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GEOTHERMAL ENERGY

INTRODUCTION
WHAT IS GEOTHERMAL ENERGY?
"Geothermal" comes from the Greek words geo (earth) and thermal (heat). So, geothermal means
earth heat. The thermal energy contained in the interior of the earth is called geothermal energy.
Geothermal heat originates from earths fiery consolidation of dust and gas over four billion
years ago. The geothermal energy is enormous and will last for several millions of years and is
therefore called renewable.
EARTHS HEAT AND VOLCANIC REGIONS
It is almost 6,500 kilometers (4,000 miles) from the surface to the center of the Earth, and
the deeper you go, the hotter it gets. The outer layer, the crust, is three to 35 miles thick and
insulates us from the hot interior.
From the surface down through the crust the normal temperature gradient (the increase of
temperature with the increase of depth) in the Earths crust is 17 - 30C per kilometer of depth
(50-87F per mile). Below the crust is the mantle, made of highly viscous, partially molten rock
with temperatures between 650 and 1,250C (1,200-2,280F). At Earth's core, which consists of
a liquid outer core and a solid inner core, temperatures may reach 4,000-7,000C (7,200 to
12,600F).

Since heat always moves from hotter regions to colder regions, the Earths heat flows
from its interior toward the surface. This outward flow of heat from Earths interior drives
convective motion in the mantle rock which in turn drives plate tectonics -- the "drift" of Earth's

crustal plates that occurs at 1 to 5 cm per year (about the rate our fingernails grow). Where plates
move apart, magma rises up into the rift, forming new crust. Where plates collide, one plate is
generally forced (subducted) beneath the other. As a subducted plate slides slowly downward
into regions of ever-increasing heat, it can reach conditions of pressure, temperature and water
content that cause melting, forming magma. Plumes of magma ascend by buoyancy and force
themselves up into (intrude) the crust, bringing up vast quantities of heat.

HOW DOES GEOTHERMAL HEAT GET UP TO EARTH'S SURFACE?


The heat from the earth's core continuously flows outward. It transfers (conducts) to the
surrounding layer of rock, the mantle. When temperatures and pressures become high enough,
some mantle rock melts, becoming magma. Then, because it is lighter (less dense) than the
surrounding rock, the magma rises (convects), moving slowly up toward the earth's crust,
carrying the heat from below.

GEOTHERMAL RESOURCES
Understanding geothermal energy begins with an understanding of the source of this
energythe earths internal heat. The Earths temperature increases with depth, with the
temperature at the center reaching more than 4200 C (7600 F). A portion of this heat is a relic
of the planets formation about 4.5 billion years ago, and a portion is generated by the continuing
decay of radioactive isotopes. Heat naturally moves from hotter to cooler regions, so Earths heat
flows from its interior toward the surface.
Because the geologic processes known as plate tectonics, the Earths crust has been
broken into 12 huge plates that move apart or push together at a rate of millimeters per year.
Where two plates collide, one plate can thrust below the other, producing extraordinary

phenomena such as ocean trenches or strong earthquakes. At great depth, just above the down
going plate, temperatures become high enough to melt rock, forming magma.3 Because magma
is less dense than surrounding rocks, it moves up toward the earths crust and carries heat from
below. Sometimes magma rises to the surface through thin or fractured crust as lava.
However, most magma remains below earths crust and heats the surrounding rocks and
subterranean water. Some of this water comes all the way up to the surface through faults and
cracks in the earth as hot springs or geysers. When this rising hot water and steam is trapped in
permeable rocks under a layer of impermeable rocks, it is called a geothermal reservoir. These
reservoirs are sources of geothermal energy that can potentially be tapped for electricity
generation or direct use. Figure 1 is a schematic of a typical geothermal power plant showing the
location of magma and a geothermal reservoir.4 Here, the production well withdraws heated
geothermal fluid, and the injection well returns cooled fluids to the reservoir.

RESOURCE IDENTIFICATION
Geological, hydrogeological, geophysical, and geochemical techniques are used to
identify and quantify geothermal resources. Geological and hydrogeological studies involve
mapping any hot springs or other surface thermal features and the identification of favorable
geological structures. These studies are used to recommend where production wells can be
drilled with the highest probability of tapping into the geothermal resource. Geophysical surveys
are implemented to figure the shape, size, depth and other important characteristics of the deep
geological structures by using the following parameters: temperature (thermal survey), electrical
conductivity (electrical and electromagnetic methods), propagation velocity of elastic waves
(seismic survey), density (gravity survey), and magnetic susceptibility (magnetic survey).5
Geochemical surveys (including isotope geochemistry) are a useful means of determining
whether the geothermal system is water or vapor-dominated, of estimating the minimum
temperature expected at depth, of estimating the homogeneity of the water supply and, of
determining the source of recharge water.
Geothermal exploration addresses at least nine objectives:6

Identification of geothermal phenomena

Ascertaining that a useful geothermal production field exists

Estimation of the size of the resource

Classification of the geothermal field

Location of productive zones

Determination of the heat content of the fluids that will be discharged by the wells in the
geothermal field

Compilation of a body of data against which the results of future monitoring can be
viewed

Assessment of the pre-exploitation values of environmentally sensitive parameters

Determination of any characteristics that might cause problems during field development

DRILLING
Once potential geothermal resources have been identified, exploratory drilling is carried
out to further quantify the resource. Because of the high temperature and corrosive nature of
geothermal fluids, as well as the hard and abrasive nature of reservoir rocks found in geothermal
environments, geothermal drilling is much more difficult and expensive than conventional
petroleum drilling. Each geothermal well costs $14 million to drill, and a geothermal field may
consist of 10100 wells. Drilling can account for 3050% of a geothermal projects total cost.

Typically, geothermal wells are drilled to depths ranging rom 200 to 1,500 meters depth
for low- and medium-temperature systems, and from 700 to 3,000 meters depth for hightemperature systems. Wells can be drilled vertically or at an angle. Wells are drilled in a series of
stages, with each stage being of smaller diameter than the previous stage, and each being secured
by steel casings, which are cemented in place before drilling the subsequent stage. The final
production sections of the well use an uncemented perforated liner, allowing the geothermal fluid
to pass into the pipe. The objectives of this phase are to prove the existence of an exploitable
resource and to delineate the extent and the characteristics of the resource. An exploratory
drilling program may include shallow temperature-gradient wells, slim-hole exploration wells,
and production-sized exploration/production wells. Temperature-gradient wells are often drilled
from 2200 meters in depth with diameters of 50150 mm. Slim-hole exploration wells are
usually drilled from 200 to 3000 meters in depth with bottom-hole diameters of 100 to 220 mm.
The size and objective of the development will determine the number and type of wells to be
included in exploratory drilling programs

APPLICATIONS OF GEOTHERMAL ENERGY:

1. POWER GENERATION:

Utility-scale geothermal power production employs three main technologies. These are
known as dry steam, flash steam and binary cycle systems. The technology employed depends on
the temperature and pressure of the geothermal reservoir. Unlike solar, wind, and hydro-based

renewable power, geothermal power plant operation is independent of fluctuations in daily and
seasonal weather.

DRY STEAM:
Dry steam power plants use very hot (>455 F, or >235 C) steam and little water from
the geothermal reservoir.12 The steam goes directly through a pipe to a turbine to spin a
generator that produces electricity. This type of geothermal power plant is the oldest, first being
used at Lardarello, Italy, in 1904.13 Figure 2 is a schematic of a typical dry steam power plant.14

Figure 1. Dry Steam Power Plant Schematic


Source: National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL)
FLASH STEAM
Flash steam power plants use hot water (>360 F, or >182 C) from the geothermal
reservoir.15 When the water is pumped to the generator, it is released from the pressure of the
deep reservoir. The sudden drop in pressure causes some of the water to vaporize to steam,
which spins a turbine to generate electricity. Both dry steam and flash steam power plants emit
small amounts of carbon dioxide, nitric oxide, and sulfur, but generally 50 times less than
traditional fossil-fuel power plants.16 Hot water not flashed into steam is returned to the
geothermal reservoir through injection wells. Figure 3 is a schematic of a typical flash steam
power plant.17

Figure 2. Flash Steam Power Plant Schematic

BINARY-CYCLE
Binary-cycle power plants use moderate-temperature water (225 F360 F, or 107 C
182 C) from the geothermal reservoir. In binary systems, hot geothermal fluids are passed
through one side of a heat exchanger to heat a working fluid in a separate adjacent pipe. The
working fluid, usually an organic compound with a low boiling point such as Iso-butane or Isopentane, is vaporized and passed through a turbine to generate electricity. An ammonia-water
working fluid is also used in what is known as the Kalina Cycle. Makers claim that the Kalina
Cycle system boosts geothermal plant efficiency by 2040 percent and reduces plant
construction costs by 2030 percent, thereby lowering the cost of geothermal power generation.

Figure 4. Binary Cycle Power Plant Schematic


Source: National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL)

The advantages of binary cycle systems are that the working fluid boils at a lower
temperature than water does, so electricity can be generated from reservoirs with lower
temperature, and the binary cycle system is self-contained and therefore, produces virtually no
emissions. For these reasons, some geothermal experts believe binary cycle systems could be the
dominant geothermal power plants of the future. Figure 4 is a schematic of a typical binary cycle
power plant.18

2. GEOTHERMAL HEAT PUMPS:

The shallow ground, the upper 10 feet of the Earth, maintains a nearly constant temperature
between 50 and 60F (1016C). Like a cave, this ground temperature is warmer than the air
above it in the winter and cooler than the air in the summer. Geothermal heat pumps take
advantage of this resource to heat and cool buildings.
Geothermal heat pump systems consist of basically three parts: the ground heat exchanger, the
heat pump unit, and the air delivery system (ductwork). The heat exchanger is basically a system
of pipes called a loop, which is buried in the shallow ground near the building. A fluid (usually
water or a mixture of water and antifreeze) circulates through the pipes to absorb or relinquish
heat within the ground.

In the winter, the heat pump removes heat from the heat exchanger and pumps it into the
indoor air delivery system. In the summer, the process is reversed, and the heat pump moves heat
from the indoor air into the heat exchanger. The heat removed from the indoor air during the
summer can also be used to heat water, providing a free source of hot water.

Geothermal heat pumps offer unmatched benefits over traditional heating and cooling systems,
including:

Lower operating costs: A geothermal system can cut utility bills by 30 to 50 percent
compared to conventional heating and cooling systems.

Environmental impact: Ground-source heat is naturally renewable and non-polluting.

Lower maintenance costs: All equipment is protected indoors or underground.

Life span: A geothermal system can have a life expectancy of up to 30 years; ground
loops are often warranted for up to 50 years.

Single system: Geothermal equipment provides both heating and cooling in one system.

Indoor comfort: Geothermal systems eliminate the drafts common with conventional
forced-air systems.

Design flexibility: Geothermal systems can be easily and inexpensively subdivided or


expanded to fit building remodeling or additions.

Energy efficiency: A geothermal heat pump can move more than three units of heat
energy for every one unit of electrical energy used to power the system.

Safety: No dangers of gas leaks or carbon monoxide poisoning.

3. DIRECT USE APPLICATIONS


Geothermal reservoirs within the low to moderate temperature range can provide heat for
residential, industrial, and commercial use. The Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy
(EERE) division of the U.S. Department of Energy reports that savings can be as much as 80%
over the use of fossil fuels. This form of energy is also very clean, with far fewer air pollutants
emitted when compared to fossil fuels.
The employment of direct use geothermal energy requires that a certain infrastructure be
established for proper handling of this resource. First, a production facility, usually a well, will
bring the hot water to the ground surface. Second, a mechanical system to deliver the heat to a
space or process must be developed. This means the piping, heat exchanger, and control
infrastructure for heat extraction. Third, there must be a disposal system, such as an injection
well or storage pond, that can receive the cooled geothermal fluid.
Direct use applications for geothermally heated waters is quite extensive. A number of
operations use low-temperature geothermal resources for district and space heating, greenhouses,
and aquaculture facilities. District systems distribute naturally heated water from one or more

geothermal wells through a series of pipes to several houses and buildings, or blocks of
buildings. Space heating uses one well per structure. In both of these systems, the geothermal
heat is replacing fossil fuel burning as the heat source for the traditional heating system. District
heating systems can save consumers 30% to 50% of the cost of natural gas heating.
Numerous other industrial and commercial uses are also possible. Industrial applications can
include food dehydration, cement and aggregate drying, concrete block curing, milk
pasteurizing, spas, and others
ADVANTAGES OF USING GEOTHERMAL ENERGY

Clean.

Geothermal power plants, like wind and solar power plants, do not have to burn fuels to
manufacture steam to turn the turbines. Generating electricity with geothermal energy helps to
conserve nonrenewable fossil fuels, and by decreasing the use of these fuels, we reduce
emissions that harm our atmosphere. There is no smoky air around geothermal power plants -- in
fact some are built in the middle of farm crops and forests, and share land with cattle and local
wildlife.

Easy on the land.

The land area required for geothermal power plants is smaller per megawatt than for almost
every other type of power plant. Geothermal installations don't require damming of rivers or
harvesting of forests -- and there are no mine shafts, tunnels, open pits, waste heaps or oil spills.

Reliable.

Geothermal power plants are designed to run 24 hours a day, all year. A geothermal power plant
sits right on top of its fuel source. It is resistant to interruptions of power generation due to
weather, natural disasters or political rifts that can interrupt transportation of fuels.

Flexible.

Geothermal power plants can have modular designs, with additional units installed in increments
when needed to fit growing demand for electricity.

Keeps Dollars at Home

Money does not have to be exported to import fuel for geothermal power plants. Geothermal
"fuel'" - like the sun and the wind - is always where the power plant is; economic benefits remain
in the region and there are no fuel price shocks.

FUTURE PROSPECTS IN INDIA.


In a global tectonic context, India is not particularly well placed as far as geothermal
energy is concerned. However, due to anomalous nature of some segments of its lithosphere, it
does contain a number of geothermal areas with temperature in the range of 30 degrees celsius to
100 degrees celsius. Most of them are intermediate temperature type and occur along certain
tectonic boundaries.
The most promising geothermal areas include-(I) Puga-Chhumathang, Manikaran and
Tapoban in New Himalayas, (2) Konkan, Cambay and Bombay Offshore, (3) Taptapani (Orissa),
(4) Gondwanic grabens, and (5) Volcanic areas of Andaman-Nocobar chain.

Power deficient India is planning to use geothermal energy to produce 10,600 megawatts of
power, five times more than the combined output from all non-conventional energy sources.

The first such plant is being set up in the Ladakh region of Jammu and Kashmir. Officials say
this renewable energy would come at a throwaway cost, less than one third of hydropower.
China on the other side of the border has already set up a geo-thermal plant.
Officials associated with the project say that they have already completed preliminary
investigations in Ladakh. A five-member team led by Dr D.Chandrasekharam, head of the Earth
Sciences Department at the Indian Institute of Technology, that visited the region recently is
submitting a blue print to the government. According to Chandrasekharam, India has the
capacity to produce 10,600 megawatts of geo-thermal power.

CONCLUSION:
Today is the era of non-conventional sources of energy. Till now India has tapped the potential
of wind, tidal, solar and nuclear energy only. But geothermal technology is still to appear in
India. The Indian government has taken few modest steps in this regard. Considering the
potential applications of geothermal energy and the present Indian power scenario, it is high time
that India exploits this source of energy to the fullest and makes a mark in the field of power
production.
Posted by Natish Shah at 3:35:00 pm
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