is executed, the microcontroller
reaches the RETFIE instruction, pops the address from the stack and continues
program execution from where it left off.

4.4 PIN DIAGRAM

21

Fig 4.2 Pin diagram of PIC16F887

4.5 FEATURES OF PIC16F887

The PIC16F887A is one of the latest products from Microchip. It features all
the components which modern microcontrollers normally have. For its low price,
wide range of application, high quality and easy availability, it is an ideal solution
in applications such as: the control of different processes in industry, machine
control devices, measurement of different values etc. Some of its main features are
listed below.
RISC architecture
Only 35 instructions to learn
All single-cycle instructions except branches

22

 Operating frequency 11.0592 MHz

Precision internal oscillator
Factory calibrated
Software selectable frequency range of 8MHz to 31KHz
Power supply voltage 2.0-5.5V
Consumption: 220uA (2.0V, 4MHz), 11uA (2.0 V, 32 KHz) 50nA
(stand-by mode)
Power-Saving Sleep Mode
Brown-out Reset (BOR) with software control option
35 input/output pins
High current source/sink for direct LED drive
software and individually programmable pull-up resistor
Interrupt-on-Change pin
8K ROM memory in FLASH technology
Chip can be reprogrammed up to 100,000 times
In-Circuit Serial Programming Option
Chip can be programmed even embedded in the target device
256 bytes EEPROM memory
Data can be written more than 1,000,000 times
368 bytes RAM memory
A/D converter
14-channels
10-bit resolution
23

 3 independent timers/counters
Watch-dog timer
Analogue comparator module with
Two analogue comparators
Fixed voltage reference (0.6V)
Programmable on-chip voltage reference
PWM output steering control
Enhanced USART module
Supports RS-485, RS-232 and LIN2.0
Auto-Baud Detect
Master Synchronous Serial Port (MSSP)
supports SPI and I2C mode

4.6 LIST OF PORTS

TABLE 4.1 PIC16F887 PORTS

24

4.7 PIN DESCRIPTION

TABLE 4.2(a) PIC16F887 PIN DESCRIPTION

25

TABLE 4.2(b) PIC16F887PIN DESCRIPTION

26

4.8 Internal Peripherals

Fig 4.3 Internal Peripherals

27

4.9 MEMORY ORGANIZATION OF PIC16F887

Fig 4.4
Memory

organization of PIC16F887

28

CHAPTER 5
TRANSFORMER
5.1 TRANSFORMER
A transformer is an electrical device that transfers energy between two or
more circuits through electromagnetic induction. A varying current in the
transformer's primary winding creates a varying magnetic flux in the core and a
varying magnetic field impinging on the secondary winding. This varying magnetic
field at the secondary induces a varying electromotive force (EMF) or voltage in the
secondary winding. Making use of Faraday's Law in conjunction with high magnetic
permeability core properties, transformers can thus be designed to efficiently
change AC voltages from one voltage level to another within power networks.
Transformers range in size from RF transformers less than a cubic centimetre in
volume to units interconnecting the power grid weighing hundreds of tons and is
shown in Fig.5.1

Fig.5.1. Transformer
5.2.1 IDEAL TRANSFORMER
29

It is very common, for simplification or approximation purposes, to analyze

the transformer as an ideal transformer model as represented in the two images. An
ideal transformer is a theoretical, linear transformer that is lossless and perfectly
coupled; that is, there are no energy losses and flux is completely confined within
the magnetic core. Perfect coupling implies infinitely high core magnetic
permeability and winding inductances and zero net magneto motive force. A varying
current in the transformer's primary winding creates a varying magnetic flux in the
core and a varying magnetic field impinging on the secondary winding. This varying
magnetic field at the secondary induces a varying electromotive force (EMF) or
voltage in the secondary winding. The primary and secondary windings are wrapped
around a core of infinitely high magnetic permeability so that all of the magnetic flux
passes through both the primary and secondary windings.
5.2.2 REAL TRANSFORMER
The ideal transformer model neglects the following basic linear aspects in real
transformers.
Hysteresis losses due to nonlinear application of the voltage applied in the
transformer core
Eddy current losses due to joule heating in the core that are proportional to
the square of the transformer's applied voltage.
In addition to this there will be copper loss.
Joule losses due to resistance in the primary and secondary windings
Leakage flux that escapes from the core and passes through one winding
only resulting in primary and secondary reactive impedance.
30

5.2.3 CORE AND SHELL FORM OF TRANSFORMERS

Closed-core transformers are constructed in 'core form' or 'shell form'. When
windings surround the core, the transformer is core form; when windings are
surrounded by the core, the transformer is shell form. Shell form design may be more
prevalent than core form design for distribution transformer applications due to the
relative ease in stacking the core around winding coils. Core form design tends to, as
a general rule, be more economical, and therefore more prevalent, than shell form
design for high voltage power transformer applications at the lower end of their
voltage and power rating ranges (less than or equal to, nominally, 230 kV or
75 MVA). At higher voltage and power ratings, shell form transformers tend to be
more prevalent. Shell form design tends to be preferred for extra-high voltage and
higher MVA applications because, though more labor-intensive to manufacture, shell
form transformers are characterized as having inherently better kVA-to-weight ratio,
better short-circuit strength characteristics and higher immunity to transit damage.
5.2.4 WINDING
The conducting material used for the windings depends upon the application,
but in all cases the individual turns must be electrically insulated from each other to
ensure that the current travels throughout every turn. For small power and signal
transformers, in which currents are low and the potential difference between adjacent
turns is small, the coils are often wound from enameled magnet wire, such as t wire.
Larger power transformers operating at high voltages may be wound with copper
rectangular strip conductors insulated by oil-impregnated paper and blocks
of pressboard is shown in Fig.5.2.

31

Fig.5.2. Winding
5.2.5 COOLING
To place the cooling problem in perspective, the accepted rule of thumb is that
the life expectancy of insulation in all electric machines including all transformers is
halved for about every 7 C to 10 C increase in operating temperature, this life
expectancy halving rule holding more narrowly when the increase is between about
7 C to 8 C in the case of transformer winding cellulose insulation. Small dry-type
and liquid-immersed transformers are often self-cooled by natural convection
and radiation heat dissipation. As power ratings increase, transformers are often
cooled by forced-air cooling, forced-oil cooling, water-cooling, or combinations of
these. Large transformers are filled with transformer oil that both cools and insulates
the windings.
5.3 TYPES OF TRANSFORMER
Autotransformer: Transformer in which part of the winding is common to
both primary and secondary circuits.
Capacitor voltage transformer: Transformer in which capacitor divider is
used to reduce high voltage before application to the primary winding.

32

 Distribution transformer, power transformer: International standards make a

distinction in terms of distribution transformers being used to distribute
energy from transmission lines and networks for local consumption and
power transformers being used to transfer electric energy between the
generator and distribution primary circuits.
Phase angle regulating transformer: A specialized transformer used to
control the flow of real power on three-phase electricity transmission
networks.
Scott-T transformer: Transformer used for phase transformation from threephase to two-phase and vice versa.
Polyphase transformer: Any transformer with more than one phase.
Grounding transformer: Transformer used for grounding three-phase circuits
to create a neutral in a three wire system, using a wye-delta transformer or
more commonly, a zigzag grounding winding.
Leakage transformer: Transformer that has loosely coupled windings.
Resonant transformer: Transformer that uses resonance to generate a high
secondary voltage.
Audio transformer: Transformer used in audio equipment.
Output transformer: Transformer used to match the output of a valve
amplifier to its load.

33

 Instrument transformer: Potential or current transformer used to accurately

and safely represent voltage, current or phase position of high voltage or
high power circuits.
5.4 LOSSES IN TRANSFORMER
An ideal transformer is the one which is 100% efficient. This means that the
power supplied at the input terminal should be exactly equal to the power supplied
at the output terminal, since efficiency can only be 100% if the output power is
equal to the input power with zero energy losses. But in reality, nothing in this
universe is ever ideal. Similarly, since the output power of a transformer is never
exactly equal to the input power, due a number of electrical losses inside the core
and windings of the transformer, so we never get to see a 100% efficient
transformer. Transformer is a static device, i.e. we do not get to see any movements
in its parts, so no mechanical losses exist in the transformer and only electrical
losses are observed. So there are two primary types of electrical losses in the
transformer:
1 Copper losses

2 Iron losses
Other than these, some small amount of power losses in the form of stray losses
are also observed, which are produced due to the leakage of magnetic flux.
5.4.1 COPPER LOSS
These losses occur in the windings of the transformer when heat is
dissipated due to the current passing through the windings and the internal
resistance offered by the windings. So these are also known as ohmic losses or I2R
losses, where I is the current passing through the windings and R is the internal
resistance of the windings.
34

These losses are present both in the primary and secondary windings of the
transformer and depend upon the load attached across the secondary windings
since the current varies with the variation in the load, so these are variable losses.
Mathematically, these copper losses can be defined as:
Pohmic = IpRp + IsRs
5.4.2 IRON LOSS
These losses occur in the core of the transformer and are generated due to
the variations in the flux. These losses depend upon the magnetic properties of the
materials which are present in the core, so they are also known as iron losses, as
the core of the Transformer is made up of iron. And since they do not change like
the load, so these losses are also constant.
There are two types of Iron losses in the transformer:
1 Eddy Current losses

2 Hysteresis Loss
5.4.2.1 EDDY CURRENT LOSS
When an alternating current is supplied to the primary windings of the
transformer, it generates an alternating magnetic flux in the winding which is then
induced in the secondary winding also through Faradays law of electromagnetic
induction, and is then transferred to the externally connected load. During this
process, the other conduction materials of which the core is composed of; also gets
linked with this flux and an emf is induced.
But this magnetic flux does not contribute anything towards the externally
connected load or the output power and is dissipated in the form of heat energy. So
such losses are called Eddy Current losses and are mathematically expressed as:
35

Pe = Ke f Kf Bm
Where;
Ke = Constant of Eddy Current
Kf = Form Constant
Bm = Strength of Magnetic Field

5.4.2.2 HYSTERESIS LOSS

Hysteresis loss is defined as the electrical energy which is required to realign
the domains of the ferromagnetic material which is present in the core of the
transformer.
These domains lose their alignment when an alternating current is supplied
to the primary windings of the transformer and the emf is induced in the
ferromagnetic material of the core which disturbs the alignment of the domains and
afterwards they do not realign properly. For their proper realignment, some
external energy supply, usually in the form of current is required. This extra energy
is known as Hysteresis loss.
Mathematically, they can be defined as;
>Ph = Kh Bm1.6 fV
These are the different kinds of losses happened to occur in transformer and
an electrical engineer must take care of their losses and try to reduce them as low
as possible.
Transformer has two states of operations, one is without load and the other is
with load. Most of these errors appear when the load is applied on the transformer.
So it is essential to read the behaviour of transformer when load is applied on it,
36

which we will see in the next post of this tutorial. Till then take care and leave me
your impressions.

37