British Journal of Religious Education

ISSN: 0141-6200 (Print) 1740-7931 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/cbre20

The Teaching of Primal Religions in Schools

Fiona Bowie
To cite this article: Fiona Bowie (1988) The Teaching of Primal Religions in Schools, British
Journal of Religious Education, 10:3, 145-153, DOI: 10.1080/0141620880100305
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0141620880100305

Published online: 06 Jul 2006.

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FIONA BOWIE

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The Teaching of Primal Religions

in Schools
Teachers and educational publishers have been slow to recognise the immense
contributions to be made by primal religions in the religious education syllabus.
Where comparative material drawing on primal religions is used its presentation
often lacks sensitivity and reveals a Western cultural bias which does the material
a disservice and which reinforces stereotypes rather than broadening children's
religious understanding and outlook. When used imaginatively and with clear
objectives in mind, however, primal religions provide a valuable tool in the
exploration of religion.
This article outlines the contributions of primal religions to the overall aims of
a religious education syllabus, evaluates some of the material currently available
for teaching primal religions in school, examines various ways in which primal
religions have been presented in the classroom and gives some suggestions for
schemes of work.
A Note on Terminology
The term 'primal religion' is itself problematic, as it suggests a possible evolutionary
connotation. I do not, however, have any sort of evolutionary scale in mind when using
the term 'primal', the word is chosen simply for lack of more acceptable alternatives.
Another possible term would have been 'traditional', but all indigenous religions can
be regarded as traditional so this term does not adequately distinguish primal from
other 'world religions' (cf Parrinder, 1969:8).'The term 'tribal' is sometimes used but
this begs the whole question of: 'What is a tribe?' and takes us into an area of
anthropological controversy that is best avoided. Other less acceptable but still current
terms are 'primitive' and 'simple'. Both these terms might be taken to imply a moral
value judgment, placing these religions and their practitioners at the opposite end of
a spectrum from the 'civilized', 'complex' religions and societies of Europe and North
America (and possibly Asia). These terms also lead to the evolutionary fallacy of equating
living religions with 'what our ancestors believed'. I have, therefore, chosen to use
the term 'primal' in preference to its alternatives and I like to think of it particularly
in the sense of 'fundamental'. A characteristic of primal religions, in as far as one can
possibly generalise about such a diverse range of beliefs and practices, is that religion
is an integral part of life, expressing how the world is and how people should act within
it. Religion does not belong in a separate compartment but is implicit within the nature
of society.
What are Primal Religions?
Generalisations about the nature of religious belief and practice in countries as far
apart and different culturally as Australia, Africa, South America or the islands of
Polynesia, for example, lead to the danger of gross over-simplification. What are termed
primal religions do, however, share certain common features. They are based upon
an oral rather than a literate tradition and express an integrated view of the world.
The notion of religion as a discrete phenomenon is not universal and many languages
have no equivalent of the English word 'religion'.2 To describe the religion of another
people therefore necessitates an understanding of their social life and the appreciation
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of a totally different way of perceiving the world. This should of course be the case
when studying any religion but fundamentally so in respect of primal religions, providing
one of the most valuable aspects of such a study.

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The Justification for Teaching Primal Religions

One of the most important and perhaps one of the most difficult tasks for the teacher
of religion is to convey to children what it means to have a religious view of life. Those
who are brought up within a particular religious tradition will bring to their studies
some understanding of the place of religion within their faith community and of the
consequences of belief for the members of that community. For many, however, religion
is seen as something strictly optional and extraneous to everyday life, interesting,
perhaps, but hardly of primary importance. A characteristic of primal religions is that
they form an integral part of the life of the community. The whole way of perceiving
the world of most non-Western peoples is religious in nature. That is, there is a
recognition of transcendence and of the importance of myth, ritual and ceremony in
everyday life.
Primal religions also succeed in integrating a scientific and religious level of
explanation. Among the Azande of the southern Sudan, for example, as with many
other African peoples, misfortune and death are often interpreted as signs of witchcraft
(Evans-Pritchard, 1976). Witchcraft, for the Azande, combines a 'scientific' view of
biology (witchcraft can be revealed by autopsy as a physical substance in the stomach
or intestines and is inherited from one's parents), and a psychological view of human
relationships. Accusations of witchcraft focus on existing areas of tension within the
community. The process of divination, accusation and healing can act as a means of
expressing and controlling difficult situations and individuals. From studying a
phenomenon such as witchcraft it is possible to appreciate the links between
psychological, social and physical health and to understand something of the relationship
between beliefs and social structure within a society. When teaching such a topic it
is vital that the material is presented as forming a logical view of the world. Students
can be asked to explore their own explanations of events, whether expressed in terms
of random coincidence or within a religious framework.
A second reason for teaching primal religions in schools is that, well taught, they
can open up for pupils a radically different way of perceiving the world. The sensitivity
and respect with which Laurens van der Post describes and interprets Bushman
mythology, for example, provides a model for work of this kind. Through his own
enthusiasm, van der Post communicates a vision of life which integrates the physical,
spiritual and mythological realms of existence in a rich and harmonious whole.
Studying primal religions can enable pupils to appreciate religion as a dynamic
process. Because many tribal peoples have been faced with the radically different values
of Western social and religious systems, their own view of the world has often been
restructured to make sense of this experience. By exploring this process of change it
is possible to appreciate the function of religion as an explanation of the world. One
way in which this could be approached could be through the study of 'cargo cults'
(Lawrence, 1971). For a people with a simple technology encountering advanced
Western technology can be traumatic and challenging. The white man's paraphernalia
is not locally produced and seems to appear miraculously. The acquisition of material
goods, such as aeroplanes, record players, mirrors, guris, etc., is thought to be dependent
upon harnessing the white man's power. In parts of the Pacific this type of thinking
has led to well developed 'cargo cults' in which religious endeavour becomes directed
towards harnessing this power. These cults are typically millenarian, looking forward
to the time when the white man's goods will be delivered by aeroplane or ship for
the benefit of the cult practitioner. A study of cargo cults would link well with an
examination of millenarian or Utopian thinking in other religious traditions. It also serves
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to illustrate the link between social and metaphysical aspects of religious experience.
Primal religions provide a wealth of material for the study of religion in several
different dimensions (cf. Smart, 1968). The doctrinal dimension of religion is sometimes
treated as if it were paramount in the study of religion, but this aspect is often
underdeveloped in primal religions, which lack a written statement of belief. Other
aspects of religion therefore attain greater importance. The second dimension of religion
put forward by Smart (ibid.) is the mythological dimension, and this is of fundamental
importance in most primal religions. Judith Ollington (1982:70) stresses the importance
of myth and of mythological narrative at all stages of religious education, whether in
the form of the fairy story at primary level or in more sophisticated forms at secondary
level. Of the place of mythology in the curriculum she writes:
It is now widely recognised that without myth there can be no religion. By myth
is meant here a story which is seen to have significance for human life. Narrative
is one of the most important forms of synthesis. It is the form through which
image and action are united, where the human being and the unpredictable
happenings to which he is subject are shaped into a pattern which makes living
possible.
There is no shortage of marvellous mythological material in the traditions of tribal
peoples. Primal religions illustrate the central importance of mythological narrative
in making sense of the, world. ;
Smart's third dimension of religion is the ethical dimension. This too can be well
demonstrated through a study of primal religions. All religions prescribe a particular
way of life and in primal religions this is often expressed through the maintenance
of good relations within the community. Children are enjoined to honour their elders
and elders to honour their ancestors. Supernatural sanctions are often invoked for those
who fail to fulfil the ethical demands of their religion.
A fourth dimension is that of experience. As the Schools Council handbook for
teachers puts it (1979:14): 'This living faith in the life of believers is perhaps the heart
of a religion'. It is vitally important to teach primal religions as living faiths and not
as evolutionary survivals. It is perhaps through novels that the experience of living
within a particular religious tradition can best be communicated. A particularly suitable
novel for use in secondary school would be Mugo Gatheru's account of his Kenyan
childhood in Child of two Worlds (1966). Through an appreciation of the importance
of religion for someone from a tradition very different from one's own, the pupils are
led to reflect upon their own responses to religion and of its place within their lives.
The ritual dimension of religion is richly demonstrated in primal religions. Some
North American Indian peoples, for example, believe that their ritual actions directly
affect the operation of the sun and stars. Their actions are of benefit to the whole of
creation, ensuring the correct passage of days and seasons. Ritual is not a meaningless
frill but a vital instrumental tool for most tribal peoples.
.The final dimension mentioned by Smart is the social dimension. As stated above
the integration of religious and social life is a feature of tribal societies and the study
of primal religions must ipso facto include the social dimension of religion.
As well as widening the study of Smart's dimensions of religion, primal religions
can increase our understanding of phenomena such as sacred places, visions, ritual
specialists, initiation rites, motivation, syncretism and responses to change.
Current Approaches to Primal Religions
In comparison with the major world religions, the teaching of primal religions in
schools has been largely neglected. Good teaching materials are hard to come by and,
due to lack of guidance or thought, there is evidence that where primal religions are
taught they are not always dealt with as sensitively as they might be. 3 An examination
of some of the material currently available and of ways in which the subject of primal
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religions has been approached will provide a taste of what is on offer and point to some
pitfalls in its use.

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Primal Religions and Mythology

Few published schemes of work make use of material on primal religions (an exception
is Cole, 1978). An area of the curriculum in which successful attempts have been made,
however, is that of mythology. One of the best illustrations of the use of mythological
material comes from the Schools Council Religious Education in Secondary Schools
Project, which was based at Lancaster University from 1969-1973 under the directorship
of Ninian Smart. A total of seventeen units and two teacher's handbooks for the use
of 11-16 year olds was produced. Between them many different approaches to and
aspects of religion are explored and two in particular draw on material from primal
religions. These units, entitled Making sense and Myth, history and ritual are specifically
intended for 13-14 year olds, but could be used at any level in secondary school
depending upon the ability of the children.
The manner in which the myths are introduced and handled is excellent, avoiding
imputations of primitivism and triviality. In study 6 'Time and myth' for example,
myths are described as 'truth embodied in a tale' (p. 22). 'Throughout history', we
are told, 'myths have revealed our understanding of the universe and our place within
it' (p. 23). A number of myths from different parts of the world are then quoted in
sufficient detail to allow them to speak for themselves. They include an account of
the origin of the earth from the South Pacific, Nigeria, Dahomey and Australia, all
attractively illustrated by photographs of mythical places, drawings and carvings. The
activities suggested under the section 'Things to do' are imaginative and thoughtprovoking. They include a comparison of themes, including the Genesis creation myths,
and a comparison of mythical and scientific explanations of the creation of the earth
(leading to an understanding of the way in which scientific hypotheses have changed
over time).
Another section which makes use of mythical material from the traditions of primal
religions is section 4, 'Making sense of death'. Here myths from Sierra Leone,
Madagascar, the Gilbert Islands and ancient Greece are related to illustrate explanations
of the coming of death into the world. Once again the topic is introduced sensitively,
the essential 'truth' and importance of the myths being underlined (44):
Yet although with part of our mind we can accept the scientific fact of death,
another part of our mind refuses to believe that death is the end of everything.
In every part of the world people have tried to accept the fact and to answer some
of the questions it raises. Just as they developed myths to explain the mysteries
of creation and the natural cycle of the seasons, so they produced myths about
death.
A similar approach is taken in the unit Myth history and ritual, which starts with an
introduction to myth in religion, drawing upon a cosmogonic myth from Tahiti, as
well as biblical material, fairy stories, scientific explanations and poetry. A sophisticated
understanding of the Tangaroa myth from Tahiti is required from the students who
are asked to write brief answers to the questions (7):
a) What do you think is meant by 'the time without knowing . . .'?
b) Try to find another way of saying that 'everything has a shell . . .'
c) If everything was made out of Tangaroa, how do you think the Tahitians felt
about the world around them?
d) 'The head of Tangaroa remains sacred to himself . . .' This means that
nothing else was made out of his head. Can you think of reasons why it is
important that Tangaroa kept his head?
These demanding questions would enable the student to appreciate something of the
serious intention of mythology and guard against regarding myths as pre-scientific
explanations.
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It is unfortunate that little material of this quality on primal religions has been
produced for use in schools, but one useful book, intended for the senior primary or
junior secondary school pupil, is provided by Ray Bruce and Jane Wallbank in Beginning
Religion (1986).
Beginning Religion
The book is divided into six chapters: Everyone asks Questions, The Way Back,
The World of Gods and Spirits, Contacting Gods and Spirits, Myths-Stories of the
Gods and Festivals and Ceremonies. Each chapter is sub-divided into shorter sections,
which generally contain enough material for one single or double lesson with text,
illustrations and things to do. The text is of a high standard the language is simple
and straightforward and the amount of information just sufficient to avoid
oversimplification of the topics. The suggested activities are varied and suitable for
different ability levels. As well as written comprehension tasks there are suggestions
for class discussion, poetry writing, researching, copying and imaginative drawing.
The range of topics covered provides an excellent basis for secondary religious studies.
The book starts with the question of the nature of religion and of religious belief, and
then moves on to a study of Stone Age religion (based on archaeological evidence rather
than fanciful imagination or a study of 'primitive survivals').
Unfortunately, the introduction of the ethnographic material in Chapter Three, 'The
World of Gods and Spirits', makes an unnecessary connection between Stone Age beliefs
and 'tribal' societies, suggesting that the chief interest in studying these societies is
to find out more about Stone Age religion (18):
Despite the archaeological evidence, however, we can still only guess as to what
Stone Age people believed. . . . Is there any way we can find out more about
these fundamental beliefs? Many scholars think we can try.
There are many people today who live in societies that have changed very little
over the centuries. We call these groups of people 'tribes' and they live in such
places as Africa, Australia, South America and Asia. Scholars think that if we
study their religions we might have some idea about the earliest religious beliefs
of humankind which will add to what the archaeologists might tell us.
The tone of the rest of the book and the choice of themes and material suggest that
these societies are of interest in their own right and the links made are with other
contemporary beliefs, not Stone Age religion.
The topics covered, ranging from gods and spirits, ancestors, ritual specialists, myths,
healing, sacrifice and sacred places, to festivals and ceremonies and.rites of passage,
provide an excellent basis for the study of world religions and other aspects of belief.
There are also 'special studies' such as 'Dreamtime of the Australian Aborigines' and
'the Shaman1 which could be extended into more detailed project work. My criticisms
of this book, which do not outweigh its general usefulness, concern a rather outdated
use of terminology and lack of awareness of contemporary anthropological thinking.
Beginning Religion remains one of the few books which uses materials from primal
religions as a way of introducing important areas in the study of religion. The material
is attractively presented and amply demonstrates the value of primal religions in school
religious education.
'Practical Approaches' to Primal Religions
In 1986 Devon County Council produced a set of six booklets entitled Practical
Approaches, consisting of units of work taught in religious studies periods in Devon
classrooms. Two of the booklets cover the primary level, two middle school level and
two senior level. Among the work presented are some lessons which touch directly
or indirectly on the teaching of primal religions. The teachers describe their educational
aims, resources, methods and provide an evaluation of the lesson. It is therefore possible
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to gain some insight into the way the topics are dealt with in the classroom. Although
full of useful and imaginative ideas, the evidence from these booklets suggests that
primal religions are often treated with an alarming lack of sophistication and without
sufficient background knowledge.
An example of a less successful exercise appears in a topic for a third year middle
school class (Middle Years: Part 2, Unit M21) entitled The Bear Cult'. The stated
objectives were: 'To develop a sympathetic awareness of the range of religious expression
in human society' and 'To investigate the role of the bear as an object of worship many
years ago'. The idea for the topic was sparked off by the visit of one of the children
to Dan-yr-Ogof in the Brecon Beacons where she had seen a cave painting of a bear
and a pile of bears' bones. The class compiled an information book about the topic
and some art work of life-size drawings and paintings of bears. The information book
was intended to stress the importance of the bear as an early god-figure and the topics
which the children researched were:
The Bear as an Early God;
Rituals Connected with Bear-Hunting;
The Cult of the Cave Bear;
Symbols of the Bear Cult;
Totem Spirits;
Bears Big and Small;
The Original Teddy Bear.
I would regard this as a rather unhappy juxtaposition of unscientific speculation (there
is no evidence that the bear was 'an early god'), living primal religions (totem spirits)
and sentimentality (the original teddy bear). The way the topics are presented leads
to the suspicion that material from contemporary primal religions was drawn on
uncritically to provide a supposed explanation for the presence of bear paintings and
remains dating from the Stone Age. Apart from the incongruity of leaping over centuries
and continents, such an approach leads inevitably to a trivialization of primal religions.
Tribal peoples are equated with our Stone Age ancestors and seen as survivals from
a primitive past. Although Beginning Religion is quoted as an 'especially useful' resource,
the material it contains does not justify this type of approach.4
A more successful series of lessons, described in Middle Years: 1 (Unit M14), was
developed as the religious education component for a middle school environmental
studies project on trade. The teacher stated that:
I wanted the children to see the importance of religion as a force shaping society.
As we looked at trade, I planned that the following aspects of religion would
become evident:
i. Animism
ii. Spirit magic and super-nature
iii. The Shaman
iv. Totemism
v. The Priest-King
vi. The Sumerian Pantheon
vii. Temple building
The range of approaches employed was impressive, utilising art and craft (making totem
poles and masks), creative writing, literature, drama and dance and science. Material
from the ancient world and primal religions appear to have been imaginatively drawn
upon to illustrate the chosen themes. Unlike the previous example, there is no suggestion
of evolutionism. The only reservation I would express regarding this unit is the use
of the term 'animism' which has resonances of missionary tales of 'natives worshipping
trees and animals'. The term fails to convey the understanding of the natural world
in primal religions and is best avoided altogether.
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Place of Primal Religions within the Curriculum

Primal religions could be introduced into the curriculum in a variety of ways,

depending upon the syllabus and priorities of the school and of the religious education
department, and well taught can make a valuable contribution to the study of religion.
At primary level children are likely to encounter religious studies as part of an integrated
humanities syllabus. There is a danger that the religious education content of the syllabus
becomes watered down or appears to be stuck on as an extra. This is particularly the
case when teaching biblical material. A project on 'the environment^ for example,
does not lead naturally to an examination of the environment of Palestine in the time
of Jesus (although this would not be impossible). A more natural link would be a study
of Bushman or Pygmy attitudes to their environment. This would involve an exploration
of religious attitudes towards the natural world and of the place of humans within the
world. The integration of religious belief and social and economic life could be drawn
out, leading to reflection on our own treatment of the environment and of our attitudes
to nature.
Another approach to integrated studies which lends itself to the teaching of primal
religions is the exploration of a particular region. Any region would lend itself to a
study of religious beliefs, practices and influences, but where the region chosen is outside
Europe or Asia, primal religions would almost certainly feature. ,A project on South
America, for example, would hardly make sense without an examination of religion
on the continent. The religious education part of the course could include a study of
Inca and Aztec society and religion and the meeting of these peoples with the
Conquistadors. The genocide of these peoples only makes sense if one understands
the logic of Spanish Catholicism with its policy of baptism and the sword. The social
and religious life of Amazonian Indian peoples could be explored, along with a study
of contemporary Christian missionary activity. Finally the conflict between liberation
theology and conservative Catholicism could be included, at an appropriate level for
the age and ability of the children.
The choice of topics according to themes, either as part of a junior humanities course
or within a religious education syllabus, is a popular approach at primary and junior
secondary level. Here too primal religions can make a valuable contribution. If a theme
such as 'Health and Healing' were proposed, for example, this might include attitudes
towards disease, the connection between psychological and physical health, explanations
of sickness in terms of spirit possession and/or sin (using biblical and contemporary
material), traditional healers, the role of the shaman, modern medicine, faith healing
and the attitudes towards suffering.
Other suitable themes which might include material from primal religions would
be: rites of passage and initiation, life after death and the treatment of ancestors, gods
and spirits, prayer, festivals and ceremonies, the role of dance, music and art in religion,
religious change, attitudes to authority, religious specialists, sacred places, and so on.
The list would be almost endless. The only topics which would not lend themselves
to the inclusion of material on primal religions would be sacred writings and doctrines.
Teaching Units on Primal Religions in Primary School

The following chart provides an indication of one way in which primal religions might
be included within a primary religious education syllabus (cf. Holm, 1984:140-141):
5-9 Human experience themes; material on how others live.
Families: an African family, an Inuit family.
Celebrations: celebrations surrounding birth and marriage in the Pacific Islands.
School: education of an Amazonian Indian into traditional skills and values.
Age: respect for the elderly and for ancestors in sub-Saharan Africa.
9-11 Explicit themes:
Creation Myths: creation myths from Africa, the Pacific, North America.
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Sacred Places: shrines to local spirits and deities in tropical Africa, Aborigine sacred
places.
Religious Specialists: The shaman in Central Europe, traditional healers in Africa.
Life Cycles: rites of passage and the socialization of children in Tropical Africa,
Melanesia, North America.
Teaching Units on Primal Religions in Secondary School

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First Year:
Second Year:
Third Year:
Fourth Year

Beginning Religion (Bruce and Wallbank).

Project on American Indian religions. Novel.
Myth, history and ritual (Schools Council: Journeys into Religion).
Religion and Society: Study of Ituri Pygmies and of their relationship
with the Bantu (Turnbull).
Fifth Year: Religious Change: Melanesian cargo cults.
Sixth Year: Religion and culture: Primal religions and mission Christianity.
The depth at which these units are taught would depend upon the time and resources
available. Beginning Religion, used as a First Year class text, for instance, could be
completed within a term or expanded to cover an entire First Year religious education
syllabus. A project on American Indians could be completed within four-six weeks
or consist of a term's work. The interest of the pupils and the amount of material in
other parts of the syllabus would obviously affect decisions of this kind. Unfortunately
there is not a great deal of scope for primal religions within present religious studies
public examinations. The type of work done from the Fourth to Sixth Year would
therefore depend upon the ability and interest of the non-examination pupils.
Conclusion

Primal religions have an important contribution to make to children's understanding

and enjoyment of religion. A considerable variety of approaches can be adopted as the
material often lends itself to artistic and dramatic presentation. There is a wealth of
visual material available in the form of posters, film strips and videos, and this can
be supplemented by visits to outside exhibitions or by mounting school displays. Novels
are another rich source of material, especially useful for giving an empathetic
understanding of the experiential side of religion. The most important resource remains
the teacher and it is vital that she or he approaches the material in a spirit of critical
interest and respect and not as a nineteenth century collector of the curious and bizarre.
References
1
The question of terminology is discussed by Geoffrey Parrinder in his book Africa's Three Religions
(1969:8). He uses the term 'traditional religions' in preference to 'animism', 'fetishism' or 'polytheism',
but notes that both Islam and Christianity can be regarded as 'traditional religions' in Africa in the sense
that they have long traditions on the continent. Parrinder uses the term 'traditional religion' to refer
exclusively to 'the older preliterate religions, mostly of tropical and southern Africa'. A similar discussion
can be found in John Ferguson's book Gods Many and Lords Many (1982:vii). Ferguson, like myself, finally
opts for the term 'primal'.
1
The notion of belief is itself a peculiarly Western and Christian phenomenon. Wilfred Cantwell Smith
observed that:
The peculiarity of the place given to belief in Christian history is a monumental matter, whose
importance and relative uniqueness must be appreciated. So characteristic has it been that
unsuspecting Westerners have . . . been liable to ask about a religious group other than their own
as well, 'What do they believe?' as though this were the primary question, and certainly were a
legitimate one (1978:180).
When teaching about primal religions it is therefore necessary to give due weight to the mythological,
ethical, experiential, ritual and social dimensions of religion, and not merely the doctrinal dimension,
which figured prominently in traditional religious education syllabuses.
3
An example of recent material produced for schools which illustrates the dangers of thoughtless use
of terminology and the lack of a conceptual framework is provided in the little booklet Nature Religions
in the Hulton 'Our World: Life and Faith' series (1983). Although beautifully illustrated, the short text
is grossly oversimplified and dangerously misleading. The choice of material itself is puzzling, consisting

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of the Masai of Tanzania and (Catholic) Indians of Peru. If the latter example was intended to examine
the fascinating question of religious syncretism and folk belief it totally fails to do so.
The popular From Fear to Faith (Wigley and Pitcher, 1979) in the Longman 'The Developing World'
series, displays similar confusion. The religious practices of many living peoples are described,
simplistically, in the past tense alongside Old Testament beliefs and customs. The continuity of belief and
continuing relevance of many of the practices described are ignored and the whole tenor of the book is
confessional in the worst sense. As the title of the book indicates, material on primal religions is used in
order to point to the superiority of the Christian message. I would suggest that a treatment of this sort does
not do justice to primal religions and can only serve to reinforce negative racial stereotypes in the eyes of
children using this book.
4
The unnecessary and rather clumsy link made on p. 18 of Beginning Religion between Stone Age and
tribal peoples may have had the seriously misleading effect of encouraging the sort of comparisons put
forward in 'The Bear Cult*.

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Bibliography
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Cole, W. O., (1978): World Faiths in Education, George Allen and Unwin.
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Religious Education in Devon.
Evans-Pritchard, E. E., (1976): Witchcraft Oracles and Magic among the Azande, OUP.
Ferguson, J., (1982): Gods Many And Lords Many: A Study In Primal Religions, Lutterworth Educational.
Gatheru, M., (1966): Child of Two Worlds, Heinemann.
Holm, J., (1984): Teaching Religion in School, OUP.
Life and Faith/Our World series (1983): Nature Religions, Hulton.
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and the Imagination, Univ. of Hull (pp. 63-73).
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The author is a course tutor for the Open University and has a doctorate in social anthropology. Her address
is 29 Bryntirion, Bethesda, Gwynedd LL57 3NG.

B.J.R.E.

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