CDS Ii

Control System Design-II
Dr. Abdul Qayyum Khan

Department of Electrical Engineering
Pakistan Institute of Engineering and Applied Sciences
P.O. Nilore Islamabad Pakistan
url: www.pieas.edu.pk/aqayyum
Email: aqkhan@pieas.edu.pk
Preliminaries of MCT
ctd..
The central concept on which the modern control theory is based,
is STATE.
State: The state of dynamic system is the smallest set of variables
(referred to as state variables) such that the knowledge of these
variables at t = t 0 together with the knowledge of input for t > t 0
completely determines the behavior of the process; that is,
x(t) t = t , and
0
u(t)
t > t0
Deter min es
x(t) t > t
The concept of state is not limited to physical/engineering
systems but also biological systems, economic systems, social

systems etc.
Control System Design-II by Dr. A.Q. Khan
ctd..
State variables: The smallest set of variables that determines
the behavior of the system

State vector: Vector of state variables. For n state variables, a
state vector of n-components to be constructed. Let x be a
state vector such that
x = [ x1
x2
x 3 . . . x4 ]
State space: It is an n dimensional space whose coordinates

are x1 , x 2 , x 3 ,K , x n state variables.
Any state can be represented by a point in state space

ctd..
State space equation: It is a first order differential equation
(or set of first order differential equations).

It generally involves three variables of interest.
State variables
Input variables
Output variables
Let us consider
State equation
Output equation
State variables
x& = x + u,
y=x
Output
variables
Input variables
ctd..
There exists many kinds of state space representation.
However the no. of states (state variables) are the same.

A higher order differential equation can be represented in
the form of set of first order differential equations. Hence
state space representation of higher order system is possible.
Let us consider a 2nd order dynamic system
&&y + by& + cy = u
ctd..
The preceding example shows
x1 = y
x& 1 = y& = x 2
x& 2 = &&
y = u by& cy = u bx 2 cx1
Note that the states x 1 and x 2 are the outputs of integrator.
Remember! The state space model for a system is a set of
1st order differential equations.

Let us consider
State equations
ctd..
x& 1 = f1 (x1 , x 2 ,L , x n , u1 , u 2 ,L , u p , t)
x& 2 = f 2 (x1 , x 2 ,L , x n , u1 , u 2 ,L , u p , t)
x& = f (x , x ,L , x , u , u ,L , u , t)
3
3
1
2
n
1
2
p
M
M
x& n = f n (x1 , x 2 ,L , x n , u1 , u 2 ,L , u p , t)
Output equation
ctd..
y1 = h1 (x1 , x 2 ,L , x n , u1 , u 2 ,L , u p , t)
y 2 = h 2 (x1 , x 2 ,L , x n , u1 , u 2 ,L , u p , t)
y = h (x , x ,L , x , u , u ,L , u , t)
3
3
1
2
n
1
2
p
M
M
y m = h m (x1 , x 2 ,L , x n , u1 , u 2 ,L , u p , t)
ctd..
Combining the two

u1
x1
y1
u
x
y
2
x(t) = 2 , State Vector y(t) = 2 , Output Vector u(t) = Input Vector
M
M
M

x
y
up
n
m
f1(x1,x2,L,xn ,u1,u2,L,up ,t)
h1(x1,x2,L,xn ,u1,u2,L,up ,t)
f
(x
,x
,
L
,x
,u
,u
,
L
,u
,t)
h
(x
,x
,
L
,x
,u
,u
,
L
,u
,t)
n 1 2
p
n 1 2
p
2 1 2
2 1 2
, h(x) =M
f(x) = M
f
(x
,x
L
L
L
L
,
,x
,u
,u
,
,u
,t
h
(x
,x
,
,x
,u
,u
,
,u
,t)
n 1 2
p
n 1 2
p
n 1 2
m 1 2
The resultant state space model is
x& = f (x , u , t)
y = h (x , u , t)
It may represents
Linear System
Nonlinear System
Linear Time varying system
ctd..
ctd..
The LTV system is represented by
x& ( t ) = A ( t ) x ( t ) + B ( t ) u ( t )
y (t ) = C (t ) x (t ) + D (t ) u (t )
The LTI system is represented by
x& ( t ) = Ax ( t ) + Bu ( t )
y ( t ) = Cx ( t ) + Du ( t )
11
This is the focus

of this course
Transfer function V/S State Space

Two important Questions
Given a Transfer function G(s) = Y(s)/U(s), how to obtain the
state space representation?

Given the state space representation G: (A,B,C,D), how to
obtain Transfer function G(s) = Y(s)/U(s)?
Let us consider a system G with the following SS-form

x& ( t ) = Ax ( t ) + Bu ( t )
G:
y ( t ) = Cx ( t ) + Du ( t )
12
State Space
Transfer function
Laplace Transform of the state equation is

sX ( s ) x(0) = AX ( s ) + BU ( s )
( sI A) X ( s ) = x(0) + BU ( s )
1
X ( s ) = ( sI A ) ( x(0) + BU ( s ) )
Laplace Transform of the output equation is

Y ( s ) = CX ( s ) + DU ( s )
Substituting X(s) in the above equation
Y ( s ) = C ( sI A )
( x(0) + BU ( s ) ) + DU (s)
Note that for T/F, x(0) = 0, then

Y (s)
U (s)
13
= C ( sI A ) B + D
Correlation between transfer function

and state space model
Ctd
Note that
A,B,C,D are constant matrices
As
adj ( sI A)
B+D
sI A
characteristics polynomial of G(s)
Poles of G(s) are the eigenvalues of A. Hence G(s) can be written as
G ( s ) = C ( sI A ) B + D = C
1
Q(s)
G(s) =
sI A
where Q(s) is a polynomial in s.

If A,B,C,D are time varying or uncertain, then it is difficult to derive
equivalent transfer function.
For a nonlinear system, transfer function representation is also
difficult to obtain.
Some important facts:

Recall that the characteristic equation is obtained by equating
the denominator of the transfer function to ZERO.

In SS-representation, (sI-A) is very important. The
characteristic equation in this case is |sI-A| = 0.
The roots of |sI-A| = 0 are referred to as eigenvalues. It has
some properties
If the coefficients of A are real, its eigenvalues are either real or
in complex conjugate pairs

The eig(A) = eig(transpose(A))
15
An Example
Example 2: Obtain the transfer function from the state-
space model derived in Example 1.

Solution: Given that
1
A = k
1
b , B =
m
G (s ) = C ( s I A ) 1 B + D
= [1
s
0 ] k
1
b
s+
m
1
=
[1
b
k
2
s +
s+
m
m
0
1
, C = [1
0
1
0 ], D = 0
+ 0
s
+
m
0]
k
0
1
1
=
m s2 + bs + k
State-representation for MIMO system

Consider a multiple input multiple output (MIMO) system
with p inputs and m outputs; i.e.;

y1
y
2
y = ,
M

y m
u1
u
2
u=
M

u p
The transfer function matrix is given as

Y(s)
1
= C ( sI A ) B + D m p
G (s ) =
U(s)
Note that the Eigenvalues of A does not necessarily imply

the closed loop poles
Transfer function
State Space
Transform T/F into n-th order differential equation

Get the SS- representation then.
Consider an n-th order differential equation
n
Let
n
n
1
y + a1 y + LLLLLL + an y = u
x1 = y
x 2 = y& = x& 1
x 3 = &&
y = x& 2
M
18
xn =
n 1
x&1 = x2
x&2 = x3
M
x&n = u an x1 an 1 x2 L a1 xn
1
0 L 0 x1 0
x&1 0
x& 0
x 0
0
1
0
L
2 =
2 + u
M M
O
O
M M M

a1 xn 1
L
x&n an an 1
Let the output of this system be
x1
y = x1 = [1 0 L
19
x
0] 2
M

xn
In compact form
x& = Ax + Bu
y = Cx + Du
where
1
0 L 0
0
0
0
1
L
0
,
A=
M
O
O
M
L
a1
an an 1
C = [1 0 L 0] ,
20
0
0
B=
M

1
D = 0
Case: When derivatives are present in

Control
Consider an n-th order differential equation with in n
derivatives in control channel
n
n 1
n 1
y + a1 y + L + an y = b0 u + b1 u + L + bn1 u + bnu
Let
x1 = y 0u
x2 = y& 0u& 1u = x&1 1u
x3 = &&
y 0u&& 1u& 2u = x&2 2u
M
n 1
n 1
n2
xn = y 0 u 1 u L n2u& n1u = x&n1 n1u

21
w h e r e 0 , 1 , L n a r e d e t e r m i n e d f r o m
0 = b0
1 = b1 a 1 0
2 = b 2 a 1 1 a 2 0
M
n = b n a 1 n 1 L L a n 1 1 a n 0
W ith th is c h o ic e o f s ta te v a r ia b le s , th e
e x is ta n c e a n d u n iq u n e s s o f s ta te e q u a tio n
is g u a ra n te e d . L e t u s c o n s tru c t
s ta te s p a c e e q u a tio n
x& 1 = x 2 + 1 u
x& 2 = x 3 + 2 u
22
M
x& n 1 = x n + n 1 u
x& n = a n x 1 a n 1 x 2 + L a 1 x n + n u
Combining the above set of equations
1
0 L 0 x1 1
0
1 L 0 x2 2
+
u
O
O
M M M

an 1
a1 xn n
L
x1
Note that
x
The derivatives of the control
y = x1 = [1 0 L 0] 2 + 0u only affect B matrix
M
A and C matrices are unchanged

xn
Matrix D is non-zero in this case
x&1 0
x& 0
2 =
M M

x&n an
23
Decomposition of Transfer function

Consider the following transfer function
Y (s ) b0s n + b1s n1 + b2s n2 + b3s n3 + + bn

=
U (s )
s n + a1s n1 + a2s n2 + + an
Steps:
1. Express the transfer function in ve power of s. Multiply
numerator and denominator by s n
Y (s ) b0 + b1s 1 + b2s 2 + b3s 3 + + bns n

=
U (s )
1+ a1s 1 + a2s 2 + + ans n
24
Decomposition of Transfer function ctd

2.
Multiply numerator and denominator by a dummy variable

X(s)
Y (s ) b0 + b1s 1 + b2s 2 + b3s 3 + + bns n X (s )

=
U (s )
1+ a1s 1 + a2s 2 + + ans n
X (s )
3.
Rewrite numerator and denominator as
Y (s ) = (b0 + b1s 1 + b2s 2 + + bns n ) X (s )

U (s ) = (1+ a1s 1 + a2s 2 + + ans n ) X (s )
25

Construct the state diagram in the above two equations.
Re-arrange the last equation as
4.
X (s ) = U (s ) (a1s 1 + a2s 2 + + ans n ) X (s )

Substituting as
5.
n +1
x2 = x1
s X (s )
X (s )
x1 , s
n +2
x3 = x2 ,s X (s )
xn = x n1
X (s )
x n
X (s )
x n = an x1 an1x2 an2 x3 a1xn + u

y = bn x1 + bn1x2 + bn2 x3 + + b1xn + b0 x n
26

substituting
into
y = bn x1 + bn1x2 + bn2 x3 + + b1xn + b0 x n
As
y = bn x1 + bn1x2 + bn2 x3 + + b1xn
+b0 (an x1 an1x2 an2 x3 a1xn + u )
= (bn b0an ) x1 + (bn1 b0an1) x2 + +
(b1 b0a1) xn + b0u

27

x = Ax + Bu
y = Cx + Du
where
0
0
1
0
0

0
0
0
1
0

A= 0
0
0
0 , B = 0 , D = b0

an an1 an2 a1
1

(bSystem
Control
Design-II
by)Dr. A.Q.
Khan b a
b
a
b
b
a
28 C =
(
)
(
)
n
0
n
n
1
0
n
1
1
0
1
Matlab functions
ss2tf: Transforms state-space to transfer function

[num,den] = ss2tf(A,B,C,D)
G(s) = num/den = Y(s)/U(s)
For multi-input systems, the above function still works; that is,
[num,den] = ss2tf(A,B,C,D,iu)
iu: ith input and should be an integer value, that is, 1,2,.
For example [num,den] = ss2tf(A,B,C,D,1) returns transfer
function from first input.
tf2ss: Transforms the transfer function to state-space

[A,B,C,D]=tf2ss(num,den)
This function is only for SISO
29
State space model of Inverted Pendulum

Control System
30
State space model of Inverted Pendulum

Control SystemSystem-Free body diagram
31
(M + m) x + m = u
2
I
+
m
(
) + mx = mg
or
M = (M + m) g u
Mx = u mg
Let
x1 = , x2 = , x3 = x , x4 = x , Then
x1 = x2
x2 = M + m gx1 1 u
M
M
x 3 = x4
m
1
x 4 = gx1 + u
M
M
32

0
0
1 0 0

x1 M + m
x
1 1

x 2 M g 0 0 0 x2 M
=
+
u
x 3
0
0 0 1 x3 0

x
x4 1
4 m g
0 0 0
M
x1

1 0 0 0 x 2

y=
0 0 1 0 x3

x4
33
Canonical forms
4 canonical forms are important
Controllable canonical form
Observable canonical forms
Diagonal canonical form
Jorden canonical forms
Given a nth order linear differential equation

n
n 1
n 1
y + a1 y + L + an y = b0 u + b1 u + L + bn 1 u + bn u
and the transfer function
G (s) =
34
n 1
b0 s + b1 s + L + bn 1s + bn
n
n 1
s + a1 s + L + an 1s + an
Controllable Canonical forms

The controllable canonical form for the system shown is
L 0 x1 0
1
0
x&1 0
x&
x 0
L
0
0
1
0
2
2
M = M
O
O O M M + M u
&
L L 1 xn 1 0
0
xn 1 0
an an 1 an 2 L a1 x 1
x&n 1444442444443
n {
Ac
Bc
x1
x
2
y = [bn anb0 bn 1 an 1b0 L L b1 a1b0 ] M + b0 u
14444444
4244444444
3
{
D
Cc
xn 1 c
x
Very important in design of state-feedback
n
controller
Pole placement
35
Observable Canonical forms

The observable canonical form for the system shown is
0 L
a n x1
x&1 0 0
x&
x
1
0
0
a
L
n 1 2
2
M
= M O O O
+
M M
a 2 x n 1
x& n 1 0 0 L L
x& 0 0 L 1
a1 x n
n 1 4 4 442 4 4 4
43
b n a n b0
b a b
n 1 0
n 1
u
M
a
b
2 0
2
b1 a1b0
1 442 4 4
3
Aob
x1
x
2
+ b0 u
y = [ 0 0 L L 1] M
1 4 442 4 4 4
3
C ob
x n 1
x
n
36
B ob
Very important in design of

state observers
Pole placement
Note also that
Aob = AcT ,
Bob = CcT
Cob = BcT ,
Dob = Dc
Diagonal canonical form (DCF)

Consider a transfer function having distinct poles, that is,
Y (s)
U (s)
n 1
b0 s + b1 s + L + bn 1 s + bn
cn
c1
c1
= b0 +
+
+L +
( s + p1 )( s + p2 )L ( s + pn )
( s + p1 ) ( s + p1 )
( s + pn )
The diagonal canonical form is given as

0
0 L
0
x&1 p1
x&
p
0
L
0
2
2
M
= M
O
O O
M
&
L L
x
0
0
n 1 0
x& 0
L
0 p n
4 4 40 4
n 1
42 4 4 4 4 4
3
Ad
37
x1
x
2
+ b0 u
y = [ c 1 c 2 L L c n ] M
1 4 4 42 4 4 43
Cd
x
n 1
x
n
x 1 1
x
2 1
M
+ M u

x
n 1 1
x 1
n {
Bd
Jordan Canonical form

Suppose a system transfer function has multiple poles of
multiplicity m, the proceeding diagonal can be modified. This

modified representation is known as Jordan Canonical form.
Y (s)
U (s)
= b0 +
b0 s + b1 s + L + bn 1 s + bn
( s + p1 ) ( s + p2 )L ( s + pn )
3
c1
( s + p1 )
p1
0
0
x& =
0
0
0
y = [c 1
38
n 1
( s + p1 )
1
p1
0
0
0
0
c2
c2
c2
0
1
p1
0
0
0
L
c3
cn
c4
+
+L +
( s + p1 ) ( s + p2 )
( s + pn )
0
0
0
p4
0
0
L
0
0
0
0

0
0
x+ u
0
1
M
0

p 6
1
cn ]x + b0u
0
0
0
0
p5
0
An Example
Y (s )
b1s + b 2
s+3
= 2
= 2
U ( s ) s + 3s + 2 s + a1s + a 2
Obtain CCF, OCF, DCF

Here
b 0 = 0, b1 = 1, b 2 = 3; a 0 = 1, a1 = 3, a 2 = 2
CCF :
OCF :
DCF :
39
0 1
0
Ac =
, Bc = , Cc = [3 1] , Dc = 0
2 3
1
0 2
3
T
T
T
A0 =
=
A
,
B
=
=
C
,
C
=
0
1
=
B
[
]
c
0
c
0
c , D0 = 0
1 3
1
1 0
1
AD =
, BD = , CD = [ 2 1] , D D = 0
0 2
1
Similarity Transformation
State-space representation is not unique
Often desirable to work with some especial form of state-
space models
A transformation exists from one canonical form to another
canonical form
40
Consider
x = Ax + Bu
y = Cx + Du
Let
x = Pz
Where P is n n non-singular matrix.
z = P 1x
The transformed equation is
z = P 1x = P 1Ax + P 1Bu
= P 1APz + P 1Bu
= CPz + Du
41
z = Az + Bu
= Cz + Du
where
1
A = P AP , B = PB C = CP ,
D=D
Invariance Properties:
42
Characteristic equation
Eigenvalues
Eigenvectors
Transfer function/Transfer function matrix (MIMO Systems)
Controllability canonical form

Consider the dynamic system
x = Ax + Bu
y = Cx + Du
to get the CCF, we choose P = MW
where
43
M = B AB A2B
an1 an2 a1
an2 an3 1
W =

a
1
0
1
1
0
0
An1B
1

0
0
and a s are found as

n
sI A = s + a1s
n1
+ a2s
n2
+ an1s + an = 0
Then
0
1
0
0
A = P1AP =
0
0
0
a a
n
n1 an2
C = CP, D = D
44
0
0
0
0

0
0

, B = PB = 0
1

1
a1

Observable canonical form

Consider the dynamic system
x = Ax + Bu
y = Cx + Du
to get the OCF, we choose P = (WN )1
where
C
an1 an2 a1 1
CA
an2 an3 1 0
N = CA2 , W =
1
0
CAn1
1
0
0
45
and a s are found as

n
sI A = s + a1s
Then
46
n1
+ a2s
A = P 1AP = 0
C = CP = [0 0
n2
+ an1s + an = 0
an
0 an1
an2 ,

a1
1]
0 0
0
1

0
Diagonal canonical form

In DCF, the system matrix A is transformed into Diagonal
matrix,
The entries on the diagonal are the eigenvalues of the A
The transformation matrix is obtained as
P = [e1 e2 en1 en ]
where ei are the eigenvectors corresponding to the
eigenvalues i
If the matrix A is in CCF and has distinct eigenvalues, Then P
matrix has especial structure.
47
Diagonalization of A
Let a matrix A has distinct eigenvalues 1,2,Ln and is
represented as
0
0
A=L
L
a n
L L
L L
a n 1 L L
0
0
L
L
a1
To diagonalize A, let us use some transformation; that is, x = Pz

1
1
M
1
1
With

M
2
3
n
1
Vandermonde
2
2
2
2
P = 1
2
3
M n
matrix
M
M
M
M
M
1n 1 2 n 1 3n 1 M n n 1
48
Diagonalization of A
Then
1 0 0
0
0
2
P 1AP = 0 0 3
L L L
0 0 0
L
L
L
L
L
0
0
0
L
n
Case: If A has multiple eigenvalues, then the diagonalization
is not straight forward. For instance A has eigenvalues 1 =2 =

Then P can be constructed as
1 1
-1
P=
with
P
does not exists.
This implies that diagonalization cannot be achieved this way
Is there any way possible??

49
An Example
Diagonalise the following system dynamics
0
x& = 0
6
y = [1 0
0
0
0
1 x + 0 u ----------- (a)
6
11 6
1
0] x
Procedure:
Step-1: Find eigenvalues of A . In this case the eigenvalues
are 1 = 1, 2 = 2, 3 = 3
Step-2: Form matrix P
1 1 1 1 1 1
P = 1 2 3 = 1 2 3
1 4 9 12 22 32
50
Apply transformation x = Pz to (a)
0
0
0 1
0
0 1
0
Pz& = 0
0 1 Pz + 0 u z& = P1 0
0 1 Pz + P1 0 u
6 11 6
6
6 11 6
6
y = [1 0 0] Pz
1 0 0 3
z& = 0 2 0 z + 6 u, y = [1 1 1] x
0 0 3 3
Transformation matrix P modifies the coefficient matrix of z into
diagonal form
All the states are decoupled from one another
The eigenvalues remain unchanged
51
Fact:The eigenvalues are unchanged during similarity

transformation.
Proof: C onsider
I P 1 AP = P 1 P P 1 AP
(I A ) P
P 1 ( I A ) P
P 1 P ( I A )
P 1 P ( I A )
(I A )
= P
Hence proved that the eigenvalues are invariant under linear transformation
52
Example
Diagonalize the following
1
0
0
0
x& = 0
0
1 x + 0 u
9 15 7
3
y = [1 0 0] x
Step 1: The eigenvalues are -1,-3,-3

Step 2: Form P matrix
1 1 1 1 1 1
P = 1 2 3 = 1 3 3 P1 does not exist.
12 22 32 1 9 9
Diagonalization ?
53
Generalized Eigenvalues
A has multiple eigenvalues
The formula for computing eigenvectors
(i I A ) ei = 0
does not hold to compute all eigenvectors

Let a q be distinct eigenvalues among n eigenvalues of A. The
equation (i I A) ei = 0 hold for computing q
eigenvectors.
54
Let j be the eigenvalues of mth order. i.e;m n q . The

corresponding eigenvectors are called generalized eigenvectors
and can be determined using the following formula
(jI A) enq+1 = 0
(jI A) enq+2 =enq+1
(jI A) enq+3 =enq+2
(jI A) enq+m =enq+m1
55
An Example
Diagnolize
0 6 5
A = 1 0 2 ; 1 = 2; 2 = 1; 3 = 1;
3 2 4
Solution :
Eigenvector associated to 1 = 2 is
e11 2 6 5 e11
e11 2

(1I A)e1 = (2I A) e21 = 1 2 2 e21 = 0 e21 = 1
e 3 2 4 e
e 2
31
31
31
e11 1 6 5 e12
e12

3
(2I A) e2 = (1I A) e21 = 1 1 2 e22 = 0 e22 =
e31 3 2 3 e32
e32 7

5
7
56
e11 1 6 5 e12

(2I A)e3 = (1I A) e21 = 1 1 2 e22 = e2

e31 3 2 3 e32

e13
22
e23 = ;
49
e33

46
49
2
1
1
3
22
P = 1
;
7
49
2 5 46
7
49
2 0 0
A = P 1AP = 0 1 1
0 0 1
57
Transfer function
State spaceDecomposition of transfer functions
Direct decomposition :
Applied to a transfer function which is not in factored form. It can

be conducted in two ways
1.
2.
Direct decomposition to CCF

Direct decomposition to OCF
Cascade decomposition
Applied to transfer functions that are written as product of simple

first order or second order components
Parallel decomposition
Applied to transfer functions whose denominator is in factored
form and partial fraction expansion can be obtained
58
Direct decomposition to CCF

Y (s ) b1s n1 + b2s n2 + b3s n3 + + bn

=
U (s )
s n + a1s n1 + a2s n2 + + an
Steps:
Y (s ) b1s 1 + b2s 2 + b3s 3 + + bns n

=
U (s )
1+ a1s 1 + a2s 2 + + ans n
59
Direct decomposition to CCF ctd

2.
Multiply numerator and denominator by a dummy variable

X(s)
Y (s ) b1s 1 + b2s 2 + b3s 3 + + bns n X (s )

=
U (s )
1+ a1s 1 + a2s 2 + + ans n X (s )
3.
Rewrite numerator and denominator as
Y (s ) = (b1s 1 + b2s 2 + b3s 3 + + bns n ) X (s )

U (s ) = (1+ a1s 1 + a2s 2 + + ans n ) X (s )
60

Construct the state diagram in the above two equations.
Re-arrange the last equation as
4.
X (s ) = U (s ) (a1s 1 + a2s 2 + + ans n ) X (s )

Substituting as
5.
n +1
x2 = x1
s X (s )
X (s )
x1 , s
n +2
x3 = x2 ,s X (s )
xn = x n1
X (s )
x n
X (s )

y = bn x1 + bn1x2 + bn2 x3 + + b1xn
61

x = Ax + Bu
y = Cx + Du
where
62
0
1
0
0
0
1
A= 0
0
0
an an1 an2
Control
System
A.Q. Khan
C=
bbynDr.
bn2
[bDesign-II
n
1
0
0

0
0

0 , B = 0

1
a1

b1 ] , D = 0
Direct decomposition to OCF

Y (s ) b1s n1 + b2s n2 + b3s n3 + + bn

=
U (s )
s n + a1s n1 + a2s n2 + + an
Steps:
Y (s ) b1s 1 + b2s 2 + b3s 3 + + bns n

=
U (s )
1+ a1s 1 + a2s 2 + + ans n
63
Direct decomposition to OCF ctd

2.
Expand the equation as

1
2
n
1
+
a
s
+
a
s
+
+
a
s
( 1
)Y (s )
2
n
= (b1s 1 + b2s 2 + b3s 3 + + bns n )U (s )

or
Y (s ) = (a1s 1 + a2s 2 + + ans n )Y (s )

+ (b1s 1 + b2s 2 + b3s 3 + + bns n )U (s )
64
Direct decomposition to OCF ctd

The output of the integrators are assigned as state variable
Finally we get
x = A x + B u
y = Cx + Du
where
65
A = 0
C = [0
0
0
1
0
0
0
bn
an
b n 1
a n 1
a n2 , B = bn3
b1
a 1
1] , D = 0
Cascade Decomposition
Y (s)
s + b1 s + b2
=K
U (s)
s + a1 s + a2
where
a1 , a2 , b1 , and b2 are real constant. Each of the first
order transfer function is decomposed by direct
decomposition.
The state space model is
66
x&1 a1 b 2 a2 x1 K
+ u
x& = 0
a2 x2 K
2
y = [ bDesign-II
b 2 a2 ] x + Ku
Control System
by2Dr. A.Q. Khan
1 a
Parallel Decomposition
Y
U
(s )
(s )
(s
+ a1
(s )
)(s +
w h e re
Q
(s )
is a p o ly n o m ia l o f o rd e r le s s th a n 2
an d a1, a
a re re a l c o n s ta n t.
P a r tia l f r a c tio n e x p a n s io n m a y le a d
Y
U
(s )
(s )
K 1
(s + a 1
K 2
(s + a
T h e s ta te s p a c e m o d e l is g iv e n a s
a1
x& =
0
y = [K 1
67
1
x + 1 u

2
]x
0
a
K
Relationship b/w various method
68
Solving TimeTime-Invariant state equationequation- A review

Consider
x& = Ax + Bu,
(1)
x ( t ) = ???
Let us consider a homogenous state equation

x& = ax
(2)
Let
x ( t ) = b 0 + b1 t + b 2 t 2 + L + b k t k + L
(3)
x& ( t ) = b 1 + 2b 2 t + kb k t k 1 + L
(4)
subsitituting (3) and (4) into (2)

b 1 + 2b 2 t + kb k t k 1 + L = a (b 0 + b 1 t + b 2 t 2 + L + b k t k + L )
we have
b 1 = ab 0
1 2
a b 0 , Similarly
2
1
1
1 k
b 3 = a 3 b 0 = a 3 b 0 , LL b k =
a b0
6
3
k
2b 2 = ab 1 = a 2 b 0 b 2 =
69
(5)
As
1
x ( t ) = 1 + at + at 2 + L b 0
2
At t = 0, equation (3) im plies

b 0 = x ( 0 ) , therefore
1
x ( t ) = 1 + at + a 2 t 2 + L x ( 0 ) = e at x ( 0 )
2
N ow consider
x& = Ax
(6)
Analogy w ith scalar, w e have
x ( t ) = b 0 + b1 t + b 2 t 2 + L + b k t k + L
(7)
x& ( t ) = b 1 + 2b 2 t + kb k t k 1 + L
(8)
proceeding in sim ilar fashion, w e
1
x ( t ) = 1 + At + A 2 t 2 + L x ( 0 ) = e At x ( 0 ) = (t)x ( 0 )
2
w here ( t ) is state transition m atrix.

70
(9)
At
Referring to equation (9), the term e is of particular
interest.
It is referred to as matrix exponential and analogously, it can be
represented as
At
Ak t k
=
k = 0 k!
This matrix exponential for an
n n converges absolutely for
all finite time.

Some important properties
d At
e = Ae At
dx
e( A + B) t = e At e Bt
if AB = BA
e(
if AB BA
A + B) t
e At eBt
e At e At = I
71
C onsider equation (6) and taking L aplace T ransform

sX (s) - x (0) = A X ( s ) X ( s ) = ( sI A )
x (0)
1
x ( t ) = L 1 ( sI A ) x ( 0 ) x ( t ) = e A t x ( 0 )
or
x ( t ) = ( t ) x (0 )
w here
( t ) : n n m atrix and is the unique solution
: S tate transition m atr ix. It has all the inform ation about
the free m otion of the system define by x& = A x
(0 ) = I
A lso note
72
-1 ( t ) = e -A t = ( t )
Case-I: If 1,2,Ln be distinct eigenvalues of A, then ( t )
will contain exponentials e t ,e t ,Le t

Case-II: If the matrix A is diagonal with 1,2,Ln, then
1
e1t
(t) =
M
0
e2 t
O
0
L 0
O M
n t
L e
L
Case-III: if there is multiplicity of eigenvalues 1,1, 1,2,Ln
, then ( t ) will contain terms like te t ,t2e t in addition to

1
e1t , e2 t ,L en t
73
Properties of ( t )
As
( t ) = e At
( 0 ) = e A(0) = I
( t ) = e = (e
( t1 + t 2 ) = e
( t ) = ( nt )
( t 2 t1 ) ( t1 t 0 ) = ( t 2 t 0 )
At
An Example
74
At 1
A ( t1 + t 2 )
= ( t )
=e
A ( t1 ) A ( t 2 )
or 1 ( t ) = ( t )
= ( t1 ) ( t 2 )
0
For x& = Ax, where A=
2
Obtain ( t ) and -1 ( t )
Solution : As
Note that
e At = ( t ) = L-1
s
sI A =
2
( sI A )
1
s + 3
s + 3
( sI A ) =
( s + 1)( s + 2 ) 2
Using partial fraction expansion
1
1
3
1
s
2
1
s + 3 1
1
s+2
-1
-1 s + 1
(t) = L
=
L
2 s
+
+
s
1
s
2
(
)(
)

2 2
s + 1 s + 2
2e -t e 2 t
= -t
2 t
2e 2e
75
e -t e 2 t
,
-2t
t
2e e
2e t e 2 t
(t ) = t
2t
2e 2e
1
1
s + 1 s + 2
2
1
s + 2 s + 1
et e2t
2e 2t e t
Solution to Homogenous State equations

Consider
x& = Ax + Bu (1)
Now
x& Ax = Bu
x n 1
n 1
u
nn
A
B np
Convolution integral
( multiply by e
e At ( x& Ax ) = e At Bu
At
both side )
Integrating both sides

t
e ( x& Ax )d = e
A
At
0
At
x ( t ) x (0) = e
0
d A
e x ( ) d = e A Bu ( )d
Bu ( )d
d
0
0
Bu ( )d x ( t ) = e x ( 0 ) + e
At
0
t
x ( t ) = ( t ) x ( 0 ) + ( t ) Bu ( )d (2)
76
0
A (t )
Bu ( )d
Laplace Transform Approach

Consider
x& = Ax + Bu
The Laplace transform of the above system is
sX ( s ) x ( 0 ) = AX ( s ) + BU ( s ) ( sI A ) X ( s ) = x ( 0 ) + BU ( s )
X ( s ) = ( sI A )
( x ( 0 ) + BU ( s ) )
t
x ( t ) = e x (0) + e
At
A ( t )
Bu ( ) d
For initial time t 0 = t i 0, then

x (t) = e
A ( t ti )
x (0) + e
A ( t )
ti
77
Bu ( ) d
An Example
Consider
x& = Ax + Bu,
where
0 1
0
0
0
A=
,
B
,
x
0
=
,
u
t
step
I/P=
=
=
( ) ()
1
-2
-3
0

1
Find x ( t ) .
Solution :
As
2e -t e 2 t
( t ) = -t
2 t
2e 2e
e -t e 2t
2e -2t e t
x ( t ) = e A ( t ) Bu ( ) d
0
1 t 1 2 t
e + e
x (t) = 2
2
t
2t
e e
78
since x ( 0 ) = 0,
for t<0
for t 0
Computation of
At
e =?: Some Further results
Laplace Transform method:
( t ) = e = L
At
-1
{(sI A) }
1
Discussed in
Previous slides
Method of Diagonalization of A:
if D = P 1 A P th en
e At = P 1e Dt P
Caley-Hamilton Theorem and minimal polynomial theorem
Minimal polynomials of A involves distinct roots
Minimal polynomials of A involves repeated roots
79

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Control System Design-II

Dr. Abdul Qayyum Khan

The central concept on which the modern control theory is based,

The concept of state is not limited to physical/engineering

systems but also biological systems, economic systems, social

State variables: The smallest set of variables that determines

the behavior of the system

State space: It is an n dimensional space whose coordinates

Any state can be represented by a point in state space

State space equation: It is a first order differential equation

(or set of first order differential equations).

Control System Design-II by Dr. A.Q. Khan

There exists many kinds of state space representation.

However the no. of states (state variables) are the same.

The preceding example shows

1st order differential equations.

Control System Design-II by Dr. A.Q. Khan

Control System Design-II by Dr. A.Q. Khan

Combining the two

Control System Design-II by Dr. A.Q. Khan

Control System Design-II by Dr. A.Q. Khan

The LTV system is represented by

The LTI system is represented by

Control System Design-II by Dr. A.Q. Khan

This is the focus

Transfer function V/S State Space

state space representation?

Let us consider a system G with the following SS-form

Control System Design-II by Dr. A.Q. Khan

Laplace Transform of the state equation is

Laplace Transform of the output equation is

Note that for T/F, x(0) = 0, then

Control System Design-II by Dr. A.Q. Khan

Correlation between transfer function

where Q(s) is a polynomial in s.

Some important facts:

the denominator of the transfer function to ZERO.

in complex conjugate pairs

Control System Design-II by Dr. A.Q. Khan

space model derived in Example 1.

State-representation for MIMO system

with p inputs and m outputs; i.e.;

The transfer function matrix is given as

Note that the Eigenvalues of A does not necessarily imply

Transform T/F into n-th order differential equation

Control System Design-II by Dr. A.Q. Khan

Control System Design-II by Dr. A.Q. Khan

Control System Design-II by Dr. A.Q. Khan

Case: When derivatives are present in

xn = y 0 u 1 u L n2u& n1u = x&n1 n1u

Control System Design-II by Dr. A.Q. Khan

Control System Design-II by Dr. A.Q. Khan

Control System Design-II by Dr. A.Q. Khan

Decomposition of Transfer function

Y (s ) b0s n + b1s n1 + b2s n2 + b3s n3 + + bn

Y (s ) b0 + b1s 1 + b2s 2 + b3s 3 + + bns n

Control System Design-II by Dr. A.Q. Khan

Decomposition of Transfer function ctd

Multiply numerator and denominator by a dummy variable

Y (s ) b0 + b1s 1 + b2s 2 + b3s 3 + + bns n X (s )

Rewrite numerator and denominator as

Y (s ) = (b0 + b1s 1 + b2s 2 + + bns n ) X (s )

Control System Design-II by Dr. A.Q. Khan