Instructional Design Models

Kelly Moss
What is Instructional Design?
Lets begin by first stating the meaning of Instructional design as listed in literature.
There are many definitions of Instructional Design. Each are similar, however carry their own
spin on the term. I listed a few that I believe offer an accurate portrayal of the term.
Instructional Design is the practice of creating instructional tools and content to help
facilitate learning most effectively. The process consists broadly of determining the current state
and needs of the learner, defining the end goal of instruction, and creating some "intervention" to
assist in the transition. Ideally the process is informed by pedagogically tested theories of
learning and may take place in student-only, teacher-led or community-based settings. The
outcome of this instruction may be directly observable and scientifically measured or completely
hidden and assumed. There are many instructional design models, but many are based on the
ADDIE model with the phases analysis, design, development, implementation, and evaluation.
As a field, instructional design is historically and traditionally rooted in cognitive and behavioral
psychology (Instructional Design: Wikipedia).
Instructional Design is the systematic development of instructional specifications using
learning and instructional theory to ensure the quality of instruction. It is the entire process of
analysis of learning needs and goals and the development of a delivery system to meet those
needs. It includes development of instructional materials and activities; and tryout and evaluation
of all instruction and learner activities (Definition: University of Michigan).

It is strategic planning of a course. It is a blueprint that you design and follow. It helps
us connect all the dots to form a clear picture of teaching and learning events (Instructional
Design: Raleighway).

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I too have my own perspective on the term Instructional Design. I define Instructional
Design as developing instructional lessons tailored for each individual learner and situation. The
lessons are based on information compiled in various means from the learners to produce
maximum results and waste minimum time and resources.
There are more than 100 different instructional models from which to chose, such as the
ADDIE, the Dick and Carey, the Kemp, Rapid Prototyping, Robert Gagnes, etc. However I will
be discussing three within this paper: The ADDIE, Dick and Carey, and Morrison, Ross, and
Kemp (also known as the Kemp Model).

The ADDIE Model

The ADDIE model is the basic foundation of almost all other ID models. The letters
spelling ADDIE are an acronym representing the five phases of the model. They symbolize
Analysis, Design, Development, Implementation, and Evaluation. Instructional Designers and
training developers typically use the ADDIE model as a generic process for designing models. It
serves as a flexible and dynamic guideline for planning instruction and training. In the ADDIE
Model, each step has an outcome that feeds the subsequent step.
Analysis Design Development Implementation Evaluation

During the Analysis phase, the designer develops a clear understanding of the "gaps"
between the desired outcomes or behaviors, and the audience's existing knowledge and skills.
The Design phase documents specific learning objectives, assessment instruments, exercises, and
content. The Development phase creates the learning materials. The materials are delivered or
distributed to the student group during the Implementation phase. And after the delivery, the
effectiveness of the training materials is Evaluated.

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The encyclopedia, Wikipedia, best describes the various phases of the ADDIE Model
in greatest detail. Stated below are Wikipedias depictions of the Analysis, Design,
Development, Implementation, and Evaluation phases of the ADDIE Model.
Analysis Phase
In the analysis phase, the instructional problem is clarified, the instructional goals and
objectives are established and the learning environment and learner's existing knowledge
and skills are identified. Below are some of the questions that are addressed during the
analysis phase:

Who is the audience and what are their characteristics?

Identify the new behavioral outcome.

What types of learning constraints exist?

What are the delivery options?

What are the online pedagogical considerations?

What are the Adult Learning Theory considerations?

What is the timeline for project completion?

Design Phase
The design phase deals with learning objectives, assessment instruments, exercises,
content, subject matter analysis, lesson planning, and media selection. The design phase
should be systematic and specific. Systematic means a logical, orderly method of
identifying, developing and evaluating a set of planned strategies targeted for attaining
the project's goals. Specific means each element of the instructional design plan needs to
be executed with attention to details.

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These are the steps used for the design phase:

Documentation of the project's instructional, visual and technical design strategy

Apply instructional strategies according to the intended behavioral outcomes by

domain (cognitive, affective, and psychomotor).

Design the user interface and user experience

Prototype creation

Apply visual design (graphic design)

Development Phase
The development phase is where instructional designers and developers create and
assemble the content assets that were blueprinted in the design phase. In this phase,
storyboards are created, content is written and graphics are designed. If e learning is
involved, programmers work to develop and/or integrate technologies. Testers perform
debugging procedures. The project is reviewed and revised according to any feedback
given.
Implementation Phase
During the implementation phase, a procedure for training the facilitators and the learners
is developed. The facilitators' training should cover the course curriculum, learning
outcomes, method of delivery, and testing procedures. Preparation of the learners
includes training them on new tools (software or hardware) and student registration.
This is also the phase where the project manager ensures that the books, hands-on
equipment, tools, CD-ROMs and software are in place, and that the learning application
or website is functional.

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Evaluation Phase
The evaluation phase consists of two parts: formative and summative. Formative
evaluation is present in each stage of the ADDIE process. Summative evaluation consists
of tests designed for domain specific criterion-related referenced items and providing
opportunities for feedback from the users which were identified (The ADDIE Model:
Wikipedia).
The ADDIE model has been criticized by some as being too systematic, that is, too
linear, too inflexible, too constraining, and even too time-consuming to implement. As an
alternative to the systematic approach, there are a variety of systemic design models that
emphasize a more holistic, iterative approach to the development of training. Rather than
developing the instruction in phases, the entire development team works together from the start
to rapidly build modules, which can be tested with the student audience, and then revised based
on their feedback (Kruse, 2001).
One commonly accepted improvement to this model is the use of rapid prototyping. This
is the idea of receiving continual or formative feedback while instructional materials are being
created. This model attempts to save time and money by catching problems while they are still
easy to fix (ADDIE Model: Learning-Theories).

Dick and Carey

Another well-known instructional design model is the Dick and Carey model, also known
as the Systems Approach Model. Walter Dick and Lou Carey originally published the model in
1978 in their book entitled The Systematic Design of Instruction.

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The components within this model are executed iteratively and in parallel, rather than
linearly. Dick and Carey developed a model that utilized design field by championing a
systems view of instruction as opposed to viewing instruction as a sum of isolated parts (Dick
and Carey Model: Wikipedia). The model focuses on the interrelationship between context,
content, learning and instruction, and addresses instruction as an entire system. It also follows
the Gagneian approach (from Robert Gagne who developed the Conditions of Learning Theory),
to instructional design, incorporating conditions of learning and stressing a hierarchical analysis
and approach to designing instruction (Dick and Carey Model: Wikibooks).
According to Dick and Carey, "Components such as the instructor, learners, materials,
instructional activities, delivery system, and learning and performance environments interact
with each other and work together to bring about the desired student learning outcomes" (Dick
and Carey Model: Wikipedia).
The Dick and Carey Model includes the following components:
Stage 1: Identify Instructional Goals
Stage 2. Conduct Instructional Analysis
Stage 3. Identify Entry Behaviors and Learner Characteristics
Stage 4: Write Performance Objectives
Stage 5. Develop Assessment Instruments
Stage 6. Develop Instructional Strategy
Stage 7: Develop and Select Instructional Materials
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Stage 8: Design and Conduct Formative Evaluation of Instruction

Stage 9: Design and Conduct Summative Evaluation
(Dick and Carey Model: InstructionalDesign.org).

The Kemp Design Model

The Morrison, Ross and Kemp (also known as the Kemp) instructional design model
takes a holistic approach to instructional design. Virtually all factors of the learning environment
are taken into consideration. Its systematic and nonlinear design defines nine different
components that are contentiously implemented and evaluated. (Kemp Model: Edutechwiki).
The nine components to the Kemp design are:
1. Identify instructional problems, and specify goals for designing an instructional
program.
2. Examine learner characteristics that should receive attention during planning.
3. Identify subject content, and analyze task components related to stated goals and
purposes.
4. State instructional objectives for the learner.
5. Sequence content within each instructional unit for logical learning.
6. Design instructional strategies so that each learner can master the objectives.
7. Plan the instruction message and delivery.
8. Develop evaluation instruments to assess objectives.
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9. Select resources to support instruction and learning activities.

(Kemp Model: InstructionalDesign.org).
The wide, oval shape of the model portrays the iterative cycle that involves continuous
planning, design, development, and assessment to insure effective instruction, while also
allowing the design to be revised as needed. The authors state that a designer can start at any
point in the process, as well as change the order of the steps and revisions as needed in the
project.

(Kemp Model: Edutechwiki).

The nine small ovals represent the nine basic steps of the design process. The two, larger
surrounding ovals represent the ongoing process of the activities throughout the project. The
first oval (Revision and Formative Evaluation) is implemented at each stage of the development
process, making the learning materials highly effective by the end of the project, if carried out
carefully and concisely. The second oval (Planning Activities, Project Management, Arranging
Necessary Services to support the implemented project and instruction, and any Summative
Evaluations), contains crucial elements, however, are sometimes overlooked, or not given the
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appropriate amount of attention by the designer, due to deadlines and budgets. Often designers
who are on time restraints and tight budgets are not able to implement the numerous tests and
revisions they would have liked to do, resulting in materials that may not have undergone all
aspects that the model implies. (Overview of Instructional Systems Design).
Its central focus of the Kemp Model is the learner needs and goals, and is small scale,
making it adaptable for individual lessons. The model is particularly useful for developing
instructional programs that blend technology, pedagogy and content to deliver effective, reliable,
and efficient learning and seems to encourage designers to work in all areas defined.
While this model focuses on content analysis, like other educational design models, it
sets itself apart by also placing emphasis on support and service (Kemp Model: Edutechwiki).

A Comparison of the Dick and Carey Model and the Kemp Model.
Although the Dick and Carey Model and the Kemp follow the basic instructional design
pattern of Analysis, Design, Development, Implementation, and Evaluation, the Dick and Carey
model follows a more behaviorist approach, linking stimulus and response, which in this case
would mean instructional materials to the learning of the material. The instruction presented in
the Dick and Carey model is broken down into smaller pieces, or sub-skills that should be
mastered in order for the learners to obtain the projected behaviors. The Kemp model appears
more useful for large-scale instructional design process, involving several team members and
multiple types of resources, while the systematic approach of the Dick and Carey model makes it
difficult to adapt multiple team members and different types of resources.
While both models contain nine components/steps, that seem to consist of similar
methods, the Kemp model claims that not all nine of the listed elements are necessary to
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complete the design process. On the other hand, the Dick and Carey model states that all nine
components are essential and should not be skipped. The nine components of each model are
listed below to use for comparison.
The Dick and Carey Model
Stage 1: Identify Instructional Goals
Stage 2. Conduct Instructional Analysis
Stage 3. Identify Entry Behaviors and Learner Characteristics
Stage 4: Write Performance Objectives
Stage 5. Develop Assessment Instruments
Stage 6. Develop Instructional Strategy
Stage 7: Develop and Select Instructional Materials
Stage 8: Design and Conduct Formative Evaluation of Instruction
Stage 9: Design and Conduct Summative Evaluation

The Kemp Model

1. Identify instructional problems, and specify goals for designing an instructional
program.
2. Examine learner characteristics that should receive attention during planning.
3. Identify subject content, and analyze task components related to stated goals and
purposes.
4. State instructional objectives for the learner.
5. Sequence content within each instructional unit for logical learning.

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6. Design instructional strategies so that each learner can master the objectives.
7. Plan the instruction message and delivery.
8. Develop evaluation instruments to assess objectives.
9. Select resources to support instruction and learning activities.
Although both models could be used by Instructional Designers of any experience level,
the Dick and Carey model may be favored by beginner instructional designers because of the
step-by-step descriptions to follow, while more experienced designers may favor the Kemp
model because it allows not only creativity, but helps the designers start the process from any
step.
The Kemp model differs from the Dick and Carey for several reasons. It considers
instruction from the perspective of the learners, it provides a continuous approach to the
application of instruction, it puts more emphasis on management techniques of the design
process, and the nine steps listed in the Kemp Model are interdependent, and do not necessarily
have to be implemented in the order in which they were listed. Even the appearances of the
models listing the nine components differ. The Kemp design is circular rather than linear as
opposed to the Dick and Carey Model.
According to Yavuz Akbulut, both models appear to have a systems focus. However,
Gustafson and Branch (2001) classify the MRK (Kemp) model as a classroom orientation ID
model and the DC (Dick and Carey) model as a system orientation ID model. The classroom
focus involves teachers in deciding appropriate content, strategies, media usage and evaluation.
It is of interest primarily to teachers who look for instructional solutions to learning problems.

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However, the MRK model suggests both instructional and non-instructional solutions and
assigns flexible roles to members of a larger team. If the output of instructional design rather
than the ID process is taken into account, the MRK (Kemp) model could be considered as a
classroom orientation model since it leads to an output of one or few hours of instruction,
whereas systems-orientated models lead to an output of a whole course or curriculum (Akbulut,
Yavuz. 2007).

The Value of Instructional Design Today as it Relates to the Changing Nature of

Society and Learners
The ADDIE, Dick and Carey, and Kemp models hold significant importance to todays
thriving society. Companies are forced to compete against eachother for business, and therefore,
have begun implementing these designs to improve the production of employees and the
company as a whole. These and other numerous design models enable an Instructional Designer
to come in, assess the company/employees at their current disposition, and develop an
appropriate strategy for improvement, that is specifically tailored to meet their individual needs
and desires. While each design model is similar in its own retrospect, they also present numerous
differences, allowing the designer to pick the model that best suits the learners and/or situation,
and produce a desirable outcome.
The use of these ID models are not only evident in the workplace, they are utilized daily
by educators within the classroom. While educators may not refer to the models specifically by
name, they continuously evaluate, plan, implement, and reevaluate students to assess
comprehension and plan future instruction. These models serve as a template to meet the needs
of various learners at a differentiated level of instruction rather than teaching to the class as a
whole. The expectations of teachers have risen from simply assigning readings out of the
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textbook and giving a chapter test, to assessing individual learners with pretests, teaching lessons
accordingly to meet the individual needs of students, and then administering a posttest to
evaluate whether to re-teach or continue onto the next concept. Instructional design is becoming
increasingly evident in all aspects of todays society, resulting in a higher standard of learning.

The Value of Instructional Design in Schools

As previously stated, Instructional Design is a highly effective tool that is implemented in
the schools as an ongoing process. Teachers follow the ID models by first finding out the GPS
(State Standards) that align with that grade/subject, research lessons on the Internet and other
printed materials to use as resources and serve as tools to teach the concept, look through the
student textbook to see if and materials could be utilized these in the lesson as well, and make
short pre-assessments that gives immediate feedback assessing prior knowledge. After assessing
how much of the concept/material the students already know, the teacher must then plan several
lessons/activities on various levels of intellectual capacity (having little or no knowledge of the
concept, having some knowledge of the concept, and having great knowledge of the concept and
needing extended activities to challenge the students). Finally, the teacher must make a post-test
to administer assessing what the students learned to either plan the next lesson or give use as a
tool to re-teach.
While all teachers should use Instructional design models to plan, teach, and evaluate
progress, I feel as though the models would vary depending on the individual situation, students,
objectives, etc. Chapter 1 in Designing Effective Instruction states, a number of different
considerations appeal to educators and instructional designers as each starts planning. each of
us selects an order or sequence of our own to treat these elements. (Designing Effective
Instruction)
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No matter what model the teacher decides to implement, there are four key components
that need to be addressed,
1. Learners defining the characteristics of the target audience (Designing Effective
Instruction). Such as assessing prior knowledge.
2. Objectives specify exactly what the learner must master (Designing Effective
Instruction). Such as using the Georgia Performance Standards.
3. Methods how the subject content or skill is best learned (Designing Effective
Instruction). Such as using internet support, textbooks, and other available resource to
present the material.
4. Evaluation used to assess the learners mastery of the objectives (Designing Effective
Instruction). Such as assessing the students mastery of the concept by administering the
post-test.

My Role as an Instructional Designer

My role as a future Instructional designer has many duties. It is to not only give the
learner access to all things needed to learn the material, whether it be a safe learning
environment, materials, such as pencils and paper, a trusting relationship with the teacher, or just
the information itself presented in easily understandable manner, but is to also be available for
students to come to for questions, or clarification of a lesson as needed.
It is the Instructional Designers responsibility to continuously assess the students
knowledge of the material and plan accordingly to either move on to the next concept if the
students were able to master the skill, or revise and re-teach the lesson if results show that the
concept needs to be redelivered. Chapter 1 in Designing Effective Instruction states, that
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Knowing the basic principals of instructional design can help to ensure that what is produced
serves a necessary purpose, meets the needs of students, is attractive and well organized, is
delivered in an appropriate mode, and is continually evaluated and improved.

Reflection on Instructional Design Models

Although there are numerous models from which to choose, the basic ID concept of
continuously meeting individual needs is the overlaying factor in each. While choosing an
appropriate model for the learner/situation holds significant importance, the learners
understanding and improvement is the most desired outcome of the entire Instructional Design
process.

Adapting the Models to Meet the Needs of Students

The benefits of Instructional Design are numerous. Instructional Design puts the focus
back on the students/learners rather than on a timeline of having things done. These days,
teachers are so concerned about having all content covered in time for the Standardized Test
(CRCT), it seems as though their lessons are based more on a timeline rather than on student
needs and capabilities. Teachers feel as though they cant waste too much time on one concept
because they will run out of time to cover all the rest of the material in a certain timeframe.
By using the Instructional Design method, teachers may be able to teach more effectively,
allowing the students to gain more meaning of the concept the first few lessons, and not have to
waste time re-teaching the material over again, or moving on to the next concept without student
mastery. Some things the teacher needs to know about a class or student could be student
demographics, learning styles, physical/emotional needs, handicap accommodations, etc. When
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informed about the students, a teacher will be able to plan for, and present the material in a more
affective manner.

How I gained a better understanding of the AASL Standards

Standard 1: Use of Information and Ideas
1.4 Stimulating Learning Environment This research helped me understand how a
stimulating learning environment aids in producing positive results. I now firmly believe
that in order to have a stimulating learning environment, the teacher, or instructional
designer, must address all needed components of the lesson and/or process for the student
to remain actively engaged in the lesson. By keeping the learner engaged in the lesson,
there is more probability that they will retain the information presented resulting in
positive results.
Standard 2: Teaching and Learning
2.2 Effective and Knowledgeable Teaching - I have also gained a better understanding of
the meaning of effective and knowledgeable teaching. While this term refers to
numerous aspects of instruction, I will explain one area that I have focused on throughout
this assignment: assessment.
In order to teach effectively, the instructional designer must assess the learners
knowledge at various times throughout the lesson. This process should begin by first
assessing prior knowledge to determine a starting point for the instruction, and

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subsequently follow-up after initial instruction to re-assess before continuing on with

further instruction. This information enables the instructor to make effective and
knowledgeable decisions for instructional purposes.

Standard 3: Collaboration and Leadership

3.2 Instructional Partner: Although instructional design is a collaborative process that
can involve teams of people, the most important relationship I have found in doing this
research is that of the instructor and the learner. The two must work continuously
together and collaborate in order for the process to produce positive results. The
collaboration is more like a working relationship where one partner asks for help and the
other offers resources to improve the problem.
Standard 4: Program Administration
4.3 Comprehensive and Collaborative Strategic Planning and Assessment: Throughout
this research project, I have come to find one underlying factor between all ID models.
While each model varies in particular aspects, they all must possess strategic planning
and assessment in order to be successful. The planning for each situation revolves
around the projected outcome of the learners. If the crucial elements are addressed and
altered to meet the needs of each individual learner, the outcome will be positive. The
only way this can be made possible is through comprehensive and collaborative strategic
planning and assessment.

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Works Cited
ADDIE Model, The. Learning-Theories. 2008. April 5, 2009. <http://www.learningtheories.com/addie-model.html>
ADDIE Model. Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia. March 5, 2009. April 6, 2009.
<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ADDIE_Model.>
Akbulut, Yavuz. Implications of Two Well-Known Models for Instructional Designers in
Distance Education: Dick-Carey versus Morrison-Ross-Kemp. ERIC Database: Online
Submission. April 1, 2007. 7 pages. Aril 5, 2009.
<http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICDocs/data/ericdocs2sql/content_storage_01/0000019b/80/
28/0c/62.pdf>
An Overview of Instructional Systems Design. University of Alberta. October 1, 2004. April
6, 2009. <http://www.quasar.ualberta.ca/edit573/modules/module4.htm>
Definitions of Instructional Design. The University of Michigan. October 18, 1996.
<www.umich.edu/~ed626/define.html>
Dick and Carey Model, The. InstructionalDesign.org. 2009. April 5, 2009.
<http://www.instructionaldesign.org/models/dick_carey_model.html>
Dick and Carey Model. Wikibooks. July 5, 2006. April 5, 2009.
<http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Instructional_Technology/Instructional_Design/Dick_&_C

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arey>
Dick and Carey Model. Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia. April 6, 2009. April 6, 2009.
<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instructional_design#Dick_and_Carey>
Instructional Design Using the ADDIE Model. April 5, 2009. <http://raleighway.com/addie/.>
"Instructional Design." Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia. April 6, 2009. April 6, 2009.
<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instructional_design.>
Kemp Design Model. Edutechwiki. June 4, 2007. April 5, 2009.
<http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/en/Kemp_design_model>
Kemp Model,The. InstructionalDesign.org. 2009. April 5, 2009.
<http://www.instructionaldesign.org/models/kemp_model.html>
Kruse, Kevin. Introduction to Instructional Design and the ADDIE Model. E-Learning. 2001.
April, 5, 2009. <http://www.e-learningguru.com/articles/art2_1.htm>
Morrison, Gary R., Steven Ross, and Jerrold Kemp. Designing Effective Instruction, 5th Edition.
New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2007.

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