Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
1995
(London 1997), S. 26-32
several years i n E g y p t , w h e r e h e h e l d a h i g h p o s i t i o n i n
t h e visit o f S c i p i o A f r i c a n u s t o t h e u n d e r w o r l d . T h e r e
p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f m u m m i e s at b a n q u e t s , h e e v e n stresses
c o u l d n o t f i n d p e a c e b e c a u s e his f r i e n d s h a d f a i l e d t o
h i s t e s t i m o n y as a n e y e w i t n e s s .
c r e m a t e a n d b u r y his b o d y . S c i p i o w i s h e s t o d o h i m this
I n s o m e o f t h e texts t h e E g y p t i a n s a n d t h e i r strange
f a v o u r b u t c l a i m s that h e d o e s n o t k n o w a c c o r d i n g t o
h a b i t s c l e a r l y f u n c t i o n as ' t h e o t h e r ' o f G r e e k s o r
w h i c h rites it s h o u l d b e d o n e , s o h e lists a n u m b e r o f
d i f f e r e n t p r a c t i c e s : ' A l l o v e r t h e w o r l d t h e p r a c t i c e is
i n d i c a t e that t h e h a b i t s u s e d i n this w a y w e r e s i m p l y
i n v e n t e d f o r t h e p u r p o s e . I n t h e case o f E g y p t ,
d i s p o s i n g o f t h e i r ashes. I n t h e l a n d o f S p a i n , w e are
s e r v e t h e s e n e e d s , a n d this applies n o t o n l y t o m u m m i
t o l d (it is a n a n c i e n t c u s t o m ) t h e b o d i e s o f t h e d e a d are
f i c a t i o n itself. A n i m a l w o r s h i p , f o r e x a m p l e , p r o v e d
d e v o u r e d b y l o a t h l y vultures. W h e n a k i n g dies i n
H y r c a n i a , it is t h e r u l e t o let d o g s h a v e access t o t h e
c o n c e p t i o n s o f E g y p t , as p r o p a g a t e d b y n o n - E g y p t i a n
a u t h o r s . H o w e v e r , i t w a s also a n actual a n d w i d e s p r e a d
u p r i g h t p o s i t i o n , i n a c o f f i n o f s t o n e , a n d w o r s h i p it;
a n d t h e y a d m i t a b l o o d l e s s spectre t o t h e i r b a n q u e t s . '
W e f i n d f u r t h e r e v i d e n c e i n C h r i s t i a n texts w h i c h
T h e t e x t g o e s o n l i k e this b u t w e w i l l s t o p h e r e b e c a u s e
relate that e v e n t h e C o p t i c C h r i s t i a n s u s e d t o k e e p t h e
o u r interest t o d a y is d i r e c t e d at t h e E g y p t i a n p r a c t i c e .
A t h a n a s i u s t h i s c u s t o m d r o v e St A n t h o n y i n t o t h e
c u s t o m prevails e v e r y w h e r e ; b u t i n w h a t f o l l o w s , t h e
a g a i n ( a n d n o t m u m m i f i c a t i o n i t s e l f ) that p r o v o k e d t h e
t h e P e r s i a n b u r i e s , t h e I n d i a n e n c a s e s i n glass, t h e
c e n s u r e , as it t u r n e d o u t , as is s h o w n n o t least b y t h e
d i s p l a y a n d w o r s h i p o f relics u p t o t h e p r e s e n t day. It
m a k e s h i m h i s g u e s t at table!' 2
h a b i t t h e m s e l v e s , b u t i t is p l a u s i b l e t o p r e s u m e that t h e y
T h e s e r e p o r t s b y t w o a u t h o r s o f t h e first a n d s e c o n d
c e n t u r i e s A D s t r i k e a m o d e r n r e a d e r as b e i n g f a i r l y
strange. O n e w o u l d e x p e c t t h e m t o h a v e i n s t a n t a n e
a d o p t e d it from t h e i r p a g a n p r e d e c e s s o r s . 1 0
S u p p o r t f o r o u r hypothesis can b e f o u n d i n the
m u m m i e s themselves: Flinders Petrie reports that
o u s l y p r o v o k e d s c i e n t i f i c c u r i o s i t y . S u r p r i s i n g l y , t h i s is
several o f t h e m u m m i e s h e e x c a v a t e d at H a w a r a ' h a d
interest. I t is, h o w e v e r , n o t t h e p l a c e h e r e t o e x a m i n e
academic community.3
m a r k e d , c a k e d w i t h dust w h i c h w a s b o u n d o n b y r a i n ' .
d o u b t as t o t h e v e r a c i t y o f t h e s e s t a t e m e n t s . T e l e s ,
b e e n u s e d b y c h i l d r e n , w h o s c r i b b l e d caricatures u p o n
D i o d o r u s , C i c e r o a n d Sextus E m p i r i c u s c o n f i r m that
it.' P e t r i e a l r e a d y c o n n e c t e d h i s o b s e r v a t i o n s w i t h t h e
t h e E g y p t i a n s k e p t t h e m u m m i e s o f t h e i r relatives at
t r a d i t i o n that t h e d e a d w e r e k e p t i n t h e h o u s e s o f t h e i r
relatives a n d also a s s u m e d a d o m e s t i c c u l t f o r t h e m . 1 1
T h e passage i n H e r o d o t u s w h i c h P e t r i e a n d o t h e r s
o n still a n o t h e r c o m m o n s o u r c e . 5 B u t at least t w o
s u c c e e d i n g h i m d r e w u p o n c a n n o t , h o w e v e r , serve as
p r o o f . H e r o d o t u s r e p o r t s (2.78) that at b a n q u e t s p e o p l e
A l e x a n d r i a d u r i n g t h e 1 8 0 t h O l y m p i a d (6056 BC)
p a i n t e d veKpov u \ i v o v t o r e m i n d t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s o f
g e n e r a l reliability o f p a r a g r a p h s I 9 1 - 9 3 b y c o m p a r i n g
e n j o y t h e a d v a n t a g e s o f t h e p r e s e n t . T h e r e are t w o m a i n
w i t h e v i d e n c e from t h e p a p y r i 6 - w h i l e L u c i a n s p e n t
reasons w h y t h i s c a n n o t p o s s i b l y h a v e a n y t h i n g t o d o
26
f a i t h f u l . 1 6 L i k e w i s e , I h a v e s h o w n e l s e w h e r e 1 7 that t h e
scenes a n d s y m b o l s o n t h e b o d i e s o f p o r t r a i t m u m m i e s
b e translated as m u m m y . T h e e x p r e s s i o n m u s t refer t o
w e r e selected p u r p o s e f u l l y a n d represent f o r t h e m o s t
o f d e a t h i t s e l f - o n e t o t w o ells l o n g , a c c o r d i n g t o
c o u l d b e s h o w n that t h e i m p r e s s i o n o f e c l e c t i c i s m that
H e r o d o t u s . It m a y w e l l b e a w o o d e n s k e l e t o n , as is
indicated b y b a n q u e t e q u i p m e n t w i t h representations
m u m m i e s is d e c e p t i v e . S k e t c h e s i n E g y p t i a n style o n
o f skeletons.12 S e c o n d l y , t h e sense o f t h e p r o c e d u r e
t h e p a n e l s , 1 8 realistic r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f b o d i e s o n t h e
d e s c r i b e d b y H e r o d o t u s is c o n t r a r y t o t h e w h o l e
m e a n i n g c o n n e c t e d w i t h a m u m m y , especially o n e o f a
relative. 1 3 T h e m u m m y w a s a s y m b o l o f a n d g u a r a n t o r
fined t o a c e r t a i n p a r t o f t h e m u m m y . T h e s e p a r a t i o n o f
n o t f o r d e a t h b u t f o r life, e v e n t h o u g h f o r a n o t h e r -
worldly one.
trained o n m o d e r n m u s e u m conditions.20
14
H e tells t h e s t o r y o f a
L a k e d a i m o n i a n fisherman n a m e d A i g i a l e u s w h o
A c c o r d i n g to these considerations to w h i c h
L o r e l e i C o r c o r a n seems to agree i n p r i n c i p l e - the
b e h a v i o u r o f t h e fisherman i n X e n o p h o n c a n n o t b e
from r e l i g i o u s a n d social n e e d s .
T h i s takes us b a c k t o t h e a n c i e n t texts m e n t i o n e d
above and to the observations b y Flinders Petrie o n the
r e l a t i v e s at h o m e o r i g i n a t e d i n a s i m i l a r a t t i t u d e
g i l d e d m a s k s a n d p o r t r a i t m u m m i e s . A s these s e e m t o
t o w a r d s t h e d e c e a s e d . B u t is this p r o b a b l e ? First, t h e
l i n e n , as all t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y E g y p t i a n m u m m i e s w e r e ,
examination.
b u t t h a t t h e p h y s i o g n o m y o f t h e d e c e a s e d w a s still
I w o u l d l i k e t o start w i t h a s h o r t l o o k at t h e
v i s i b l e , so t h a t A b r o k o m e s c o u l d , f o r e x a m p l e , r e c o g n i s e
social b a c k g r o u n d o f t h e p e r s o n s d e p i c t e d . S u r p r i s i n g l y
e n o u g h , w r i t t e n r e f e r e n c e s t o p o r t r a i t m u m m i e s are
n o t k n o w n . 2 1 A c o m b i n e d study o f b o t h the m u m m i e s
r e l i g i o u s l y m o t i v a t e d b u t w a s t h e desperate a t t e m p t o f a
F a y u m s o c i e t y as p r o v i d e d b y t h e p a p y r i nevertheless
a l l o w s us t o d r a w a r o u g h p i c t u r e o f t h e social g r o u p
m a r r i a g e b e y o n d t h e d e a t h o f his w i f e . 1 5 T h e f a c t that
f i s h e r m e n salt fish f o r p r e s e r v a t i o n , a n d t h a t t h e
t o t h e l o c a l elite, c o n s i s t i n g o f l a n d o w n e r s , h i g h -
E g y p t i a n t e c h n i q u e s o f m u m m i f i c a t i o n are s o m e w h a t
r a n k i n g l o c a l officials a n d veterans o f t h e R o m a n a r m y .
V e r y p r o b a b l y , s o m e o f t h e s e w e r e also R o m a n citizens
mummifying,
Tapixeua), is t h e s a m e as
f o r salting o f
w i t h all t h e p r i v i l e g e s t h a t w e r e c o n n e c t e d w i t h that
fish) m a y i n t h e eyes o f a u t h o r a n d r e a d e r h a v e l e n t
s o m e p l a u s i b i l i t y t o t h e story. T o p r e s u m e s i m i l a r l y
at T h e b e s w e find a naukleros.23 S o m e c h i l d r e n w e a r a
h a i r s t y l e t h a t is t y p i c a l f o r t h o s e w h o are g o i n g t o
b a c k g r o u n d f o r m u m m i f i c a t i o n o r t h e sacred scenes
w a s e t h n i c a l l y m i x e d . T h i s is d e m o n s t r a t e d n o t o n l y b y
p a p y r o l o g i c a l e v i d e n c e l i k e , f o r e x a m p l e , t h e epikrisis-
especially, R o m a n o c c u p a t i o n w a s o n e o f increasing
lists, b u t a l s o b y t h e d i f f e r e n t n a m e s o n m u m m y
d e c a d e n c e , w h e n t h e r e l i g i o u s c o n t e n t o f b o t h rituals
portraits, w h i c h d o n o t a l l o w a n y c o n c l u s i o n s a b o u t t h e
e t h n i c i t y o f t h e d e p i c t e d . 2 5 T h e n e c r o p o l e i s from
m e a n i n g l e s s l y a n d i n c o h e r e n t l y , w a s a n d still is q u i t e
t o w n s or t o w n s a n d villages that w e r e f o u n d e d or
c o m m o n . B u t this o p i n i o n seems t o h a v e b e e n
n e w l y f o u n d e d b y t h e G r e e k s o r R o m a n s a n d that
C o r c o r a n herself. Studies o f a g r o w i n g n u m b e r o f
R o m a n s l e f t t h e i r traces p r e d o m i n a n t l y o n a d m i n i s -
t r a t i o n a n d social o r g a n i s a t i o n , b u t also o n t h e o u t e r
a p p e a r a n c e o f this class, w h o l a r g e l y r e s e m b l e t h e o t h e r
m e a n i n g f u l c o n c e p t s d e s i g n e d b y priests a n d e m b o d i e d
i n h a b i t a n t s o f t h e e a s t e r n R o m a n p r o v i n c e s as t h e y
i n t h e t r a d i t i o n o f o l d E g y p t i a n beliefs. T h e y w e r e o n l y
m o d i f i e d : o n t h e o n e h a n d s u p p l e m e n t e d b y n e w ideas,
R e m a r k a b l e o n l y is t h e a b s e n c e o f t y p i c a l l y R o m a n
a t t r i b u t e s . T h e E g y p t i a n i n f l u e n c e is especially s t r o n g i n
r e l i g i o u s m a t t e r s , e v e n i n t h e beliefs a b o u t d e a t h a n d
27
p r o p e r t o m b s , b u t i n m a n y instances w e r e p l a c e d i n
n e w ideas. A s early as t h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y BC G r e e k s
p l a i n pits i n t h e d e s e r t sands w i t h o u t g r a v e g o o d s . A n d
A t first these m u m m i e s l o o k e d m u c h t h e s a m e as
t h e o r d i n a r y E g y p t i a n o n e s . O n l y after t h e b e g i n n i n g
t o b e t o o s m a l l t h e m u m m y w a s c r a m m e d i n t o it e v e n
i f it b r o k e o r o t h e r w i s e s u f f e r e d . S o m e t i m e s , t h e shafts
o n l y at c e r t a i n p l a c e s a n d a m o n g a s m a l l social g r o u p
w e r e s q u e e z e d i n i n a n u p r i g h t p o s i t i o n o r h e a d first.
r e p l a c e t h e o l d E g y p t i a n m a s k s t h a t w e r e m e a n t as a n
M o r e o v e r , after t h e p i t w a s r e f i l l e d w i t h s a n d t h e p l a c e
r i t u a l s t h a t w e r e c o m m o n i n all r e l i g i o n s r e l e v a n t t o
T h i s , h o w e v e r , is o n l y t h e f o r m a l a s p e c t . T h e
f u n c t i o n a n d m e a n i n g o f portraits differ greatiy a m o n g
style b y p o i n t i n g t o the a b o v e - m e n t i o n e d m a g i c
p o w e r s associated w i t h it. Y e t , t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n i n t o a
T h e y c o n t r i b u t e d rather t o t h e s u r v i v a l o f t h e d e c e a s e d
m u c h m o r e h u m a n appearance n o w b e c o m e s totally
u n i n t e l l i g i b l e , s i n c e this d e p r i v e d t h e d e c e a s e d o f s o m e
t h e m u m m i e s t h a t w e r e later o n treated s o b a d l y s t o o d
w i l l t h e e r e c t i o n o f i m a g e s - a n d o f his family.
first i n t h e h o u s e o f t h e i r relatives a n d r e c e i v e d s o m e
d e p i c t e d b u t w a s always u n d e r s t o o d as a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n .
explained.30
Its p u r p o s e w a s t o k e e p a w a k e i n his o w n f a m i l y t h e
m e m o r y o f t h e a n c e s t o r s w h o s e mos a n d e x a m p l e s t o o d
W h a t , t h e n , w a s t h e o r i g i n o f that c u s t o m ? N e i t h e r
i n G r e e k n o r i n R o m a n r e l i g i o n is t h e r e a n y i n d i c a t i o n
b e f o r e t h e eyes o f t h e d e s c e n d a n t s , a n d also i n t h e
w i d e r e n t o u r a g e that c o u l d b y v i e w i n g t h e m r e c o g n i s e
relatives b u t , after e m b a l m i n g , w e r e a c c o m p a n i e d i n a
I n c o n t r a s t t o this t h e E g y p t i a n m u m m y w a s de facto
as w e l l as s y m b o l i c a l l y t h e d e c e a s e d h i m s e l f . T h e m a s k
w a s h i s i m a g e as O s i r i s N N a n d w a s t h e r e f o r e p r o v i d e d
c o m m e m o r a t e d o n v a r i o u s days. T h e f a m i l y o f f e r e d
w i t h h i s i d e a l , t h a t is d i v i n e , f e a t u r e s . 2 6 L i k e t h e g o d
O s i r i s a n d i n as c l o s e a n a s s i m i l a t i o n t o h i m as p o s s i b l e ,
t o a s o l e m n b a n q u e t t h a t t o o k p l a c e i n special r o o m s o f
the temple.31
H o w e v e r , f o r s o m e t i m e n o w , an increasing n u m b e r
t h e relatives. R . J . D e m a r e e 3 2 p u b l i s h e d a g r o u p o f
o f t h e a n c i e n t E g y p t i a n s , w a i t i n g , as it w e r e , o n l y f o r
b e l o n g t o t h e i 8 t h - 2 0 t h d y n a s t i e s (PI. 2 6 , 1 ) . A c c o r d i n g
R a t h e r , t h i s o u t e r a p p e a r a n c e as a r e p e t i t i o n o f t h e
d e p a r t e d b y f a m i l y (fathers, s o n s , b r o t h e r s ) or, i n s o m e
cases, b y a d m i r e r s w h o d i d n o t b e l o n g t o t h e f a m i l y .
f o r a n afterlife a n d o f t h e m a g i c c e r e m o n i a l .
T h e s e stelae w e r e a p l a c e i n w h i c h t o f a c e t h e d e a d a n d
t o s a c r i f i c e t o t h o s e w h o s e spirits w e r e o n t h e o n e h a n d
i n s o m e cases t h e w h o l e b o d y o f t h e d e c e a s e d w a s
d e p i c t e d , 2 8 p e r m i t t i n g its o r d i n a r y e a r t h l y a p p e a r a n c e
t o d o m i n a t e t h e h o l y features o f t h e m u m m y . A c c o r d -
h a v e all b e e n f o u n d i n t h e l i v i n g quarters o f t h e t o w n .
T h e y s t o o d i n v o t i v e c h a p e l s , i n t h e streets a n d p u b l i c
one?
p l a c e s , b u t also i n w a l l recesses i n t h e h o u s e s .
T h e e x i s t e n c e o f s u c h a d o m e s t i c c u l t o f t h e d e a d is
c o n f i r m e d b y t h e ' c a l e n d a r o f l u c k y a n d u n l u c k y days'
k n o w it f r o m P e t r i e a n d s o m e scattered n o t e s . 2 9 T h e
m a j o r i t y o f t h e m u m m i e s w e r e n o t b u r i e d carefully i n
28
f a c t that m o s t o f t h e e v i d e n c e f o r ancestral c u l t c o m e s
from D e i r e l - M e d i n a m a y b e t h e v e r y a b i l i t y o f t h e
b e a r i n s c r i p t i o n s b u t t h e y are n o w a l m o s t u n a n i m o u s l y
r e g a r d e d as i m a g e s o f d e c e a s e d p e r s o n s . 3 4 M o s t o f t h e m
c o n t e m p o r a r y e v i d e n c e , t h e later c u s t o m o f k e e p i n g
d i s p l a y e d m a i n l y i n h o u s e s p r e s u m a b l y i n t h e first
d e r i v e d from t h e E g y p t i a n ancestral c u l t .
r e c e p t i o n h a l l a n d , m o r e rarely, i n p u b l i c c h a p e l s .
I n c e r t a i n c o n t r a c t s , fixed days w e r e s o m e t i m e s
g r a p h i c a l t e r a t i o n s . T h e i r a d o r a t i o n is s h o w n o n t w o
c o n t a i n i n g t h e g e n e r a l f o r m u l a t i o n ' a n d o n a n y festive
reliefs (Fig. i ) . 3 5
. - J
F i g . 1. D r a w i n g o f stela from A b y d o s , s h o w i n g w o r s h i p
o f a n ancestral b u s t (after M a r i e t t e ) .
o r i g i n a l l y stiff a n d c e r e m o n i a l s c e n e b e c o m e s a l i v e l y
d e p i c t i o n o f a b a n q u e t w h e r e t h e d e c e a s e d is i n t e g r a t e d
i n t o the c o m m u n i t y o f the participants a n d enjoys the
a m e n i t i e s o f t h e festival.
N o w , w h e n during the Greek and R o m a n periods
m u m m i e s are p r e s e n t at t h e b a n q u e t s i n t h e h o u s e o f
t h e i r relatives, t h e d e c e a s e d is r e g a r d e d n o t j u s t as a
t i o n s o f a d o m e s t i c ancestral c u l t a l r e a d y i n p l a c e i n
as a c t u a l l y p r e s e n t . H i s h u m a n a p p e a r a n c e , w i t h t h e
realistic p o r t r a i t a n d s o m e t i m e s t h e w h o l e b o d y
front o f i m a g e s o f t h e d e c e a s e d ! 3 6 S u c h cults s e e m t o
p o n d s p e r f e c t l y t o his c h a r a c t e r as a p a r t i c i p a n t i n t h e
n o w t h e r e is n o c h r o n o l o g i c a l series i n t o t h e G r e e k a n d
festival.
R o m a n p e r i o d s . T h e r e m a y b e t w o m a i n reasons f o r
T h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e step f r o m v e n e r a t i n g
t h e d e a d i n t h e p r e s e n c e o f substitutes l i k e stelae o r
busts, o r from t h e d e p i c t i o n o f b a n q u e t s f o r t h e d e a d ,
less c l e a r l y v i s i b l e m a t e r i a l . A n c e s t r a l c u l t w a s m a i n l y
t h e f o r m o f his m u m m y , c a n n o t b e o v e r e s t i m a t e d , a n d
i t w o u l d b e m o s t i n t e r e s t i n g t o k n o w w h e n it w a s
m i d d l e a n d l o w e r classes, 3 7 w h e r e a s t h e m a t e r i a l
m a d e a n d u n d e r w h a t c i r c u m s t a n c e s . It w a s n o later
logists a n d E g y p t o l o g i s t s gives i n f o r m a t i o n o n l y a b o u t
m a y h a v e b e e n e v e n earlier. O n c e t h e practice w a s
t h e u p p e r m o s t class a n d its i d e o l o g y . O n e r e a s o n f o r t h e
e f f e c t u p o n society. T h e y b e c a m e a m e d i u m f o r r e p r e -
d e m a n d for r e p r e s e n t a t i o n p a r t i c u l a r l y w e l l .
s e n t a t i o n o f b o t h t h e i n d i v i d u a l a n d his f a m i l y . T o w h a t
U p t o n o w w e have f o c u s e d essentially o n t h e
degree ancestors i n R o m a n E g y p t h a d a n o r m a t i v e
r e l i g i o u s aspects o f t h e c h a n g e s c a u s e d b y t h e a d o p t i o n
b e a r i n g , as t h e y h a d i n R o m e itself, has t o b e e x a m i n e d
b y m o r e c o m p e t e n t scholars a n d o n t h e basis o f a w i d e r
p r a c t i c e , b u t t h e r e is a n o t h e r a s p e c t . A s w e n o t i c e d
d e a d that g r a n t e d t h e afterlife w a s a c e n t r a l c o n s t i t u e n t
o f d a i l y life, w h e r e a s t h e ancestral c u l t d i d n o t p l a y a
m a j o r role. I n R o m e a p p a r e n d y it w a s t h e o t h e r w a y
R o m a n b u t also a n o l d E g y p t i a n p r i n c i p l e w i t h i n t h e
r o u n d . T h e a c t u a l c u l t o f t h e d e a d that s e r v e d t h e s o u l s
t o t h e rites c o n c e r n i n g t h e ancestors. T h e h o p e f o r a n
i n d i v i d u a l afterlife w a s l o o k e d u p o n r a t h e r sceptically.
s h o w e d phases o f v e r i s t i c r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s that a l t e r n a t e d
S u r v i v a l as a n i n d i v i d u a l e x i s t e d o n l y i n t h e m e m o r y
r i t e s h a v e a p r e d o m i n a n d y c o m m e m o r a t i v e character.
that t h e i m a g e s n o l o n g e r s t o o d i n t h e l o c k e d c h a m b e r
o f t h e serdab, sealed o f f f r o m a n y e x t r a n e o u s g l a n c e , b u t
g u a r a n t e e d t h i s s u r v i v a l i n m e m o r y as w e l l as a n y
d i s p l a y o f p o r t r a i t s i n t h e p u b l i c o r p r i v a t e sphere. 4 5 A t
w e r e accessible at least o n c e r t a i n o c c a s i o n s t o a l i m i t e d
t h e s a m e t i m e t h e y also s e r v e d t h e d e s c e n d a n t s as a
n u m b e r o f p e o p l e : h e r e t h e y also s e r v e d a representative
w i t h i n society. T h u s t h e i r f u n c t i o n w a s a t o p i c a l o n e .
c o m m u n i t y o f the living.41
i n t o t h e E g y p t i a n c u l t o f t h e d e a d is at t h e s a m e t i m e a
this v e r i s m i n c r e a s e d dramatically. T h i s is t r u e b o t h f o r
sculptures, t h e p u r p o s e o f w h i c h c a n n o t i n m o s t cases
t h e c u l t o f t h e d e a d a n d a n c e s t o r w o r s h i p o f t h e latter.
b e d e t e r m i n e d d u e t o m i s s i n g c o n t e x t s , as w e l l as f o r
T h e d e c e a s e d a n d h i s a f t e r l i f e are n o l o n g e r t h e
d o m i n a n t c e n t r a l issue o f t h e r i t u a l p r a c t i c e b u t t a k e
o n , a n d w e r e p r o b a b l y m e a n t t o take o n , a m a j o r r o l e i n
a n d i n d i v i d u a l characteristics m u s t b e seen i n c o n -
n e c t i o n w i t h t h e i r p r e s e n c e at a p l a c e t h a t w a s far m o r e
b y n o m e a n s h a v e b e e n prevalent. N o t o n l y was it
accessible t h a n a n o l d E g y p t i a n t e m p l e . T h e m u m m i e s
t h e s e f a m i l i e s w i l l h a r d l y h a v e treated all t h e i r d e p a r t e d
i n t h e s a m e w a y . 4 6 T h i s is i n d i c a t e d n o t least b y t h e
luxurious decoration.
U m i t e d space available i n t h e h o u s e . W e s h o u l d p r e s u m e
I n this c o n n e c t i o n w e m a y r e c o n s i d e r a n o b s e r v a t i o n
w e r e h o n o u r e d i n this w a y f o r r e a s o n s w e d o n o t
m u m m y p o r t r a i t s b e g i n s at a p p r o x i m a t e l y t h e s a m e
know.
t i m e as t h e g e n r e o f p r i v a t e statues i n t h e t e m p l e s
c o m e s to an end.42 W e d o n o t k n o w w h y these
statues d o n o t o c c u r a n y m o r e , a n d t h e c h r o n o l o g i c a l
p o r t r a i t m u m m i e s m a y h a v e b e e n precisely, t h e f a c t t h a t
c o i n c i d e n c e c a n n o t b e e x p l a i n e d either. K . Parlasca
s u g g e s t e d that t h e statues m i g h t h a v e b e e n r e p l a c e d b y
m o s t p r o b a b l y r e c e i v e d s o m e s o r t o f c u l t there, h e l p s t o
p a i n t e d portraits, 4 3 b u t it m a y w e l l b e t h a t t h e e r e c t i o n
m u m m i e s c o s d y b u t w e a k e n e d in their m a g i c p o w e r s
s o m e t i m e i n t h e early i m p e r i a l p e r i o d o n w a r d s , o r it
b y t h e i r n e w w o r l d l y s h a p e a n d t h e i r careless,
r e a s o n . T h e f u n c t i o n o f t h e s e t e m p l e statues w a s m o r e
T h e E g y p t i a n ancestral c u l t rarely g o e s b a c k m o r e t h a n
o r less t h e s a m e as t h a t o f g r a v e s t a t u e s , 4 4 a n d from
o n e o r t w o g e n e r a t i o n s , as is s h o w n n o t least b y t h e
i n s c r i p t i o n s o n t h e a k h - i k e r stelae. 4 7 T h i s leads t o t h e
i n c r e a s i n g l y representative. A f t e r this g e n r e o f p r i v a t e
o p p o r t u n i t y t o erect p r i v a t e i m a g e s i n t h e t e m p l e s m a y
H e r e t h e o u t e r , aesthetic s i m i l a r i t y o f t h e m u m m y
c h a r g e . A s is s h o w n b y t h e d i f f e r e n t c o n t e x t s , t h e k i n d
portraits t o b o t h t h e a n c e s t o r s ' p o r t r a i t s a n d h o n o r a r y
t h a t c a n o n l y b e i d e n t i f i e d o n t h e basis o f n e w e v i d e n c e
m e a n i n g : l i k e t h e latter, t h e y n o w h a d a r e t r o a c t i v e
a n d e x t e n s i v e r e s e a r c h . 4 8 I n t h e case o f t h e careless
30
o r servants o f t h e t e m p l e w h o , a w a y f r o m t h e c o n t r o l o f
t h e f a m i l y , c a r e d as l i t t l e f o r t h e b u r i a l as t h e y o f t e n
did before for the treatment o f the bodies during
embalming.
49
Acknowledgements
Notes
1. Aegyptia tellus claudit odorato postfunus stantia saxo corpora et a
12. For the present cf. C. Nauerth, Vom Tod zum Leben. Die
figures from Egypt that are also skeletons or dried bodies (but
no mummies so it remains obscure why even Lloyd
suggests that Lucian, De luctu, 21 might belong in this
context).
13. On the meaning of this procedure cf. Plut. Is. 17 = mor.
357 F and Sept. Sap. Conv. 2 = mor. 148 A-B. On the memento
mori or carpe diem cf. e.g. G. Wohrle, 'Eine sehr hiibsche
Mahn-Mumie . . .' Zur Rezeption eines herodoteischen
Motivs, Hermes 118 (1990), 2 9 2 - 3 0 1 .
4. Teles, ed. Hense, 31, 9-10; 32, 1: Kal f\\ieig pev Kal ISeiv
XapfMvouaiv.
Diodorus 1.92.6: TO Se crwpa TiOeaaiv ol pev ISLOUS"
e X O ^ T e ? Tdcfjou? ev TOXS cUToSeSeiypevais' Of^ai?, ots 8'oux iJTrdpxoixn Ta<fxov KTf)creis", Kawbv oucnpa iTOLoOca
(rrrep yfjs- ^XovaiV5. Cf. the lists of funerary practices in Cicero, Silius Italicus,
Lucian and Sextus Empiricus. Cicero (note 4 above) refers to
1992), 60.
31
26. For a summary of these ideas see e.g. M. C. Root, Faces of 43. K. Parlasca, Mumienportrdts und verwandte Denkmaler
(Wiesbaden, 1966), 93-4 no. 20.
32