DR.

RAM MANOHAR LOHIYA NATIONAL LAW

UNIVERSITY, LUCKNOW

ADMINISTRATIVE LAW - II
Project Report On

A CRY OF WAR AGAINST THE

PESTILENCE OF CORRUPTION"

Date:

SUBMITTED BY:

Harshvardhan Yadav

(23 April 2009)

Roll No: 23
6th Semester B.A.LL.B(Hons.)
DR. R M L N L U, Lucknow

Acknowledgement
1

This research venture has been made possible due to the

generous cooperation of various persons. To list them all is not
practicable even to repay them in words is beyond the domain of
my lexicon.
I would like to express my sincere thanks and deep gratitude to
Prof. S.K.Gaur without whose thorough and insightful guidance,
this project would not have been a success.
It is a great pleasure to acknowledge the contribution of my
friends for their moral and material support. I express my
sincere thanks to the staff of library for their cooperation in my
endeavour.

Harshvardhan Yadav

TABLE OF CONTENTS
2

Abstract............................................................................................4
Objectives of the paper.......................................................................4
1. INTRODUCTION.........................................................................5
2. WHY SHOULD CORRUPTION BE FOUGHT AGAINST?...................7
3. ROLE OF JUDICIARY..................................................................8
4. ROLE OF MEDIA........................................................................12
5. ROLE OF LEGAL ARCHITECT.....................................................13
6. ROLE OF VIGILANCE COMMISSIONS.........................................17
7. ROLE OF CITIZEN......................................................................19
8. CONCLUSIONS AND FINDINGS...................................................21

Index of Authorities......................................................................23

Abstract
Corruption has existed from the dawn of civilization. The very premises of Human Rights are
being shaken due to the corruption at the same time it also hampers the growth of the nation.
Democratic fabric may blast if it will increase with the same pace. The fight against
corruption is a process which requires many systemic solutions. For that purpose it is
necessary to create a conception of the fight against corruption and to define methods and
instruments which could help in the fight against corruption. This paper attempts to analyse
the role by stakeholders and also focuses on those areas where reforms are required by the
new generation leaders to ensure good governance which will ultimately result in corruption
free nation.

Objectives of the paper:

1. To highlight and focuses on those areas where reforms are required by the stakeholders to
ensure good governance.
2. The strategies that are required by the civil society and judicial system to fight against
corruption.
3. The legislations that are needed to be adopted and enforced for preventing and protecting
the nation form the menace of corruption.

INTRODUCTION
Corruption is unacceptable. Corrupts must never be allowed to create a pretext for their
actions. Whatever the causes they claim to be advancing, whatever grievances they claim to
be responding to, corruption cannot be justified.
Corruption has become a global threat with global effects; it has become challenge to the
whole community of civilized nations. The basic edifices of a modern State, like -democracy,
state security, rule of law, sovereignty and integrity, basic human rights etc are under the
attack of corruption. It is all pervasive omnipresent, almost like a distorted, antithetical
version of God for the New Millennium.
The extent and the level of corruption in a society depend to a very large extent on the social,
moral and cultural ethos of that society. Corruption also has a tendency to acquire a distinct
national flavour1 though not differing in its basics can be unique to each country.
The state of affair of our country is that corruption has sweep over our country. Democratic
fabric may blast if it will increase with the same pace. Our system is like a spiders web in
which only small insects are caught and big bumble bees can breeze through. 2 Various scam,
cases and scandal are evident examples like, Petrol Pump Scam, Jain Hawala Case, Fodder
Scam, Tansi Land Deal, Jharkhand Mukti Morcha (JMM) Scandal, Sari/Dhoti Scam, Cash for
query Scam and Food for Oil Scam etc. The common man may therefore feel that the courts
merely barked at but have not bitten the corrupt.
The humorous Hindi poet has pointed out3:
1

Gill, S.S., Pathology of Corruption,(Harper and Collins, India, 1998),p. 3.

Gupta, K.N, Corruption in India, 1st edi. Anmol Publications Pvt.Ltd, New Delhi (2003), p. 45.
3

Sare niyam kayde sare, kya keval hum par lagu the.
Un se bhi kuch bola hota - jo pahile se bekaboo the.
Vo chahe to chara khaye, chahe khaye rabadi,
prajatantra bhi chit ho jaye, aesi mare tangadi.
Adi choti jor laga lo, samach na un ko aana hai.
Jis ke hatho me lathi hai, us ka gulam jamana hai.

Sanvidhan uske ghar girvee hai, kanoon pani bhrta hai,

Naukarsaha chiraoree karte, nyaayly peeche phirta hai,
Prajatantra ki khal aodhkar , ye shasan vahee purana hai.
Jis ke hatho me lathi hai, us ka gulam jamana hai.

Thus it has now become clear that corruption is one of the main obstacles to peace, stability,
sustainable development, democracy, and human rights around the globe. 4
Time is running out for all of us. The people need to take charge and drive National
Campaign to reclaim the corruption free nation. Every citizen of the country has a vital stake
in the proper functioning of the system. Ignoring it will not only intensify the assault on the
poor, it is the path to anarchy. The rule of law cannot survive in the absence of a properly
functioning system. The people need to reclaim the corruption free nation by having it
restructured in accordance with the needs of the common people.

Dubey, Ram Narayan; Lekin Phir Bhi Raha Akela , 1st edi. Chandraprabha Publications Pvt.Ltd,
Bhopal,(2001) p.47.
4

The Lima Declaration against Corruption, 8th International Conference against Corruption, September 1997,
Lima, Peru.

WHY SHOULD CORRUPTION BE FOUGHT AGAINST?

The very premises of Human Rights are being shaken due to the corruption. Corruption has a
disproportionate impact on the poor communities and is corrosive on the very fabric of
society. Corruption always infringes the human rights of poor because they are unable to
grease the palm of those who can help them. Just because of the corruption the most
potentially creative and talented people are unable to come in the main stream. Moreover,
widespread corruption leads to a value system which is rotten at the core and certainly not
one of the desirable goals for the society. This rotten core can undermine and ultimately lead
to the destruction of polity, economy and the culture of any society.
Thus we need to fight against corruption. This fight requires not only courage and
determination but also an effective handling.

ROLE OF JUDICIARY
7

In a significant judgement the Supreme Court has directed all Court to deal with a heavy
hand and deterrent rod persons convicted under Prevention of Corruption Act and said no
sympathetic approach is needed in such cases.
A fair and efficient judiciary is the key to anti-corruption initiatives. Judges should be
emerged in the eyes of public as the heroes of a peaceful revolution against the corruption 5.
The Court has not only to deliver the justice but also work to maintain the trust or faith of the
people in the system; otherwise they would not come before the court to ask for justice 6. The
moot question is whether our judicial system is free from the clutches of corruption?
Indicators of corruption, as perceived that leads to a suspicion in the mind of reasonable
common man that corruption is flourishing in the very fabric of judicial system, include:
delay in the execution of court orders; unjustifiable issuance of summons and granting of
bails; prisoners not being brought to court; lack of public access to records of court
proceedings; disappearance of files; unusual variations in sentencing; delays in delivery of
judgements; high acquittal rates; conflict of interest; prejudices for or against a party witness,
or lawyer (individually or as member of a particular group); prolonged service in a particular
judicial station; high rates of decisions in favour of the executive; appointments perceived as
resulting from political patronage; preferential or hostile treatment by the executive or
legislature; frequent socialising with particular members of the legal profession, executive or
legislature (with litigants or potential litigants); and postretirement placements.7
The number of unscrupulous judges is on the rise. The recent Provident fund Scam raises a
number of questions as to whether judiciary is independent? Whether judiciary is
sacrosanct? And how can judges be made accountable?
5

Donatella Della Porta, A judges revolution? Political corruption and the judiciary in Italy, European
journal of Political Research 39 (2001), Kluwer Academic Publisher, Netherland. p. 1 - 21.
6

Nilabati Behera v. State of Orissa, (1993)2 SCC 746.

Strengthening the Judicial Integrity against Corruption, Vienna, March 2001. Glogal Programme Against
Corruption, Conferences. United Nations UNODCCP.
7

According to studies from the United Nations a corrupt judiciary means that the legal and
institutional mechanism designed to curb corruption, however well-targeted, efficient or
honest, remains crippled. Corruption within the judicial sector ranks can create a malicious
multiplier corruption effect on the rest of the public sector. One could consider judicial
corruption as a "corruption of corruptions".8 If the judicial system is corrupt, no right to a
fair trial9will exist. Judicial corruption influences unduly access to and outcome of judicial
decisions. The decisions will remain unfair and unpredictable and consequently the rule of
law will not prevail.
In Ranjit Thakur v. Union of India,10 It was observed that deciding judges should be unbiased
and they must act fairly. Otherwise biased decision is considered as null and the trial as
Coram non judice.
According to the Manual on Human Rights for Judges, Prosecutors and Lawyers11, "Only an
independent judiciary is able to render justice impartially on the basis of law and also help in
protecting the human rights and fundamental freedoms of the individual". Thus an
independent and incorruptible judiciary is essential to combat corruption and ensure good
governance.
Therefore, corruption levels within the judiciary should be examined seriously and
appropriate reforms are subject to bring accountability and transparency within the system.
8

http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/corruption.html.
9

Article 6(1) ECHR as well as Article 47 of the European Charter of Fundamental Rights guarantees the right to
a fair and public hearing within a reasonable time by an independent and impartial tribunal established by
law. Also The UN's International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights: states in its article 14 (1) that "all
persons shall be equal before the courts and tribunals" and further that "in the determination of any criminal
charge against him, or of his rights and obligations in a suit of law, everyone shall be entitled to a fair and
public hearing by a competent, independent and impartial tribunal established by law".
10

(1987) 4 SCC 611.

11

Human Rights in the Administration of Justice: A manual on Human Rights for Judges, Prosecutors and
Lawyers, Chapter 4. Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human rights.

Judiciary can be strengthened through following measures:

1. Impartiality of the judiciary

Adopt codes of ethics or a code of conduct for the judiciary ,

Practically tenable standards for timely delivery,12

Computerisation of court files,

Judges should have no immunity from obedience to the law, 13

Decent and a merit based career path with transparent criteria for promotion and
demotion,

Establishment of an inspectorate and independent service within the judiciary to

inspect and report regularly all judicial services.14

Removal procedure that is special majority reduce to simple majority,

2. Professionalism/competence

- Pre-service training of judicial candidates

- Continuous in-service training of all judicial staff.15

Judicial training also helps to produce and support an impartial, competent, efficient and
effective judiciary. Judicial training is the foundation of judicial reform. Training programs
12

Article 6(1) ECHR which guarantees the right to a fair and public hearing within a reasonable time.

13

If the judges are exempted from trial and punishment for their crime, theres no way we can end corruption in
the judicial system.
14

Supra f.n 7.
15

Bangalore principles of Judicial Conduct adopted by the Judicial Group on Strengthening Judicial Integrity,
as revised by the Round Table Meeting of Chiefs Justices held in The Hague, November 2002) . It states that
"training and other facilities () should be made available, () to judges".

10

should be designed not only to enhance performance but also to strengthen the values of
impartiality, professionalism, competency, efficiency and public service. Apart from judges,
also prosecutors, judicial trainees, judicial advisors, court officials, bailiffs, lawyers etc.
should have access to relevant training.16
3. Efficiency

Budget

Infrastructure, equipment, computerisation, case management tools

Recruitment of sufficient numbers of judges and support staff (vacant posts)

Enforcement of judgments. 17

ROLE OF MEDIA
Media which plays a significant role by putting check and balance on all institutions through
publicizing the decisions and discourses of the institutions, and also have the right to criticize
the decisions of the institutions from the standpoint of policy and fundamental constitutional
values. But the media failed to react in responsible way against the corrupt practices
16

Judge Sandra Oxner, paper on "Judicial education and the state of Philippine Judiciary" (June 1999).
17

Article 6 of the European Convention on Human Rights and Article 13 of the Convention which prescribes the
right to an effective legal remedy.

11

prevalent in society. It is true that the media only highlights news that evokes considerable
interest among the viewers and is not bothered about the ideals of democracy or increasing
corrupt practices. It sums up the limited agendas of present age media that seems to prefer
commercial interests over humane interests. Why media is so interested in treating
everything as saleable?18 Thus Media must understand its duty and responsibility which they
owe to public at large. Media has to use their power not to write about just but also to expose
the corruption prevalent in society. Only vigilance by the media can ensure that all
institutions properly discharged its duty and severs the purpose for which it were designed.
Thus such self-regulation will not boost the image of the media but also pave the way for
healthy democracy .In democracy media is work like sharp weapon that only can cut the
sorry figure. Apex Court in R. Rajgopal vs. Tamil Nadu,19 was hammered out that there
should be a significant empowerment of the vigilant citizen and the media who want to
expose abuse of power of corruption by the public officials.
But we shouldnt forget that part of the blame is with us. It is we the people who have
commercialised the media. If only the news and other channels highlight issues like poverty,
hunger and such other things prevalent in each and every corner of the world, will anyone
watch the reports and appreciate them? So theres a need for us to change too. Until one
changes from within, all Campaigns, reforms, and laws to fight against corruption is useless.

ROLE OF LEGAL ARCHITECT

Apart from all these the Present anti-corruption legislations like Prevention of Corruption Act
1988, Right to Information Act 2005 etc... Which are used to tackle corrupt practices are
outdated and out of synchronization with the needs of developing society. For example these
laws are mainly focus against Public official. But its not merely the public officials who are
18
19

Arvind K. Pandey, (2008 December 28).Commercialisation of Media : The Hindu, p.4.

(1994) 6 SCC 632,650.

12

corrupt and plaguing the whole society.

Corruption is like a two way street but no

discussions on the supply side of corruption. Thus laws are very pathetic, archaic and
outdated.
To combat corruption from the very fabric of our society the architect of law must adopt new
approach, techniques, weapons, expertise and of course new and effective legislations. In
A.G. of India v. Amritlal Prajivandas 20 the Supreme Court observed that enactment of
stringent law has become an absolute necessity, if the canker of corruption is not to prove the
death-knell of this nation and suggested to the Parliament to act in this matter if they really
mean business.
While framing New Anti-Corruption Laws the architect of law must take into account the
following measures:

It should be based on well established legal principles.

It should not only be penal but must also focus on pre-emptive rather than defensive
state action.

Establishment of watchdog institutions.

Increase accountability. Without accountability, respect for human rights, and good
governance, corruption cannot be combated meaningfully. Good governance and
human rights approach must be encouraged and developed further in all
implementation and enforcement stages.

20

(1994) 5 SCC 54.

13

Greater transparency. Calls for effective participation of society, particularly civil

society; non-governmental organizations; and community- based organizations. It
also emphasizes the need for transparency in the management of public finances.21

Government Departments should include in their citizens charters a statement that

the services they offer to the public would be available without the payment of bribes
and display this massage prominently in their offices.22

Setting record-keeping standards and prescribing civil and criminal penalties for
failure to comply with those standards or engaging in corrupt acts.23

To requiring the declaration of assets by public officials, developing disciplinary and

ethical rules of conduct, and establishing internal committees for the implementation
and monitoring of the ethical rules.

Code that take measures to strengthen integrity and to prevent opportunities for
corruption among members of the judiciary. Such measures may include rules with
respect to the conduct of members of the judiciary. 24 The same rule also applies to
prosecutorial officials.25

21

Arts. 10, 13 United Nations Convention Against Corruption, U.N. Doc. A/58/422 (Oct. 7, 2003), available at
http://www.unodc.org/pdf/crime/convention_corruption/signing/.
22

Supra f.n.2, p. xii.

23

Foreign Corrupt Practices Act of 1977, Pub. L. No. 95-213, 91 Stat. 1494, amended by Omnibus Trade and
Competitiveness Act of 1988, Pub. L. No. 100-418, 102 Stat. 1415, amended by the International Anti-Bribery
and Fair Competition Act of 1988, Pub. L. No. 105-366, 112 Stat. 3302 (codified as amended at 15 U.S.C.
78m (b), 78dd-1 to -3, 78ff (1998)) [hereinafter FCPA].
24
Supra f.n. 20. Art. 11(1).
25

Id. art. 11(2).

14

When there is a prima facie case, the officer should be suspended and politician too
should be barred from fighting elections. For this power should be given to Chief
Election Commissioner.26

Bring the supply side of corruption within net. The offering or granting, directly or
indirectly, to a public official or any other person, of any goods of monetary value, or
other benefits, such as a gift, favour, promise or advantage . . . .27

Provisions regarding speedy trials.

Involvement of duty bearer and stake-holders.

Corruption-free Service in public office in public office should be made a

fundamental right.28

Criminalization of certain practices, including bribery, embezzlement, trading

influence, abuse of functions, and illicit enrichment.29

Also criminalizes indirect but related offenses, such as concealment of illegal

proceeds and obstruction of justice,30 and establishes inchoate offenses and offenses
of complicity, including preparation, participation, and attempt.31

26

Supra f.n.2, p.11.

27

A rt. 4(1)(b), African Union Convention on Preventing and Combating Corruption, July 11, 2003, 43 I.L.M. 5,
available at http://www.africaunion.org/root/au/Documents/treaties/Text/convention%20on%20Combating%20
corruption.pdf [hereinafter AU Corruption Convention].
28

Suggested by the then Chief Vigilance Commissioner N. Vittal.

29

Supra f.n.20, arts. 15 23. Criminal liability relates to both the public and private sectors. See id. Juridical
persons may also be held criminally responsible for these offenses. Id.art. 26.
30

Id. arts. 24 25.

31

Id. art. 27 uses mandatory language for the establishment of criminal responsibility for participation as an
accomplice, assistant, or instigator, it uses permissive language for the criminalization and punishment of
attempt and preparation.

15

At the same time in the light of global corruption, collective global action should be
necessary. Anti-corruption activities in the global level must be carried out through bilateral
and multilateral co-operation among Nations.

ROLE OF VIGILANCE COMMISSIONS

The establishment of institution of ombudsman and vigilance commissions can be used to
combat corruption. This idea was also adopted in India but these have finally emerged as
toothless tigers and do nothing to combat corruption. They have no power to punish the guilty
person, it can only investigate and recommend. They cannot even expose and disclose the
identity of a person to public even when he is found guilty by them. They consider their post
16

to be sinecures for political loyalty of a questionable nature. The above factors dilute the
effectiveness and authority of these institutions. So there is need to strengthen these
institutions.
Vigilance Commissions can be strengthened through following measures:

The Person of Status32 should only be appointed in these in institutions.

The government should take these institutions in practice seriously. The

recommendations of theses institutes should be treated with more respect and acted
upon. Meaning hereby their report and recommendation should binding on
government. He should also be given power to initiate disciplinary action against the
corrupt public servant.

These commissions should be kept free from Government Control. Meaning herby
these institutions must be non-political and independent of executive.

The laxity in criminal justice system needs a revolutionary change.

These institutions should be given the power to enforce its finding and punish those
found guilty. Meaning hereby these institutions should also be given the power to
punishment the culprits because mere recommending something is not brings to
justice and happiness.

Vigilance should be introduced at the gross root level.

It should be given a constitution status rather than a legislative status on the lines of
election commission

32

One who works outside the grace of publicity and his work must be command respect and credibility.

17

The identity of public servant found guilty should be disclose to the public by the
ombudsman as there is no valid reason for non disclosures .

It jurisdiction should not be limited but it should cover if not entire wide spectrum of
administration.

ROLE OF CITIZEN
The latest avtar in the field of corruption is one who takes bribe and vote and escapes the
clutches of law, and on the other hand one who take bribe and not vote come under the
clutches of law.33 In State of Madhya Pradesh v. Ram Singh34 Supreme Court observed that,
33

One should not allow shielding himself behind the privilege and thereby manage to exclude the liability from
corrupt practices. Article105 could not be interpreted as a charter of freedom of speech and also freedom for
corruption, thus immunity cannot cover corruption and bribery.
34

2000 Cri LJ 1401.

18

corruption is like a plague which is not only contagious if not controlled spread like fire in
jungle. Its virus is compared with HIV leading to AIDS, being incurable. Unless nipped in
the bud and at the earliest it is likely to cause turbulence shaking of socio-economic/notified
system is an otherwise healthy wealthy effective and vibrating society.
It is an incontrovertible truth that corruption can never be weed-out form very fabric of the
society. But there is an exception to it when the corruption will no longer be in the existence
If one changes from within.
Ideological revolution against corruption is absolutely necessary. Without morality and
discipline, we cannot combat corruption. The religious preachers and social reformers need to
re-establish moral values by launching campaigns. Unless we strike the root, perhaps it will
not be possible to root out the corruption.
Mahatma Gandhi once, rightly pointed out that it is sufficient to satisfy everyones need, but
is impossible to satisfy ones greed. There are two prominent reasons as to why people
indulge into corrupt practices:

Lack of faith in the person for whom one is earning.

Lack of faith in the future of ones country.

Unless one changes from within until all the Campaigns, reforms, and the adoption of new
laws to fight against corruption is useless. Law is not in itself solution to the problem but,
only a means which restricts the particular practice.
The foundation of the strong and developed nation resets upon the strong civilized society
and the civilized society is the composition of those individuals who are responsive and
honest towards his/her duty and nation. Thus one has to change from within so as to
19

understand his/her duty and should vote for honest candidate and reject the corrupt. Unless
in politics, people in power are of high character, corruption cannot be combat.35

CONCLUSIONS AND FINDINGS

In the foregoing Parts of this research paper, we have dealt with the areas where reforms are
required by the new generation leaders" to alienate THE CIMATE OF CORRUPTION.
From our analysis, we arrive at the following conclusions:

35

Supra f.n.2, p. 6.

20

In order to remove corruption strong public opinion and mobilising public power is
call for.

Institutional building and restoration of the value system help in combating

corruption.

An independent, accountable, transparent and incorruptible judiciary is a sine qua non

to combat corruption from the very fabric of the society.

Media must understand its duty and responsibility which it owes to public at large and
react in responsible way against the corrupt practices prevalent in society. Thus media
should use their power not to write about just but also to expose the corruption.

The value based education can be regarded as the pre-requisite to develop morality
and discipline which will help in fighting against corruption.

The present anti-corruption legislation are outdated and out of synchronization with
the needs of developing society. Need to enact new anti-corruption legislation.

One must understand its duty and responsibility. Until one changes from within, all
Campaigns, reforms, and laws to fight against corruption is useless.

Index of Authorities
Cases :
1. A.G. of India v. Amritlal Prajivandas ,(1994) 5 SCC 54.
2. Daktaras v. Lithuania, Eur. Court HR 2000.
3. Nilabati Behera v. State of Orissa, (1993)2 SCC 746.
21

4. Ramesh Chand Jain v. State of Madhya Pradesh, 19991 Cri LJ 2957.

5. Ranjit Thakur v. Union of India, (1987) 4 SCC 611.
6. Rajgopal vs. Tamil Nadu,(1994) 6 SCC 632,650.
7. State of Madhya Pradesh v. Ram Singh, 2000 Cri LJ 1401.
Statutes and Conventions:
1. African Union Convention on Preventing and Combating Corruption, 2003.
2. European Charter of Fundamental Rights
3. European Convention on Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, 1950.
4. Foreign Corrupt Practices Act of, 1977.
5. International Convention on Civil and Political Rights, 1996.
6. Prevention of Corruption Act, 1988.
7. Right to Information Act, 2005.
8. United Nations Convention Against Corruption (UNCAC), 2003.
Books :
1. Gill, S.S., Pathology of Corruption, Harper and Collins, India, New Delhi, (1998).
2. Gupta, K.N, Corruption in India, 1st edi. Anmol Publications Pvt.Ltd, New Delhi
(2003).
3. Rao, A.S.Ramachandra Commentary on Prevention of Corruption Act: A Treatise on
Anti-Corruption Law, Universal Law Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd. (2004).
22

4. Trehan Jyoti, Crime and Money Laundering: The Indian Perspective, Oxford
University Press, (2006).
5. Dubey, Ram Narayan; Lekin Phir Bhi Raha Akela,1st edi. Chandraprabha
Publications Pvt.Ltd, Bhopal,(2001).
Articles and Journals:
1. Pandey, Arvind K., (2008 December 28).Commercialisation of Media : The Hindu.
2. Donatella Della Porta, A judges revolution? Political corruption and the judiciary
in Italy, European journal of Political Research 39 (2001), Kluwer Academic
Publisher, Netherland.
3. Human Rights in the Administration of Justice: A manual on Human Rights for
Judges, Prosecutors and Lawyers. United Nation, New York Geneva 2003.
4. Judge Sandra Oxner, paper on "Judicial education and the state of Philippine
Judiciary" (June 1999).

Conferences :
1. Strengthening the Judicial Integrity against Corruption, Vienna, March 2001. Global
Programme Against Corruption, Conferences. United Nations UNODCCP.
2. The Lima Declaration against Corruption, 8th International Conference against
Corruption, September 1997, Lima, Peru.
Electronic Sources:
23

1. http://www.lifepositive.com/Mind/ethics-and-values/ethics/corruption.asp, (visited on
2008 Dec. 28).
2. http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/corruption.html, (visited on 2008 Dec. 23).

24