Probabilistic Engineering Mechanics 24 (2009) 210223

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Probabilistic Engineering Mechanics

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/probengmech

Assessment of the separation necessary to prevent seismic pounding between

linear structural systems
D. Lopez-Garcia a, , T.T. Soong b
a

Departamento de Ingenieria Estructural y Geotecnica, Pontificia Universidad Catolica de Chile, Av. Vicuna Mackenna 4860, Macul, Santiago 782-0436, Chile

Department of Civil, Structural & Environmental Engineering, University at Buffalo, 212 Ketter Hall, Buffalo, NY 14260, USA

article

info

Article history:
Received 2 July 2007
Received in revised form
28 May 2008
Accepted 12 June 2008
Available online 18 June 2008
Keywords:
Seismic pounding
Separation distance

a b s t r a c t
This study examines the accuracy of the Double Difference Combination (DDC) rule (also known simply
as the CQC rule) in predicting the separation necessary to prevent seismic pounding between linear
structural systems. Seismic excitations were modeled as modulated and filtered modulated Gaussian
white noise random processes, and adjacent structures were modeled as 5%-damped SDOF systems having
a wide range of values of natural periods. Results obtained through Monte Carlo simulations indicate that
the accuracy of the DDC rule depends not only on the ratio of the natural periods of the structures, but
also on the relationship between the values of the natural periods and the value of the period associated
with the main frequency of the excitation.
2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Seismic pounding occurs when the separation between adjacent buildings is not large enough to accommodate the displacement response of the structures relative to each other during
earthquake events. Depending on the characteristics of the colliding buildings [1], pounding might cause severe structural damage in some cases [2], and even collapse is possible in some
extreme situations [3]. Further, even in those cases where it does
not result in significant structural damage, pounding always induces higher floor accelerations in the form of large magnitude,
short duration pulses [4], which in turn cause greater damage to
building contents [2]. For these reasons, it is widely accepted that
pounding is an undesirable phenomenon that should be prevented
or mitigated. This is recognized in seismic design codes and regulations worldwide, which typically specify minimum separations to
be provided between adjacent buildings. For instance, according
to the 2003 edition of the International Building Code, minimum
separations are given by:

where S = separation distance and XA , XB = displacement response

of the adjacent structures A and B, respectively, at the location
where pounding is expected to occur (i.e., at the level coinciding
with the roof level of the shorter building [5]).
In Eqs. (1) and (2) the separation is obtained by combining
the quantities XA and XB according to the well known ABS and
SRSS combination rules, respectively. Previous studies [5,6] have
shown that the ABS rule is always conservative, and that the
degree of conservatism increases as the periods of the adjacent
structures become closer to each other. The same studies have
also shown that, as the periods of the adjacent structures become
closer to each other, results given by the SRSS rule evolve from
reasonably accurate (not always conservative) to very conservative
as well (but not as conservative as those given by the ABS rule).
Qualitatively, these observations apply to structures behaving
either linearly or nonlinearly.
A more rational approach to calculate minimum separations
between linear structures was proposed by Jeng et al. [5], who,
following a spectral difference method approach, derived the
Double Difference Combination (DDC) rule, i.e.:

S = XA + XB
(adjacent buildings separated by a property line)
S=

XA2 + XB2

(adjacent buildings located on the same property)

(1)

Corresponding author. Tel.: +56 2 354 7684; fax: +56 2 354 4243.
E-mail address: dlg@ing.puc.cl (D. Lopez-Garcia).

0266-8920/$ see front matter 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.probengmech.2008.06.002

(2)

S=

XA2 + XB2 2 XA XB

(3)

where is the well-known cross-correlation coefficient commonly

used in the Complete Quadratic Combination (CQC) rule of modal
responses of linear MDOF structures, and is given by [7,8]:

  1.5

T
TA
8 A B A + B TA
TB
B
= 
(4)

 2 2
 2   

 T A 2
T
T
TA
2
2
+ 4A B 1 + TA
+
4

1 TA
A
B
T
T
B

D. Lopez-Garcia, T.T. Soong / Probabilistic Engineering Mechanics 24 (2009) 210223

where TA , TB and A , B are the natural periods and damping ratios,

respectively, of the adjacent structures A and B. Because of
the similarity between Eq. (3) and the equation giving the CQC
combination of modal responses of linear MDOF systems, Eq. (3) is
sometimes also referred to simply as the CQC rule [911]. As shown
in several analytical studies [5,6,10,11], the DDC rule provides
reasonably accurate results regardless of whether TA and TB are
close to each other or not. Although Eq. (3) is, in a strict sense,
valid for SDOF systems only, it is also applicable to MDOF systems
whose first mode response accounts for a large portion of the
total response [5] (a rigorous, but not practical, random vibration
approach to calculate separations between linear MDOF systems
considering the contribution of higher modes can be seen in [12,
13]). The DDC rule has also been used to calculate separations
between nonlinear building structures, either considering Eq. (4)
to calculate [14,15], or considering alternative expressions for
intended to somehow take into account the nonlinear nature of
the response [6,9,16]. The degree of accuracy of these applications
of the DDC rule to nonlinear structures, however, turned out to be
much less than that corresponding to linear systems.
Eq. (4) gives the correlation between stationary displacement
response processes of linear SDOF systems subjected to white
noise excitations [7,8], and Eq. (3) was derived assuming that
the ratio of the mean peak displacement response of a linear
SDOF system (over a finite duration) to the corresponding RMS
displacement response value is independent of the parameters of
the system (natural period and damping ratio) [5]. Actual seismic
excitations, however, neither have white-noise characteristics
nor are stationary, and the mean-peak-displacement-response
to RMS-displacement-response ratio is not independent of the
system parameters, not even under stationary conditions [7]. For
these reasons, results obtained using the DDC rule can be expected
to exhibit some degree of error. The evaluation performed by Jeng
et al. [5] found that, when the seismic excitation consists of a
set of recorded seismic ground acceleration histories, the DDC
rule generally provides slightly conservative results, somewhat
more conservative when the periods of the structures are close
to each other. More recently, Hong et al. [10] found that, when
the seismic excitation is modeled as a random process, the DDC
rule is, under stationary conditions, slightly unconservative when
the periods of the structures are not close to each other, and
somewhat conservative otherwise. Finally, essentially the same
results were obtained by Wang and Hong [11], who modeled
the seismic excitation as a nonstationary random process. In the
latter studies [10,11], the exact relative displacement response
of adjacent linear systems (against which the estimates provided
by the DDC rule were compared) was calculated using approximate
analytical expressions (no exact analytical solutions are available
at this time).
The objective of this study is to provide further insight into the
accuracy of the DDC rule in predicting the separation necessary to
prevent seismic pounding between linear structural systems. This
study is similar to that by Wang and Hong [11] in that the seismic
excitation is modeled as a nonstationary random process, but is
different in that: (a) the exact relative displacement response
of adjacent linear systems is obtained through Monte Carlo
simulation; and (b) possible influence of others factor (e.g., the
relationship between the frequency content of the excitation and
the natural periods of the linear systems) is investigated.

211

Fig. 1. Adjacent structural systems A and B.

Fig. 2. Modulating function fe (t).

excitation is modeled as a Gaussian, zero-mean nonstationary

random process U g (t) whose evolutionary power spectral density
function SUg
(t , ) is given by:
2
SUg
(t , ) = [fe (t )] Sg ()

(5)

where t denotes time, indicates circular frequency, fe (t)

is a modulating (sometimes also referred to as envelope or
window) time function and Sg () is a stationary power spectral
density function. The modulating function fe (t) is assumed equal
to that initially proposed by Saragoni and Hart [17] and calibrated
later by Boore [18], which is given by:
fe (t ) = at b ect

(6)

where:

b

a=

TD

b=

1 + [ln ( 1)]

c=

(7)

ln ()

TD

(8)
(9)

where, in turn, TD is the duration of the excitation and and

are constants that define the shape of fe (t) (Fig. 2). In this study,
constants and are set equal to 0.05 and 0.20, respectively.
The displacement (relative to the ground) response processes
of the SDOF systems A and B are denoted by UA (t) and UB (t),
respectively, and the relative displacement response process UREL
(t) is given by:

2. Description of the evaluation procedure

UREL (t ) = UA (t ) UB (t ) .

Adjacent structural systems A and B are modeled as linear

SDOF systems (Fig. 1). Damping ratios A and B are assumed equal
to 5%, the value typically assumed in code-regulated procedures
for the analysis of conventional building structures. The seismic

It is emphasized that the expression relative displacement refers

to the displacement response of the SDOF systems A and B
relative to each other. Extreme values of processes UA (t), UB (t) and
UREL (t) are denoted by UAmax , UBmax and URELmax , respectively, and
their corresponding mean values are denoted by XA , XB and XREL .

(10)

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D. Lopez-Garcia, T.T. Soong / Probabilistic Engineering Mechanics 24 (2009) 210223

Fig. 3. Sample realization of a modulated white noise excitation process (TD = 15 s).

Estimates of XREL obtained using the DDC rule (i.e., calculated using
Eqs. (3) and (4)) are denoted by S.
Monte Carlo simulations (500 samples) are performed as
follows. Realizations u g (t) of the excitation process U g (t) are
generated according to standard simulation techniques [19,20].
Realizations uA (t) and uB (t) of response processes UA (t) and UB (t)
are obtained by numerically solving the corresponding equations
of motion, i.e.:
u A (t ) +
u B (t ) +

4 A
TA
4 B
TB

u A (t ) +
u B (t ) +

4 2
TA2
4 2
TB2

uA (t ) = u g (t )

(11)

uB (t ) = u g (t )

(12)

where the overdots indicate time derivatives. Realizations uREL (t)

of response process UREL (t) are obtained by:
uREL (t ) = uA (t ) uB (t ) .

(13)

Sample values of random variables UAmax , UBmax and URELmax are

obtained by:

also been shown [23] that the effects of traveling seismic waves are
also negligible when the distance between the adjacent structures
is relatively small. For these reasons, it was assumed that both
adjacent structures experience the same excitation at the same
time.
Finally, it must be noted that the extreme values of response
processes UA , UB and UREL calculated with Eqs. (14)(16) are
double-sided extreme values, while the values needed to correctly
estimate the separation necessary to avoid pounding are actually
one-sided extreme values [10,11]. However, double-sided extreme
values are considered because, in practice, the quantities XA and
XB in Eq. (3) are always estimates of double-sided extreme values,
and then, for consistency, values of S obtained using doublesided extreme values of processes UA and UB (i.e., XA and XB )
are compared with double-sided extreme values of process UREL
(i.e., XREL ). Monte Carlo simulations performed considering all the
excitation processes and all the combinations of natural periods TA
and TB that will be described later indicate that the ratio of doublesided extreme values to one-sided extreme values of the response
process UREL ranges from 1.01 to 1.10, i.e., double-sided extreme
values of UREL are only slightly conservative (by 10% at most).

uA max = maxt |uA (t )|

(14)

uB max = maxt |uB (t )|

(15)

3. Response to modulated white noise excitation

uREL max = maxt |uREL (t )|

(16)

If function Sg () is set equal to a constant value S0 , the

resulting excitation process U g (t) is then a modulated white noise.
For illustration purposes, a sample realization u g (t), generated
considering S0 = 200 cm2 /s3 , TD = 15 s and a constant time step
equal to 0.001 s, is shown in Fig. 3, and the corresponding sample
realizations uA (t), uB (t) and uREL (t) are shown in Fig. 4.
Values of the S /XREL ratio obtained by considering modulated
white noise excitation processes are shown in Figs. 5 and 6. The
range of selected values of duration TD is very similar to the
range of expected values of actual seismic excitations. Each dot
in Fig. 5 indicates the value of the S /XREL ratio for a particular
pair of adjacent structures A and B, where TB = 0.10 s,
0.15 s, . . . , 4.00 s, and TA = 0.05 s, 0.10 s, . . . , TB 0.05 s
(i.e., TA < TB ). The total number of dots in each plot of Fig. 5 is 3160.
Values of the S /XREL ratio are expressed as a function of the period
ratio TA /TB , which, since TA < TB , takes values between zero and
unity. The range of values of TA and TB resembles closely the range
of values of natural periods of actual building structures that might
be affected by seismic pounding. Cases where TA = TB were not
considered because the DDC rule correctly predicts in such cases
that both structural systems vibrate exactly in phase when A = B ,
and that no separation is then necessary (if TA = TB and A = B ,
then XA = XB , Eq. (4) gives = 1 and then Eq. (3) gives S = 0).
It can be observed in Fig. 5 that, when the value of the
period ratio is less than 0.75, the DDC rule is always slightly

and the corresponding mean values XA , XB and XREL are obtained by

averaging the sample values uAmax , uBmax and uRELmax , respectively.
Estimates S of the relative displacement response calculated
following the DDC rule (Eqs. (3) and (4)) are then compared
with the exact relative displacement response XREL . Results are
expressed in terms of the S /XREL ratio. Hence, values of the S /XREL
ratio that are greater than unity indicate that results provided by
the DDC rule are conservative, and the opposite is indicated by
values of the S /XREL ratio that are less than unity.
It is implicit in Eqs. (1) and (2) that it is assumed that both
adjacent structures experience the same excitation at the same
time. In reality, the seismic excitation experienced by a given
structural system is not exactly the same excitation acting on
an adjacent structure due to ground motion spatial variation.
However, since the distance between adjacent structures prone to
pounding is relatively small, ground motion spatial variation may
be ignored. It has been shown [21,22] that the influence of ground
motion spatial variation on the relative displacement response
of adjacent structures is relevant only in the case of very stiff
structures having relatively large horizontal dimensions, and only
when the natural periods of the structures are very close to each
other. In any case, even if both adjacent structures do experience
the same excitation, they do not experience it exactly at the same
time due to the traveling nature of seismic waves. However, it has

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213

Fig. 4. Sample realization uA (t ), uB (t ) and uREL (t ) of displacement response processes UA (t ), UB (t ), UREL (t ). Excitation process: modulated white noise (TD = 15 s).

unconservative (by 10% at most), and the S /XREL ratio seems to be

a function of the period ratio only, i.e., it is essentially independent
of the values of TA and TB . When the period ratio is greater than
0.75, on the other hand, the DDC rule is always conservative (by as
much as 75%), the degree of conservatism increases with increasing
values of the period ratio, and the S /XREL ratio does not seem to be a
function of the period ratio only. This last observation can be more
clearly appreciated in Fig. 6, where each line in each plot indicates
values of the S /XREL ratio for 99 pairs of adjacent structures A and
B, TB has a constant value and TA = 0.01TB , 0.02TB , . . . , 0.99TB
(hence, TA < TB in all cases). Indeed, results shown in Fig. 6 confirm
that, when TA /TB > 0.75, the S /XREL ratio is a function not only of
the period ratio but also of the values of TA and TB : the greater the
values of TA and TB , the more conservative the DDC rule.
Finally, it is also observed in Figs. 5 and 6 that the accuracy of
the DDC rule improves as the duration of the excitation increases.
This last observation was expected since, as the duration of the
excitation increases, the characteristics of response processes UA

(t), UB (t) and UREL (t) become more similar to those corresponding
to the stationary conditions under which the equation of the DDC
rule was derived.
4. Response to modulated filtered white noise
More realistic seismic excitation processes can be obtained
by filtering, in the frequency domain, a process having whitenoise characteristics. A widely used filtered white noise excitation
process is that defined by the modified KanaiTajimi equation,
sometimes also referred to as the CloughPenzien equation, which
is given by [19]:
Sg () = HCP () HKT () S0

(17)

where:
HKT () =

g4 + 4g2 g2 2

2
g2 2 + 4g2 g2 2

(18)

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D. Lopez-Garcia, T.T. Soong / Probabilistic Engineering Mechanics 24 (2009) 210223

Fig. 5. Values of the S /XREL ratio: modulated white noise excitation process.

is the KanaiTajimi filter (defined by parameters g and g ), and:

HCP () =

4


2
f2 2 + 4f2 f2 2

(19)

is the CloughPenzien filter (defined by parameters f and f ).

The KanaiTajimi filter amplifies the white-noise intensity S0 in
the vicinity of frequency g , and reduces the intensity S0 at
relatively large values of . The size of the range of frequencies at
which the intensity S0 is amplified is controlled by the parameter
g , which takes values between zero and unity. As the value of
parameter g increases, the range of frequencies at which the
intensity S0 is amplified increases as well, and the characteristics
of the frequency content of the process evolve from those typical
of narrow-band processes to those representative of wide-band
processes. The CloughPenzien filter is introduced in order to make
Sg () tend to zero as tends to zero, as observed in power spectral
density functions of actual earthquake records. This is achieved by

conveniently setting the values of parameters f and f . It can be

shown that, when Sg () is given by the modified KanaiTajimi
(Eqs. (17)(19)), the corresponding main frequency m (i.e., the
frequency at which Sg () takes its maximum value) is given by:

r
1 +
m =

1 + 8g2

2g

(20)

which is not a function of f and f because, typically, HCP (m )

= 1.
Fig. 7 shows the function Sg () given by Eq. (17) when g =
12.50 rad/s, g = 0.60, f = 2.00 rad/s, f = 0.70 and
S0 = 200 cm2 /s3 . The figure also illustrates the effect of each
of the filters of the modified KanaiTajimi equation. The main
frequency is m = 10.26 rad/s Eq. (20). For illustration purposes, a
sample realization u g (t) of the resulting modulated filtered white
noise excitation process U g (t), generated considering TD = 30 s

D. Lopez-Garcia, T.T. Soong / Probabilistic Engineering Mechanics 24 (2009) 210223

215

Fig. 6. Values of the S /XREL ratio: modulated white noise excitation process.

and a constant time step equal to 0.005 s, is shown in Fig. 8. The

corresponding 5%-damped mean pseudo-acceleration response
spectrum (Fig. 9) is similar to average spectra of actual seismic
accelerations recorded on firm soil conditions. Note that the period
at which the mean spectrum reaches its maximum value is 0.40
s, which does not coincide with the period Tm associated with m
(= 2 /10.26 rad/s = 0.60 s in this case). Figs. 7 and 8 indicate
that the process has wide-band characteristics, which is consistent
with the relatively large value of parameter g .
Values of the S /XREL ratio obtained by considering the
modulated filtered white noise excitation process described above
are shown in Figs. 10 and 11. The sets of pairs of adjacent
structures A and B considered in these figures are the same sets
considered in Figs. 5 and 6, respectively. A comparison between
Figs. 10 and 11 and Figs. 5 and 6 (plot corresponding to TD = 30 s)
reveals that, while most of the observations made when describing
the results shown in Figs. 5 and 6 are still valid for the results
shown in Figs. 10 and 11, there are a few differences. Firstly, the

DDC rule is now always conservative when TA /TB > 0.80 rather
than when TA /TB > 0.75. Secondly, when TA /TB < 0.80, the S /XREL
ratio is now a function not only of the period ratio but also, up
to some degree, of the values of TA and TB as well (Fig. 11 shows
that, the greater the values of TA and TB , the more unconservative
the DDC rule, up to 13% in this case). Finally, the DDC rule is
now not always unconservative when TA /TB < 0.80, i.e., Fig. 10
shows that there are a few cases for which S /XREL > 1 when
TA /TB < 0.80. It was found that periods TA and TB are, in all of
these cases, relatively small. More insight into this last observation
is provided by Fig. 12, which was obtained by considering several
pairs of adjacent structures A and B, where TA = 0.050 s,
0.055 s, . . . , 0.750 s and TB = 0.050 s, 0.055 s, . . . , 0.750 s.
When the excitation is a modulated white noise (Fig. 12, left),
the contour lines separating the conservative (S /XREL > 1) and
unconservative (S /XREL < 1) regions essentially coincide with
the lines analytically expressed by TB = 0.75TA and TB = 1.33TA ,
an observation that is entirely consistent with what was observed

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D. Lopez-Garcia, T.T. Soong / Probabilistic Engineering Mechanics 24 (2009) 210223

Fig. 7. Modified KanaiTajimi modulated filtered white noise excitation process: power spectral density function Sg () (g = 12.50 rad/s, g = 0.60, f = 2.00 rad/s,
f = 0.70 and S0 = 200 cm2 /s3 ).

Fig. 8. Modified KanaiTajimi modulated filtered white noise excitation process (g = 12.50 rad/s, g = 0.60, f = 2.00 rad/s, f = 0.70 and S0 = 200 cm2 /s3 ): sample
realization (TD = 30 s).

Fig. 9. Modified KanaiTajimi modulated filtered white noise excitation process (g = 12.50 rad/s, g = 0.60, f = 2.00 rad/s, f = 0.70 and S0 = 200 cm2 /s3 and
TD = 30 s): mean pseudo-acceleration response spectrum (damping ratio = 0.05).

in Figs. 5 and 6. When the excitation is the modulated filtered

white noise described above, on the other hand (Fig. 12, right), the
contour lines separating the conservative and unconservative

regions exhibit a different pattern when the values of TA and

TB are relatively small. Recalling that Tm = 0.60 s in this
case, the DDC rule is now also conservative essentially when

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217

Fig. 10. Values of the S /XREL ratio: modified KanaiTajimi modulated filtered white noise excitation process (g = 12.50 rad/s, g = 0.60, f = 2.00 rad/s, f = 0.70,
S0 = 200 cm2 /s3 and TD = 30 s).

Fig. 11. Values of the S /XREL ratio: modified KanaiTajimi modulated filtered white noise excitation process (g = 12.50 rad/s, g = 0.60, f = 2.00 rad/s, f = 0.70,
S0 = 200 cm2 /s3 and TD = 30 s).

Fig. 12. Contour lines of values of the S /XREL ratio: [left] modulated white noise (TD = 30 s); [right] modified KanaiTajimi modulated filtered white noise excitation process
(g = 12.50 rad/s, g = 0.60, f = 2.00 rad/s, f = 0.70, S0 = 200 cm2 /s3 and TD = 30 s).

TB < Tm TA regardless of the value of the period ratio. In passing,

it is perhaps opportune to mention that contour lines for other
values of the S /XREL ratio were calculated (a single contour plot
was initially planned instead of Figs. 1012), but, especially in the
conservative region, they turned out to be very close to each
other, making the figure confusing and not adequate to draw clear,
unambiguous conclusions.

In order to get more insight into the possible influence of the

frequency content of the seismic excitation on the accuracy of
the DDC rule, a second modulated filtered white noise excitation
process was obtained by setting g = 7.50 rad/s, g = 0.30, f =
2.00 rad/s, f = 0.70 and S0 = 200 cm2 /s3 . The characteristics
of the resulting process (Fig. 13) are similar to those typical of
seismic excitations recorded on soft soil. The corresponding main

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D. Lopez-Garcia, T.T. Soong / Probabilistic Engineering Mechanics 24 (2009) 210223

Fig. 13. Modified KanaiTajimi modulated filtered white noise excitation process (g = 7.50 rad/s, g = 0.30, f = 2.00 rad/s, f = 0.70, S0 = 200 cm2 /s3 and
TD = 30 s): [top] sample realization; [bottom] mean pseudo-acceleration response spectrum (damping ratio = 0.05).

frequency is m = 6.98 rad/s and the associated period is

Tm = 0.90 s, which again does not coincide with the period at
which the mean pseudo-acceleration response spectrum reaches
its maximum value (=0.80 s). Fig. 13 indicates that the process
has in this case characteristics that are intermediate between
those typical of wide-band excitations and those representative of
narrow-band processes.
The resulting values of the S /XREL ratio are shown in Fig. 14.
Fig. 14 (top) shows that, while the S /XREL vs. TA /TB relationship is, in
most cases, again the same main relationship described before, the
number of cases not conforming to the main relationship is now
greater. Results shown in Fig. 14 (bottom) seems to indicate that,
again, the S /XREL vs. TA /TB relationship might be characterized in
terms of Tm (=0.90 s in this case). When TB is definitely greater than
Tm (i.e., the lines corresponding to TB = 2.0 s and 4.0 s), the S /XREL
vs. TA /TB relationship follow exactly the main pattern described
before. When TB is close to, but still greater than, Tm (i.e., the lines
corresponding to TB = 1.0 s), the S /XREL vs. TA /TB relationship
still follow essentially, but not exactly, the same main pattern
mentioned before. When TB is definitely less than Tm , however
(i.e., the line corresponding to TB = 0.50 s), the S /XREL vs. TA /TB
relationship has now different characteristics. In this latter case,
the DDC rule turns out to be always conservative, the more so as
the value of the period ratio TA /TB increases. Fig. 15 empirically
confirms that, indeed, the accuracy of the DDC rule might be
characterized
in terms of Tm : in the region roughly defined by TB <
q
Tm2 TA2 , the DDC rule is again always conservative regardless of

the value of the period ratio.

Finally, a third modulated filtered white noise excitation
process was obtained by setting g = 2.50 rad/s, g = 0.10,

f = 0.30 rad/s, f = 0.70 and S0 = 200 cm2 /s3 , which defines a

frequency content similar to that corresponding to the seismic
excitations recorded in Mexico City during the 1985 Mexico
earthquakes [16,20] The resulting process (Fig. 16) has definitely
narrow-band characteristics, and is representative of an extreme
case of seismic excitations (i.e., those recorded on thick layers
of very soft soil). The corresponding main frequency is m =
2.48 rad/s, and the associated period is Tm = 2.54 s, which
again does not coincide with the period at which the mean
pseudo-acceleration response spectrum reaches its maximum
value (=2.45 s).
The resulting values of the S /XREL ratio are shown in Fig. 17.
Fig. 17 (top) shows that, as the value of the period ratio TA /TB
increases, the range of possible values of the S /XREL ratio increases
as well, ranging from somewhat unconservative (at most 20%) to
extremely conservative (up to 300%, out of the scale of the plots).
Fig. 17 (bottom), however, shows that, again, what at first sight
might look somewhat chaotic, may be characterized in terms of Tm
(=2.54 s in this case): while the line corresponding to cases where
TB > Tm , (i.e., the line corresponding to TB = 4.0 s) still follow
the same main pattern described before, the lines corresponding to
cases where TB < Tm , (i.e., the lines corresponding to TB = 0.50 s,
1.00 s and 2.00 s,) have the characteristics mentioned before when
describing the results for the same cases (i.e., TB < Tm ) obtained
considering the second modulated filtered white noise excitation
process: the DDC rule is always conservative in these cases, the
more so as the value of the period ratio TA /TB increases. It can also
be observed that, when TB < Tm , the S /XREL ratio is a function not
only of the period ratio but also of the actual values of TA and TB : the
lesser the values of TA and TB , the more conservative the DDC rule.

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219

Fig. 14. Values of the S /XREL ratio: modified KanaiTajimi modulated filtered white noise excitation process (g = 7.50 rad/s, g = 0.30, f = 2.00 rad/s, f = 0.70,
S0 = 200 cm2 /s3 and TD = 30 s).

Fig. 15. Contour lines of values of the S /XREL ratio: modified KanaiTajimi
modulated filtered white noise excitation process (g = 7.50 rad/s, g = 0.30,
f = 2.00 rad/s, f = 0.70, S0 = 200 cm2 /s3 and TD = 30 s).

Fig. 18 confirms once again that the accuracy of the DDC rule may
be characterized in
q terms of Tm : as before, in the region roughly
defined by TB <

Tm2 TA2 , the DDC rule is always conservative

regardless of the period ratio.

5. Main frequency of design response spectra
Fig. 19 show examples of typical design response spectra
(damping ratio = 5%) indicated in many seismic design codes,

guidelines and regulations worldwide. The particular examples

shown in Fig. 19 were obtained following the procedure described
in the ASCE 7-05 standard Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and
Other Structures [24]. They were obtained assuming that spectral
response acceleration parameters SS and S1 are equal to 1.5 g
and 0.6 g, respectively, and considering soil types B (i.e., firm
rock) and E (i.e., soft soil). The spectral shapes of the spectra
shown in Fig. 19 are typical of design response spectra in the sense
that there is a range of periods at which the pseudo-acceleration
has a constant value (i.e., the constant acceleration region of the
spectrum), followed by a range of periods at which the value of
the pseudo-acceleration is inversely proportional to the value of
the period (i.e., the constant velocity region of the spectrum).
In order to investigate the frequency content associated with
design spectral shapes, modulated filtered white noise excitation
processes were defined in such a way that their corresponding
mean (5% damped) pseudo-acceleration response spectra match
the design spectra described above. When the modulating function
of the excitation processes is again given by Eq. (6) and TD is set
equal to 30 s, the resulting functions Sg (), obtained numerically
through an iterative procedure, are those shown in Fig. 20. In both
cases, the main frequency of the excitation processes turned out
to be sharply defined, and equal to the frequency associated with
the period defining the limit between the constant-acceleration
and constant-velocity regions of the design spectra. The general
validity of this empirical finding was confirmed by examining
other examples found in the literature [2527]. For illustration
purposes, sample realizations of the modulated filtered white
noise excitation processes compatible with design response
spectra are shown in Fig. 21, and values of the corresponding S /XREL

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Fig. 16. Modified KanaiTajimi modulated filtered white noise excitation process (g = 2.50 rad/s, g = 0.10, f = 0.30 rad/s, f = 0.70, S0 = 200 cm2 /s3 and
TD = 30 s): [top] sample realization; [bottom] mean pseudo-acceleration response spectrum (damping ratio = 0.05).

Fig. 17. Values of the S /XREL ratio: modified KanaiTajimi modulated filtered white noise excitation process (g = 2.50 rad/s, g = 0.10, f = 0.30 rad/s, f = 0.70,
S0 = 200 cm2 /s3 and TD = 30 s).

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221

6. Conclusions

Fig. 18. Contour lines of values of the S /XREL ratio: modified KanaiTajimi
modulated filtered white noise excitation process (g = 2.50 rad/s, g = 0.10,
f = 0.30 rad/s, f = 0.70, S0 = 200 cm2 /s3 and TD = 30 s).

ratios are shown in Fig. 22. The latter figure indicates again that
the accuracy of the DDC rule can be characterized, for practical
purposes, in terms of Tm : in the region roughly defined by TB <
Tm TA , the DDC rule is always conservative regardless of the value
of the period ratio.

In this study, the accuracy of the DDC rule in predicting

the separation necessary to prevent seismic pounding between
linear structural systems was examined. Adjacent structures were
modeled as 5%-damped SDOF systems, and the range of natural
periods considered is essentially the same range of possible natural
periods of actual building structures prone to seismic pounding.
Modulated and filtered modulated Gaussian white noise random
processes were considered as seismic excitations, and the response
of the structural systems was evaluated through Monte Carlo
simulations. It was found that the accuracy of the DDC rule depends
not only on the ratio between the natural periods TA and TB
of the adjacent structural systems A and B, as suggested in
former studies, but also on the relationship between TA , TB and
the period Tm associated with the main frequency of the excitation
m . Further, it was also found that, qualitatively, the relationship
between the accuracy of the DDC rule and the periods TA , TB
and Tm is, for practical purposes, essentially invariant, i.e., it does
not depend on whether the excitation has wide- or narrow-band
characteristics, or on whether the value of Tm is relatively large or
small. If the natural periods TA and TB are defined in such a way
that TA < TB (thus, 0 < TA /TB < 1), then results shown in this
study lead to conclude that, for practical purposes, the accuracy of
the DDC rule can be characterized in general terms as follows:
(1) When TB < Tm TA , the DDC rule is always conservative. The
degree of conservatism increases with increasing values of the
TA / TB ratio and, for a given value of the TA /TB ratio, increases
with decreasing values of TA and TB .

Fig. 19. Design 5%-damped response spectra.

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Fig. 20. Modulated filtered white noise excitation processes compatible with design response spectra (TD = 30 s): power spectral density functions Sg ().

Fig. 21. Modulated filtered white noise excitation processes compatible with design response spectra (TD = 30 s): sample realizations.

(2) When TB > Tm TA , the accuracy of the DDC rule depends on

the value of the TA /TB ratio:

when the value of the TA /TB ratio is greater than 0.75,

the DDC rule is again always conservative. The degree of
conservatism increases with increasing values of the TA /TB
ratio and, for a given value of the TA /TB ratio, increases with
increasing values of TA and TB .

when the value of the TA /TB ratio is less than 0.75, the DDC
rule is always unconservative, at most by 13% in the case
of seismic excitations expected at most sites, and up to 20%
in the extreme case of excitations having markedly narrowband characteristics.
(3) When the seismic excitation is characterized in terms of a design response spectrum, the period Tm associated with the main
frequency m is the period defining the boundary between

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223

Fig. 22. Contour lines of values of the S /XREL ratio: modulated filtered white noise excitation process compatible with design response spectra (TD = 30 s).

the constant-acceleration and constant-velocity regions of the

spectrum.
The boundary between the above mentioned situations (1) and
(2) was actually found to evolve from TB = Tm q
TA when the
excitation has wide-band characteristics to TB =

Tm2 TA2 when

the excitation has narrow-band characteristics. However, keeping

in mind that, for practical purposes, design recommendations
should be expressed in somewhat simplified terms and should be
on the conservative side, the boundary TB = Tm TA is deemed
adequate for all kinds of excitations because it is conservative
(i.e., when the excitation does have narrow-band characteristics,
it indicates that theqDDC rule is unconservative in cases where
Tm TA < TB <

Tm2 TA2 , whereas in reality the DDC rule is

actually slightly conservative in these cases).

Acknowledgements
The research described in this paper was financially supported
by MCEER (Buffalo, USA) and by the Pontificia Universidad Catolica
de Chile (Santiago, Chile). This support is gratefully acknowledged.
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