ME-GATE Additional Syllabus PDF

GATE 16 - ME Additional Syllabus
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CONTENTS
Page No.
STRENGTH OF MATERIALS ............................................................................
1 43
1. Strain Gauge and Rosette.......................................................................
1.1 Strain Gauge......................................................................................
1.2 Strain Gauge Rosettes .......................................................................
Practice Questions.............................................................................
12
2. Universal Testing Machine ....................................................................
15
2.1 Introduction .......................................................................................
15
2.2 Universal Testing Machine ...............................................................
16
2.3 Electrical Equipment .........................................................................
22
2.4 Installations .......................................................................................
22
2.5 Method of Testing .............................................................................
23
2.6 Attendance and Maintenance ............................................................
24
25
3. TESTING AND HARDNESS ................................................................
27
3.1 Introduction .......................................................................................
27
3.2 Brinell Hardness Test ........................................................................
28
3.3 Rockwell Hardness Test ...................................................................
31
3.4 Vickers Hardness Test ......................................................................
32
35
4. IMPACT TESTS.....................................................................................
37
4.1 Introduction .......................................................................................
37
4.2 Impact Testing Machine ...................................................................
37
42
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THEORY OF MACHINES ................................................................................... 44 193

1. Cams and Gears ......................................................................................
44
1.1 Cams .................................................................................................
44
1.2 Gears .................................................................................................
52
62
2. Governors ................................................................................................
72
2.1 Introduction .......................................................................................
72
2.2 Types of Governors...........................................................................
72
2.3 Watt Governor (Simple Conical Governor) ......................................
73
2.4 Porter Governor ................................................................................
76
2.5 Proell Governor.................................................................................
82
2.6 Hartnell Governor .............................................................................
86
2.7 Hartung Governor .............................................................................
93
2.8 Wilson-Hartnell Governor ................................................................
95
2.9 Pickering Governor ...........................................................................
98
2.10 Spring-Controlled Gravity Governor ................................................
100
2.11 Inertia Governor ................................................................................
102
2.12 Sensitiveness of a Governor..............................................................
105
2.13 Hunting .............................................................................................
105
2.14 Isochronism .......................................................................................
105
2.15 Stability .............................................................................................
106
2.16 Effect of a Governor .........................................................................
106
2.17 Power of a Governor .........................................................................
107
2.18 Controlling Force ..............................................................................
113
121
3. Balancing .................................................................................................
125
3.1 Introduction .......................................................................................
125
3.2 Static Balancing ................................................................................
126
3.3 Dynamic Balancing...........................................................................
129
3.4 Transference of a force from one plane to another ...........................
129
3.5 Balancing of several masses in different planes ...............................
130
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3.6 Balancing of reciprocating mass .......................................................
137
3.7 Balancing of Locomotives ................................................................
140
3.8 Effects of partial balancing in Locomotives .....................................
141
3.9 Secondary Balancing ........................................................................
147
3.10 Balancing of Inline Engines ..............................................................
148
3.11 Balancing of V-Engines ....................................................................
155
3.12 Field Balancing .................................................................................
160
164
4. Gyroscope ................................................................................................
167
4.1 Introduction .......................................................................................
167
4.2 Motion of a rigid body in three dimensions ......................................
167
4.3 Rigid bodies in Spheric motion.........................................................
168
4.4 Eulers equation of motion................................................................
171
4.5 Simple precession of a symmetrical rotor .........................................
172
4.6 Gyrodynamics ...................................................................................
178
4.7 Gyroscopic effects in machines ........................................................
181
186
THERMAL SCIENCE .......................................................................................... 194 220

1. Thermodynamic Relation.......................................................................
194
1.1 van der Waals Equations ...................................................................
194
1.2 Important Mathematical Relations ....................................................
197
1.3 Evaluating Changes in Entropy, Internal Energy, and Enthalpy ......
204
1.4 Volume Expansivity, Isothermal and Isentropic Compressibility ....
211
217
HEAT TRANSFER ................................................................................................ 221 231

1. Heisler Chart ...........................................................................................
221
1.1 Transient Heat Conduction in Solids with Finite Conduction

and Convective Resistances (0<Bi<100) ........................................
221
229
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STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
1. STRAIN GAUGES AND ROSETTE

1.1
Strain Gauge
Strain
When a material is stretched (or compressed), the force used generates a corresponding stress
inside. This stress in turn generates a proportional tensile strain (or compressive strain) which
deforms the material by L L or L L . Where L is the original of the material. When this
occurs, the ratio of L to L is called strain.
L
2
L
2
Figure: 1.1
L
L
where : strain
L: original length of material
L: Increment due to force P
Example 1.1:
when a material of 100mm length deforms by 0.1mm length, it generates strain as follows:
L 0.1
0.001 1000 105

L 100
Strain Gauge
External force applied to a ferritic material generates physical deformation and electrical
resistance changes of the material. In case that such material is sticked onto test specimen via
electrical insulation, the material produces a change of electrical resistance corresponding to the
deformation. Strain gauges consist of electrical resistance material and measure proportional
strains to the resistance changes.
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Strain Gauge Principles

When strain is generated in a test specimen and a strain gauge is attached, the strain is relayed via
the gauge base (electrical insulation) to the resistance wire or foil in the gauge. As a result, the
fine wire or foil experiences a variation in electrical resistance. This variation is exactly to the
strain.
L R R
L
K
where : strain measured
R : Gauge resistance
R : Resistance change due to strain
K : Gauge Factor as shown on package
Strain Gauge Configuration
A strain gauge is constructed by bonding a fine electric resistance wire or photographically etched
metallic resistance foil to an electrical insulation using an appropriate bonding materials and
attaching gauge leads.
Turn tabs
Gauge length
Turn tabs
Gauge width
Gauge lead
Grid
Figure: 1.2
Selecting Strain Gauges

Strain gauges are provided with many convenient features, but they also have limitations. Each
strain gauge has its limitations in terms of temperature, fatigue, the amount of strain, and the
measurement environment. These limitations must be examined before a strain gauge is used.
Strain Gauge Featuring
Simple construction with a small mass and volume so as not to interfere with the stresses on
the specimen.
Short distance between measuring points for localized evaluation.
Good frequency response for tracking rapid fluctuations in stress.
Simultaneous measurement of multiple points and remote measurement.
Electrical output, for easy data processing.
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Gauge Length
The dimension represents the actual grid length in the sensitive direction.
Gauge Resistance
Gauge resistance in ohms expresses electrical resistance under free conditions at room
temperature, unbounded as supplied.
Gauge Factor
The amount shown in the following equation is called the gauge factor. In this equation,
indicates the strain generated due to uniaxial stress in the direction of the strain gauge axis. R R
shows the ratio of resistance change due to strain . This is generally indicated by specifying the
Poissons ratio of the test specimen used.
R R
K
Where
K: Gauge Factor
: Mechanical strain
R : Gauge Resistance
R : Resistance variation
Transverse Sensitivity (Kt)
The gauge also exhibits sensitivity in the direction perpendicular to the axial direction. The
amount shown in the following equation due to the uniaxial strain t the direction perpendicular
to the gauge axis, and the resistance variation generated thereby is called transverse sensitivity
(Kt).
R R
Kt
100
t
where
K t : Transverse sensitivity
t : uniaxial strain
Temperature compensation Range

This refers to a temperature in which the thermal output of a self-temperature compensated gauge
conforms to the requirement. Compensation is accurate within approximately 1.8 106
strain/oC. For greater accuracy, corrections can be made using the curves for apparent strain vs.
temperature which are supplied with each package of gauge.
Self-temperature Compensated Gauges
The ambient temperature change may cause a variation of strain gauge resistance. The amount of
variation is subject to the thermal expansion of both the strain gauge material and the specimen,
together with the thermal coefficient of resistance of the gauge material. Self-temperature
compensated gauges are commonly used to minimize the gauge thermal output when bonded to
test specimens having a specific linear thermal expansion coefficient in the specimen temperature
range. The following graph shows an example of thermal output.
Thermal output (10-6 strain)
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200
1.8 106
1.8 106
100
0
100
200
0
20
40
Temperature
60
80
C
o
Figure: 1.3
Operational temperature Range

The temperature range listed in the normal column of the selection is for stable static
measurement. The short-term or Special column indicates the range for dynamic measurement,
short term measurement or measurement without temperature change.
Strain Limit
The strain limit or allowable elongation percent depends on the properties of the wire, foil
material, backing, and adhesive used. In general, the strain limit for a gauge with a short gauge
length is slightly lower than that for one with a longer gauge length in the same series.
Fatigue Life
When strain is repeatedly applied to the gauge, it causes increased resistance under zero strain,
peeling-off of the gauge, or disconnection resulting in failure. The number of repeated cycles that
the gauge can endure is called its fatigue life. It is generally indicated by the repletion number
under the specified conditions of strain amount and repletion speed as apparent strain drifts to 100
10-6 strain from the beginning. The fatigue life of TML gauges depends mainly on the properties
of the backing material and adhesive used. This varies somewhat with size and configuration of
the grid. In general, larger gauges exhibit better fatigue performance. It is advisable to use foil
gauges where maximum resistance to fatigue is required.
Strain Gauge Shape
TML also supplies strain gauge in different patterns for a range of applications. Select the
appropriate gauge patterns for your application.
Qty. of
elements
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Gauge
pattern
Nomenclature
Single element
2-element cross
Stacked type
3 element Rosette
3 element Rosette
Stacked type
Plane type
Grid layout
Qty. of
elements
2-element cross
Plane type
5
Gauge
pattern
Nomenclature
Grid layout
5-element Single-axis
Gauge Length Selection

Different gauge length should be selected depending on the specimen. Gauges with short gauge
lengths are used to measure localized strain, while gauges with long lengths can be used to
measure averaged stress over a larger area. For a heterogeneous material, a gauge length is
required that can average out the irregular stresses in the material. For example, because concrete
is composed of cement and an aggregate (gravel or sand, etc.), the length of the gauge used is
three times the diameter of the gravel pieces so as to give an averaged evaluation of the concrete.
Gauge length
0.2~1 mm
2~6 mm
10~20 mm
30~120 mm
Gauge applications
For stress concentration measurement
For metal and general use
For mortar, FRP, etc.
For concrete
Frequency Response
The frequency response of a strain gauge is determined by the gauge length and the longitudinal
elastic wave speed of the test specimen.
Gauge length (mm)
0.2
10
30
60
Steel [kHz]
660
530
360
270
170
120
50
20
Concrete [kHz]
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Gauge Width
Strain gauges with the same gauge length are also available in a narrower width (FLK-type).
Select narrow strain gauges for thin specimens such as cylindrical pipes, etc.
F L A type
F L K type
Figure: 1.4
Strain Gauge Measurement

When strain is generated in a test specimen and a strain gauge is attached, the strain is relayed via
the gauge base (electrical insulation) to the resistance wire or foil in gauge. As a result, the fine
wire or foil experiences a variation in electrical resistance. This variation is exactly proportional to
the strain.
L R R
L
K
where
: strain measured
R : Gauge resistance
R : Resistance change due to strain
K: Gauge Factor
Normally, this resistance change is very small and requires a Wheatstone bridge circuit to convert
it to voltage output.
R1
R2
Voltage
output
R3
R4
Exiciting
voltage
Figure: 1.5
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The voltage output of a bridge circuit is given as follows
R 1R 3 R 2 R 4
E
R1 R 2 R 3 R 4
where
e: Voltage output
E: Exciting voltage
R 1 : Gauge resistance
R 2 ~ R 4 : Fixed resistance
Assuming the value R such that R R 1 R 2 R 3 R 4 , the active gauge resistance varies to
R R due to strain. Thus, the output voltage e (variation) due to the strain is given as
follows.
R
e
E
4R 2R
When R R,
e
R
E
E K
4R
4
The strain gauge is connected to a strain meter, which provides the Wheatstone bridge circuit and
exciting input voltage. The strain is measured on a digit or analog display.
1.2
Strain Gage Rosettes

Strain gage rosettes consist of two or more co-located strain gages oriented at a fixed angle with
respect to each other. Strict co-location of the gages requires mounting each individual gage on
top of the others in what is called a stacked rosette, but this leads to a complicated and often
inaccurate type of gage. The more common approach is to place the gages in a tightly packed
pattern as close as possible to the rosette center. Rosettes typically involve 2, 3 or 4 strain gages
with relative orientations of 30, 45, 60 or 90.
At least 3 independent strain readings are needed to define the 2D state of strain if no other
information is available so the 3-gage rosettes are the most popular (the 90 2-gage rosette can be
used to measure principal strains when the principal direction is known and the gage can be
oriented accordingly). The Rectangular Rosette and the Delta Rosette are the most commonly
used 3-gage rosettes because of their simple geometry.
Rectangular Rosette Gage Equations
Given the measurement of 3 independent strains from the 3 gages in a rectangular rosette it is
possible to calculate the principal strains and their orientation with respect to the rosette gage. It
is also readily possible to calculate the state of strain at the gage location with respect to any
particular xy axis system using either the rosette readings or the principal strains and their axis
orientation. To illustrate this, consider a situation in which the rosette is oriented with gages
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labeled A, B and C at 45 apart as shown in Figure 1.6. Assume also that the principal strains at
the rosette are oriented at an angle, , to the rosette gage A axis. For this case, it is easy to use the
strain transformation equations to calculate the strain in each rosette gage in terms of the principal
strains and the angle, , (simply assume x=1 and y=2 and compute x for angles of rotation ,
+45, and +90) to yield three equations

1 2 1 2
cos 2
2
2

B 1 2 1 2 cos 2 45o
2
2

c 1 2 1 2 cos 2 90o
2
2
A
(1.1a)
(1.1b)
(1.1c)
These are 3 simultaneous equations relating A , B , C to 1 , 2 , . It is a relatively simple matter to

invert the equations and solve for 1 , 2 , in terms of A , B , C yielding:
1,2
A C
1
2
2
A B
B C
(1.2a,b)
2 B C
1
tan 1 A
2
A C
(1.2c)
Equation1.2 can be used to compute the principal strains and the principal axis orientation directly
from the rectangular rosette gage readings. Note that there are many different possible gage
numbering arrangements besides the particular A,B,C layout here, and they can lead to forms for
the final results shown above but with A, B and C interchanged.)
2
Gage B
Gage C
Gage A
45
45
Figure 1.6: Rectangular Rosette Gage Orientation
It should be noted that the above results can also be developed directly from the Mohrs Circle
representation with about the same amount of effort and perhaps a bit more visualization of the
results. It is somewhat simpler to assume an x-y axis system with the rosette oriented such that
gage A is along the x axis and gage C is along the y axis. From equation 1.1 it follows that
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1
1
1
x y x y cos 2 00 xy sin 2 00 x
2
2
2
1
1
1
1
1
x y x y cos 2 45o xy sin 2 45o x y xy
2
2
2
2
2
1
1
1
x y x y cos 2 90o xy sin 2 90o y
2
2
2
These equations can readily be solved for the strains in the x-y system
x A
y C
xy 2 B A C
This defines the strain state at the rosette with respect to the assumed x-y axis system. It is a
simple matter to now construct a Mohrs Circle and from this to compute the principal strains and
their orientation with respect to the x-y axis (and therefore the rosette). Figure 1.7 summarizes
these results: It is a simple matter to compute 1 and 2 from the Mohrs Circle center and radius
given in Figure 1.7, and the results are identical to equation 1.2 above. Figure 1.7 also reveals
clearly that the maximum shear strain is given by 2 times the radius of the Mohrs Circle, and in
this case it can be computed in terms of principal strains as
max 1 2 2.
1
12
2
2
R 0.5 A B 0.5 B C
C
2
0.5tan 1 2B A C A C
2B A C
A C
A C
A
xy 2
Figure 1.7: Mohrs Circle for a Rectangular Rosette
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Delta Rosette
The Delta Rosette consists of the 3 strain gages oriented at 120 to each other as legs of an
equilateral triangle. As for the Rectangular Rosette, Figure 1.8 shows the gage orientation but this
time with gages A, B and C, 60 apart. (Note that although it is shown at 240 from gage A, the
gage B axis also bisects the gage A and gage C axes and can therefore also be considered at
making an angle of 60 to A and C. As before, it is simply a matter of applying the strain
transformation equation from the principal axes to gage A at , gage B at +60 and gage C at
+120, yielding 3 equations in 3 unknowns.
2
Gage C
120
120
Gage A
Gage B
Figure 1.8: Delta Rosette Gage Orientation
Following a similar approach to that employed for the analysis of the Rectangular Rosette, it is
possible to show that the principal strain are given by:
1,2
A B C
2
3
3
A B
B C C A
(1.3)
3 C B
1
tan 1
2
2 A B C
Principal Stresses
It should be pointed out that the above results involve strain only and do not describe the state of
stress at the rosette. In order to determine the stress state, it is necessary to use the stress- strain
relations to express the stress components in terms of the strain components. For linearly elastic
(Hookean) behavior, it follows that the principal stresses can be computed from the principal
strains (shear strain is zero for this axis system):
10
1
2
where
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E
v
1 v2 1 2
E
1 v
(1.4)
2 v1
1 & 2 are maximum and minimum principal stresses.

1 & 1 are maximum and minimum principal strains.
v Poissons ratio
E Youngs modulus
And it should also be noted that for Hookean materials the principal strain and stress directions
coincide, so the results for the angle, , are unchanged for principal stress directions.
11
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PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1.
The minimum number of strain gauges

needed to defined the 20 state of stream
when principal stresses orientations not
known is
(A) 1
(B) 2
(C) 3
(D) 4
2.
Match the following rates A (type of stream

gauges) and B (included angle between
them)?
1. Rectangular
P. 60o
2. Delta
Q. 120o
3. Star
R. 45o
1 2 3
1 2 3
(A) Q R P
(B) R Q P
(C) R
3.
4.
(B) 88.61 10 9 ,18.057 10 9

(C) 88.61,18.057
(D) 88.61 10 6 ,18.057 10 6
5.
(D) P Q R
For a rectangular strain gauge rosette which

is having one strain gauge parallel to x-axis,
the strain readings along 0o, 45o and 90o are
200 106
400 10 6 ,
800 10 6 ,
respectively. Youngs modulus of the test
specimen is 250 GPa and Poissons ratio is
0.25. The principle strains are ________ and
________ respectively.
(A) 809.902 10 6 , 209.902 10 6
(B) 800 10 6 , 200.902 10 6
(C) 809.902 10 6 , 209.902 10 6
(D) 809.902 10 6 , 209.902 10 6
Data for Questions: 4 and 5
For the given configuration of 60o strain

rosette the principle strains are _________
and _________ respectively. When the
strain readings along strain rosettes A, B and
C
are
80 10 6 , 60 10 6 , 20 106
respectively
(A) 88.61 10 6 , 18.057 10 6
Given youngs modulus of elasticity and

Poissons ratio for the material as 200 GPa
and 0.29. The principle stresses are _____
MPa and ____ MPa respectively.
(A) 15.4927 MP a , 10 MPa
(B) 25 MP a , 9.5543 MPa
(C) 18 MP a , 8 MPa
(D) 20.4927 MP a , 9.5543 MPa
6.
For the given rectangular strain rosette

configuration, where is the angle of
orientation of by the principle planes with
rosette gauge x-axis, the youngs modulus
and the Poissons ratio are 300 GPa & 0.3
respectively.
The
principal
stresses
developed in the material are __________
and __________ respectively, when the
strain gauges A, B and C read 500 10 6 ,
900 10 6 and 300 10 6 respectively.
y
B
C
o
60o 60
30
45
45o
12
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y
(A) 28.998 MPa , 5.37595 MPa

(B) 289.098 MPa , 53.7595 MPa
(C) 2890.98 MPa , 5359.5 MPa
(D) 270.098 MPa , 80.7595 MPa
B
60
60 o
7.
For the given rosette configuration, is the

angle made by strain rosette with principal
strain.
A 90 106 , B 60 106 , C 40 106.
2
9.
(A) 705.54 106
(B) 705.54 106
(C) 750.45 106
(D) 750.45 106
A 300 106 , B 700 106 , C 200 106.
Considering 2-D
D state of strain. One of the
angle made by principle strain with xx-face is
C
120o
120
45o
45o
Determine the principle strains and the angle

' ' __________ o
(A) -11.7066
(C) -12.6054
8.
(B) +11.7066
(D) + 12.6054
6
(A) 40.83 (B) 41.83 (C) 50.46 (D) 40.46
A 400 10 , B 800 10 , C 200 10 .
Determine maximum and minimum

principle strains and maximum shear, strain
in the specimen.
10. While measuring the strain of a specimen

using strain gauge, it is assumed that
(A) Gauge stiffness
ss is more than the stiffness
of the specimen
(B) Gauge stiffness is equal the stiffness of
the specimen
(C) Gauge stiffness is slightly less than the
stiffness of the specimen
(D) Gauge
stiffness
is
insignificant
compared to the stiffness of the
specimen
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ANSWER KEYS
1
10
EXPLANATIONS
3.
1 909.9 106
0o x 400 106 , 90o y 200 106
2 109.9 106
xy 2 45 0o 90o 1000 106
1,2
4.
x y
2
140
x a b c
106
3
2
3
46.667 106
y b 60 106 ,
6.
2
xy
a c 40 3 106
3
69.282 106
x y 1
1,2
x y 2 2 xy
2
2
88.61 106 ,18.057 106
5.
E
1 2 289.098 MPa
1 2
E
2
2 1 53.7595 MPa
1 2
2
1
x y 2 xy
2
2
809.902 106 , 209.902 106
1,2
7.
1,2
A B C
2
3
3
A B
B C C A
92.3933 106 , 34.2733 106
8.
3 c B
1
tan 1
11.7066o
2 A B C
2
x A 400 106
2 B 2 C A
533.3333 10 6
3
2 B C
xy
692.9203 10 6
3
2
1
1
1,2 x y
x y xy 2
2
2
6
1 819.4335 10 , 2 113.8998 10 6
y
E
1 2 20.4927 MP a
1 2
E
2
2 1 9.5543 MPa
1 2
1
x A 500 106
y C 300 106
max 1 2
C
xy A A
2
2
xy 1000 106
819.43 113.89 106 705.54 106

9.
2
A C
1
x y xy 2
2
2
6
400 10 509.9 106
1,2
x A 300 106 ; y C 200 106

xy 2B A C 900 106
tan2
xy
x y
41.83o

14
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2. UNIVERSAL TESTING MACHINE

2.1
Introduction
A universal testing machine is used to test the tensile stress and compressive strength of
materials. It is named after the fact that it can perform many standard tensile and compression
tests on materials, components, and structures. This is very true, but perhaps overly simplistic.
We'll try to explain some more capabilities of these machines in this post.
Before we begin, we need to discuss terminology. We're amazed at the variety of terms in the
industry that are used to refer to a UTM. Most common are tensile tester, compression tester
and bend tester. There are also UTM's that have been stripped of capabilities or marketed to a
specific sector which have led to the development of specialized names such as texture analyzer
for food, top load compression tester for packaging and pipe, and peel tester for adhesives,
tapes, and labels. Today, a UTM can perform all of these tests and more. A UTM is a great
multi-purpose instrument for an R&D lab or QC department. In layman's terms, here are a few
examples of what a UTM can do:
Tensile Test
Clamp a single piece of anything on each of its ends and pull it apart until it breaks. This
measures how strong it is (tensile strength) how stretchy it is (elongation), and how stiff it is
(tensile modulus).
Compression Test
The exact opposite of a tensile test. This is where you compress an object between two level
plates until a certain load or distance has been reached or the product breaks. The typical
measurements are the maximum force sustained before breakage (compressive force), or load at
displacement (i.e. 55 pounds at 1 compression), or displacement at load (i.e. 0.28 of
compression at 20 pounds of force).
Peel Test
Similar to a tensile test. However, instead of pulling apart a single piece, you pull apart two
materials that have been bonded together. In this test, one clamp holds one material and the other
clamp holds the other materials. Then you pull them apart for a few inches. The force is
measured up to 1000 times per second during the test and the average of all of the force readings
are reported as the average peel force.
Bend Test
This is a compression test where you support a length of material by spanning it across two
supports on each end. There is nothing supporting the middle portion underneath of it. Then you
press down from above directly in the middle of the span of material until the supported material
breaks or reaches a specific distance. This test measures how strong the material in flexure
(flexural strength) and how stiff it is (flexural modulus).
15
2.2
2.2.1
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Universal Testing Machine

Construction
The machine consists of two units viz. the loading unit A and control panel B.
The Loading Unit
Consists of robust base from figure 2.1, the main hydraulic cylinder is fitted in the center of the
base and the piston slides in the cylinder. Special materials used for the cylinder and the piston
and their careful precise machining including individual lapping has increased the accuracy of the
machinery to a great extent.
A motor is fitted to the left-hand side of the base. The chain and sprocket drive by the motor
rotates two screwed columns from figure 2.1 mounted in the base with bearings. These screws
pass through the two main nuts from figure 2.2 fitted in the lower cross head. Lock nuts from
figure 2.2 avoid the loosening of the main nuts. The additional back-lash removing nuts from
figure 2.2 are provided to remove the black-lash screws from figure 2.1 and the main nuts while
lowering of the lower cross-head, and avoids sudden jerk when the specimen breaks. In the long
run, it can also compensate for the wear of the screws and the nuts. The screws from figure 2.2
provided on the back-lash removing nut assembly are used to adjust the back-lash.
The lower table from figure 2.1 is connected to the main piston through a ball and ball seat joint.
This joint ensures axial loading. This lower table from figure 2.1 is rigidly connected to the upper
cross-head from figure 2.1 by two straight columns from figure 2.1.
The lower table and upper cross-head assembly moves up and down with the main piston. The up
and down movement of this assembly is guided by eight bearings which slide over the screw
columns. Four bearings are fitted in one bearing holder and two such folder are fixed on the upper
cross head with two screw columns from figure 2.1 at their respective centers. The jaws inserts
for the tensile test specimen along with the rack jaws slide in the lower and upper cross-heads.
The sliding motion of the rack jaws is achieved by rotating the helical toothed pinion by the
operating hand wheel from figure 2.2 provided. Jaw locking handle from figure 2.1 is provided to
lock the jaws of the lower cross-head after the specimen is clamped. This arrangement ensures
firm clamping of the specimen and easy take out of the broken specimen. Separate jaw pieces are
provided for the different ranges of specimen diameter. Users should confirm that the correct jaw
pieces are inserted in the rack jaws before testing the specimen. For changing the jaw pieces first
take out the rack jaws. For taking out the rack jaws, remove the top plate from figure 2.1 from the
top of the upper cross-head.
Now rotate the pinion and take out the rack jaws by hand form the top. For taking out the rack
jaws form the lower head, lock the handle and take out the lower plate from figure 2.1 from the
bottom. The jaws will come out from the bottom if release the handle slowly by un-locking. Take
care that the jaws do not fall on the lower table. After taking out the rack jaws, remove the
clamping strips form the rack jaws, which are screwed to it. Now insert the correct jaw pieces and
fix the clamping strips in their position. The jaw pieces should be inserted in the direction of the
arrow marked on it.
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Insert the lower rack jaws from the bottom of the lower cross-head. Care should be taken that
both the jaws are inserted at a time and their top faces come in the same plane when those are
taken up to touch each other. Rotate the handle, take up the jaws in the chuck and confirm the
piston of the rack jaws. Lock the operation handle in its upper most piston.
Then fix up the lower plate from figure 2.1 similarly insert the jaws from the top of the upper
cross head and fix up the plate from figure 2.1.
Note: The jaws should always be released slowly. The upper and lower are non-interchangeable.
Two compression plates viz, upper compression plate from figure 2.1 and lower compression
plate from figure 2.1 are provided for conducting compression test. The lower compression plate
from figure 2.1 is to be kept on the lower table from figure 2.1 in the location hole provided and
the upper compression plate from figure 2.1 is to be clamped to the bottom of the lower cross
head. For clamping this plate, take jaws in the lower cross head to their bottom most position (no
head of removal) keep the top plate from figure 2.1 on the top lower cross head, place in such a
position that its projected portion fits correctly in the chuck bolt, resulting in the correct position
of the control hole. Now insert the clamp stud from the top through the hole of the top plate.
Top plate
upper crosshead
upper crosshead
Straight
column
Jawlocking
handle
Nut
Top plate
lower crosshead
lower compression
plate
lower table
Dial
indicator
Pen
Pen
holder
lower crosshead
Screw column
Zeroadjustingknob
Glass
cover
Range
adjusting
knob
Upper
compression
plate
Recording
drum
Robust base
Figure: 2.1
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Operating
handwheel
Plate tightening
nut
Screw
Scale rod
Removing nut
Main nut
Lock nut
Elongated scale
Bending
pan
Bending support
Bending
roller
Bending table
Figure: 2.2
The clamp stud will come out form the center hole of the lower plate from figure 2.1. Now screw
the upper compression plate from figure 2.1 to the clamp stud and tighten the lower plate from
figure 2.1 by the nut from figure 2.1 & 2.2 from above.
The space between the lower table and the lower cross head is used from compression, bend and
shear tests, and the space between the lower and upper cross heads is used for tension test. In any
test, the up and down motion of the lower table and upper cross-head assemble performs the
loading action. The mechanical up and down motion of the lower cross-head from figure 2.1 is
provided for the rapid initial space adjustment depending on the length or height of the tension
and compression test specimen respectively.
Bending table from figure 2.2, bending Rollers from figure 2.2 and bending pan are provided as
an attachment for carrying out the bend test.
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An elongated scale from figure 2.2 is kept sliding on the scale rod from figure 2.2 which is fixed
between the lower table and the upper cross-head. Elongated indicating pointer is fixed to the
lower cross-head. The scale can slide on the rod when the screw at its back is loosened and can be
set to zero before starting the loading on the specimen. Limit switch x 4 provided below the lower
table for limiting the maximum stroke of the piston.
2.2.2
The Control Panel

The main units in control panel are:
The oil tank from figure 2.3 which contains the hydraulic oil level sight class from figure 2.3 for
checking the oil level is fitted to the oil tank. The fitted to the oil tank cover from figure 2.3 filters
in the incoming oil, to the tank. Drain cock from figure 2.3 is providing to take out the oil while
cleaning the tank.
The pump is a positive displacement type pump. This assures continuous high non- pulsating oil
current for the smooth application of the load on the specimen. The pump is fitted to the tank
cover from figure 2.3 from bottom which makes it easily assessable. The electric motor is fitted
on the plate hinged at the bottom from figure 2.3. Belt tightened or loosened can be achieved very
easily as shown in fig and the motor can be locked at the desired position by the check nuts.
Two valves on the control panel, one at the right side and the other at the left side are used to
control the oil flow in the hydraulic system. The flow control valve from figure 2.3 is a pressure
compensated flow control valve. The overload relief valve is adjusted and is locked.
Confine control
valve
Damper speed
control valve
Flow control
valve
Warm gear
Oil tank
cover
Oil tank
Motor base
plate
Oil levelsight
Drain cock
Figure: 2.3
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The left side valve from figure 2.4 is a return valve. This valve allows the oil from the cylinder to
go back to the tank, there-by reducing the pressure in the cylinder and then the working piston
comes down. The rate of oil returns and so the speed of piston return can be adjusted by this
valve. If the return valve is closed, oil delivered by the pump passes through the flow control
valve from figure 2.3 (if in open position) to the cylinder and the piston goes up. If it comes across
any resistance (i.e. resistance of any test piece), pressure starts developing until either the
specimen break of the load reaches the maximum value of the range adjusted. Pressure
compensation of the flow control is a unique design which keeps a constant rate of straining
regardless of the total load on the specimen and you need not adjust the control knob again and
again if it is once adjusted for a particular rate of straining.
Pilot lamp
Downward motion
switch
Upward motion
switch
Left side
controller
Right side
controller
Off switch
On switch
Damper speed
control valve
Confine
control valve
Oil level right
Drain cock
Motor base
plate
Figure: 2.4
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High pressure oil connection is given from the valve from figure 2.3 to the cylinder at its centre.
This high pressure oil supplied at the cylinder centre serves as a hydraulic bearing for the piston
and reduces the friction, thereby increasing the accuracy. It also helps in getting the pressure
compensation effect.
The confine control valve from figure 2.3& 2.4 is specially provided and set by the manufacturer
so as to control the rate of loading very precisely by means of the right control valve only. So the
adjustment of the needle valve is not to be disturbed by the users.
The needle valve from figure 2.3 is a damper speed control valve. It controls the return speed of
the pendulum when the specimen breaks and the pendulum try to come down suddenly due to
sudden pressure drop in the main cylinder. It obstructs to the return flow of the oil and thus avoids
sudden jerks to the dynamometer piston and the indicating mechanism.
Dynamometer is a unit which measures and indicates the load on the specimen. The overall
accuracy of the machine depends mainly on the accuracy of this unit. It is a pendulum
dynamometer consisting of a cylinder in which the piston reciprocates. The cylinder top is
connected to the main hydraulic cylinder. So the oil pressure under the work piston is transmitted
to the small measuring piston in the dynamometer. The displacement of the measuring piston
causes the pendulum to deflect as far as the equilibrium point. This deflection represents the
measurement of the load on the specimen. The deflection is registered by a pointer on a dial. The
pendulum weight is subdivided into several detachable weight discs. Thus various measuring
ranges, from full load up to 1/l 0 of the full load can be obtained. The dynamometer piston is kept
rotating at a slow speed. The drive is taken from the same motor from figure 2.3 driving the pump
with worm wheel reduction from figure 2.3 in between the rotating piston assures dynamic
friction conditions and increases the measuring accuracy. The dynamometer is also equipped with
an integral check valve. When the specimen breaks, this valve avoids the return oil flow from the
measuring cylinder and the oil has to bypass through the damper control valve from figure 2.3
getting the damping effect. In addition to the accurate load indication on the scale a recording
instrument automatically registers the load elongation diagram. A pen from figure 2.1 fixed to pen
holder from figure 2.1 which is fixed to the main rack, moves across the recording drum from
figure 2.1 as the load increases. At the same time the drum is rotated through small gears by
taking movement of the lower table.
The movement of the lower table is taken through chain and sprockets without slip and friction as
the specimen under test is elongated. Thus an automatic graph of load against elongation is
plotted. A big size load indicating dial from figure 2.1, fitted with a glass cover from figure 2.1 is
mounted at the front side of the control panel. The range indicating dial, located at the back side
of the load indicating dial is to be adjusted for the particular range selected. A range adjuster knob
from figure 2.1 is provided for this adjustment. A zero adjusting knob from figure 2.1 provided at
the right hand side serves for initial zero adjustment.
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2.3
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Electrical Equipment
The switch-board is arranged at the back right hand side part of the control panel. It is a separate
room closed by a door from inside. One 3 pole mains on-off switch, six fuses, three contractors,
two over-load protection relays, one 230V magnetic relay (depending on other circuit component
used) and two connector strips (L1L2) are arranged on a stable and hard Bakelite board. The 3
ph 440V 50 c/s supply connections, gear motor forward and reverse push on switch connections,
the on-off switch connections of the hydraulic motor, connection of limit switch x 3, the pilot
lamp P and the pump motor M2 are led to the connector strip L1. The connections are led to
connector strip L2. At the right hand bottom side of the control panel an earth screw (E) is
provided for the earth connection.
One more small box is provided at the back of the loading unit, which is fixed to the base. It
contains one six way male/female plug socket. The connections of the connector strip L2 are led
to the male plug L3 and through the socket L4 those are taken to the gear motor MI and limit
switch x 4. The forward and reverse action of the gear motor is achieved by switching in the
contractors C1 and C2 is conducted through an auxiliary closed circuit contact of C3. That means
it cannot be put into operation until the motor (M2) driving the pump is off. The drive of the highpressure pump is switched on through (C3) provided that the limit switches 4 (opened in case of
completely run out working piston) and x 3 (opened reaching the full load of the set measuring
range on the dynamometer are closed. The contact or control current is conducted through 230V
magnetic relay, which is opened when the gear is on. Thus the interlocking of gear motor and
pump motor is achieved. The 3 pole mains on-off switch (isolator) is at the back side. The control
board is at the centre of the front side of the control panel. The upper from figure 2.4 and the
lower from figure 2.4 push on switches at left side are for the downward and upward motion of
the lower cross head. The ON from figure 2.4 and OFF from figure 2.4 switches at the right side
are for the hydraulic motor. The pilot lamp from figure 2.4 will be ON when the main supply is
given. (This lamp supplied only on special order).
2.4
Installations
Preparation of foundation: The size of the foundation and specially the thickness of the foundation
should be varied in accordance with the local conditions of ground. The dimensions for the
distance between the testing machine and electrical connections lines supplied are adapted to these
distances. Take care to provide holes in the foundation according to the foundation plan.
2.4.1
Sequence of Erection
The loading unit and control panel can be installed at the same time. Before installing the control
panel, it is advisable to layout the loading and controlling units on the foundation as per the plan.
Connect the hydraulic lines nut keep the connections loose. Now lever the machine. For the
loading unit lower cross head top surface and for the control panel dynamometer stand base are
their reference surfaces for leveling. Then tighten the pipe connections and pour concrete around
the anchor bolts (not supplied along-with the machine). After the concrete is set do the final
leveling by adjusting the leveling screws and tighten the nuts of the anchor bolts.
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2.5
2.5.1
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Method of Testing
Initial adjustment
Before testing, adjust the pendulum weight according to the capacity of the test piece. Adjust
corresponding range on the dial with range adjusting knob from figure 2.1.
The counter weight of the pendulum is adjusted correctly. Be sure not to move it. If the stress
strain curve is to be recorded, the pen filled with recorder ink, should be inserted in the pen
holder. Wind the recording paper around the drum. Care must be taken that the pen point does not
touch the edge of the drum when the load point completes one revolution.
The graph clamp strip also should not touch the pen point when the drum rotates. After these
initial adjustments proceed for the test as follows:
2.5.2
Tension Test
Select the proper jaw inserts and complete the upper and lower chuck assemblies. Apply some
graphite grease to the tapered surface of the grip for the smooth motion. Then operate the upper
cross-head grip operation handle and grip fully the upper end of the test piece.
The left valve is kept in fully closed position and the right valve in normal open position. Open
the right side valve and close it after the lower table is lightly lifted. Now adjust the load pointer
to zero with the zero adjusting knobs. (This is necessary to remove the dead weight of the lower
table, upper cross connecting parts from the load).
Operate the lower grip operation handle and lift the lower cross head up and grip fully the lower
part of the specimen. Then lock the jaws in this position by operating the jaw locking handle from
figure 2.1. Then turn the right control valve slowly to open position, (i.e. anti-clockwise) until you
get desired loading rate. After this you will find that the specimen is under load and then unclamp
the locking handle. Now the jaws will not slide down due to their own wt. Then go on increasing
the load. When the test piece is broken, close the right control valve, take out the broken pieces of
the test piece. Then open the left control valve to take the piston down. The maximum load, the
pointer shows is the maximum capacity of the specimen.
2.5.3
Compression Test
Fix upper and lower pressure plates on the lower cross- head and the lower table respectively.
Place the specimen on the lower compression plate. The specimen must be aligned exactly
according to the marking on the compression plated in order to give the complete cross action of
the specimen a chance to participate equally in the acceptance of load. Then adjust the zero by
lifting the lower table and perform the test in the same way as the tension test.
2.5.4
Bending Test
Keep the bending table from figure 2.2 on the lower table in such a way that the central boss of
the bending table fits in the central location hole of the lower table. Tapings are provided on the
lower table for this purpose. Adjust the bending supports from figure 2.2 for the required distance
and clamp those to the bending table with the screws provided at the side. For adjusting the
distance, use the scale marked on bending table. Stoppers are provided which are to be placed at
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the back of the bending supports. Holes are provided on the bending table for locating the
stoppers. The stoppers can be set in five different positions adjusting the center distance between
the supports at an interval of 100 mm. Fix the required bending pane at the lower side of the
lower cross-head. Then adjust the zero by lifting the lower table and perform the test in the same
way as the tension test.
2.6
2.6.1
Attendance and Maintenance

Lubrication
The hydraulically operated parts of the machine, like the pump, piston, cylinder and
dynamometer are self-lubricated.
The bearings of the column spindle are to be lubricated with bearing grease when opened for
servicing.
The chain of the chain drive should be detached every six months, rinsed in petroleum and
oiled with refined machine oil. The threads of the main screw are to be cleaned every six
days and to be oiled with refined machine oil.
Inclined surface of the lower and upper chucks should be coated by thin layers of graphite
grease.
Lubrication by grease or spindle oil of any bearing assembly in the control panel is not
recommended.
Only the worm- worm wheel of dynamometer should be lubricated with spindle oil and the
rack screw may be lubricated by watch oil.
2.6.2
Cleaning
The remainders of fragments of specimens occurring on breaking test are to be removed from the
testing machine without delay. The jaw insert for flat and round specimens should be daily
cleaned. The shining parts of the machine including columns, lower table top, bending table
surface should be cleaned and greased one in a week lacquered parts are to be wiped off with an
oily rag at the weekly cleaning.
The interior of the control- panel must also be supervised once in a week. Stretch of the V-belts
should be checked. If any oil leakage at the base is found, connection should be tightened and leak
oil should be removed.
Note: Before starting cleaning of any arrangement the mains should be put off.
2.6.3
Checking the accuracy of the machine

Following to erection and prior to employing the arrangement to testing, the indication of the load
measuring equipment is to be checked over & over again.
This checking is to be done by the calibrated and certified proving rings. This checking is to be
repeated within established intervals after the machine in put in service (at least once in a year).
2.6.4
Long time closing down

For long time closing down the hydraulic piston with the lower table should be lowered
completely. The oil from the tank has to be drained out. All the shining parts of the machine
should be put off. It is also advisable to remove the fuses from the machine.
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PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1.
2.
Proof stress is design stress for which of the

following materials.
1. Aluminum
2. Copper
3. Gold
4. Mild steel
(A) 1,2
(B) 1,2,3 (C) 1,2,4 (D) 2,3,4
(A) Moderately ductile
The below mentioned graph represents

which type of metal behaviour.
(D) Cost say
(B) Very ductile

(C) Brittle
6.
Which of the following statements are

correct?
1. Brittle material has no plastic zone
2. Steel is more elastic than Rubber
3. Youngs modulus of Aluminium is
greater than mild steel
4. Loading and unloading curves follow
same paths beyond elastic limit
(A) 1,2
(B) 3,4
(C) 1,2,3
(D) 1,2,3,4
7.
A bar of length L meters undergoes

extension by l min during tension test. The
strain produced in the body is
(A)
(B) 0.1
L
L
(C) 0.01
(D) 0.001
L
L
8.

correct?
1. Global strain energy stored in a body is
violence
2. Deformation of a bar per unit length in
the direction of force is lateral strain
3. Hooks law holds good upto upper yield
point
4. Austenitic stiffness increase toughness.
(A) 1, 2, 3
(B)1,4
(C) 1,2,4
(D) 1,3,4
(A) Elasto - plastic

(B) Elasto-plastic with strain hardening
(C) Perfectly plastic
(D) Non-linear elastic
3.
Which of the following are correct?

1. Plastic deformation is measurable and
reversible
2. Plastic deformation depends on loading
path
3. No strain hardening effects takes place
in plastic region
(A) 1,2
(B) only 2 (C) 2,3
(D) 1,2,3
4.
Which of the following properties can be

estimated by tensile test are
1. Ductility
2. Poissons ratio
3.Young modules
4.Bulk modules
(A) 1,2,3 only
(B) 2,3 only
(C) 1,2,3,4
(D) 2,3,4 only
5.
The below mentioned failure mode figure

represents which type of materials.
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correct?
1. true stress at fracture is equal to ultimate
stress
2. True stress at fracture is higher than
ultimate stress
3. Nominal stress at fracture is lower than
ultimate stress
(A) 1,2
(B) 1,3
(C) 2,3
(D) 1,2,3
9.
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10. The radius of the area stretched by a load is

decreased by half. The youngs modulus of
the material is
(A) doubles
(B) Quadrupled
(C) halved
(D) Remain unaffected
ANSWER KEYS
1
10
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3. TESTING OF HARDNESS
3.1
Introduction
Hardness is a surface property. It is defined as the resistance of a material against permanent
deformation of the surface in the form of scratch, cutting indentation or mechanical wear.
Diamond is the hardest known material.
3.1.1
Need of Hardness Test

The need of hardness test arises from the fact that in numerous engineering applications, two
components in contact are made to slide or roll over each other. In due course, their surfaces are
scratched and they may fail due to mechanical wear. This results in not only a quick replacement
of both parts but also incurs a big loss in terms of money. For example, piston rings of an IC
engine remain in sliding contact with the cylinder body when the piston reciprocates within the
cylinder. If proper care is not taken in selection of materials for them, the piston rings and cylinder
will wear soon. In this case, the replacement or repairing of cylinder block will involve much
time, trouble and money. Therefore, the materials of piston rings and cylinders block should be
taken such that the wear is least on the cylinder.
Thus, in case of repairing, comparatively cheaper piston rings can be easily replaced. This
envisages that material of cylinder block should be harder than the material of piston rings so that
the cylinder wears the least. This can be ascertained by conduct of a hardness test. That is why it
is essential to known as to how this test can be conducted.
3.1.2
Different Types of Hardness Tests

In various hardness tests, the indentors are used to introduce indentation on the surface. The shape
of indentors may be a spherical ball, a cone or a pyramid. Various hardness test methods are as
follows.
1.
Mohs hardness test with scale range 0-10.
2.
Brinell hardness test with scale range 0-3000.
3.
Rockwell hardness test with scale range 0-1000.
4.
Vickers hardness test with scale range 0-3000.
5.
Knoop hardness test for hardness of microscopic areas
6.
Shore hardness test for hardness of rubber, plastics, paper, etc.
7.
Barcol hardness test of checking the degree of cure of plastics and composites
8.
Jominy hardness test for end-quenched metals
9.
Rebound hardness test or Shore Scleroscope method.
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3.2
3.2.1
Brinell Hardness Test

Test setup, Specification of Hardness Testing Machines and Indentors
A hardness test can be conducted on Brinell testing machine, Rockwell testing machine or Vickers
testing machine. The specimen taken for them may be a cylinder, cube, thick or thin metallic
sheet. A Brinell-cum-Rockwell hardness testing machine along with the specimen is shown in
Figure 3.1. Its various components are shown therein whose details are self-explanatory.
Its specifications are as follows:
Ability to determine hardness up to 500 BHN (Brinell hardness number)
Diameter of ball (as indentor) used D = 2.5, 5 and 10 mm
Maximum applicable load = 30D2 (i.e. 30102 = 3000 kg)
Method of load application = push button type (it can be computer controlled also).
Capacity of testing the lower hardness range = 1 BHN on application of 0.5D2 load.
3.2.2
Test Procedure
This test employs a diamond or hardened steel ball as indentor. The ball is placed suitably in the
upper housting of Brinell hardness testing machine shown in Figure 3.1. This machine is called a
push-pull-button-type machine because the indenting load is applied by pushing a button.
Direct-reading dial
in Rockwell test
Specimen
Body
Ball within
ball holder
Push button
for loading
Support for
specimen
Jack
Jack-adjusting
wheel
Load-release
lever
Switch
Figure 3.1: Details of push-button-type Brinell-cum-Rockwell hardness testing machine
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These are several push buttons and each of them specifies a known load. Before conducting the
test, the surface of the specimen is made free from oil, grease, dust and dirt. The indenting load P
is applied on the specimen gradually for a minimum of 30seconds. The load stage is different for
various types of materials to be tested and is given by
P D 2
Where D is the diameter of the ball
is a constant whose value varies between 0.5 and 30 as illustrated in Table 3.1.
3.2.3
(3.1)
Observations and Calculations

The effect of this load is to make an indentation of depth t and diameter d as shown in Figure 3.2.
The BHN is then calculated as follows after measuring d by an optical microscope:
BHN
Indenting loading kgf
(3.2)
Spherical surfaces area of indentation mm 2

P
D 2 D
D2 d 2
Table 3.1: Hardness Range and Load Stages in Brinell hardness Test
Material to be Tested
Hardness Rang BHN kg mm 2 Load Stage P kgf
Soft iron, steel casting, malleable

iron, cast iron
Light alloys, die casting alloys, casting
and forging alloys, brass and bronze
AI, Mg, Zn, Cast brass
Bearing metals
Lead, tin, soft solder
Soft metal at elvated temperatures
67 500
30D 2
22 315
5D2
11 158
6 78
3 39
1 15
5D2
2.5D2
1.25D 2
0.5D2
Specimen
t
D
Indentation
d
Figure 3.2: Brinell hardness test showing load, ball diameter, indented diameter and its thickness
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3.2.4
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Test Requirements and Limitations

Test requirements, noticeable observations and limitations of Brinell hardness test can be
enumerated as follows:
1. The steel ball indentor may be used to test the specimen of cast iron, unhardened steel and
light alloys.
2. Standard diameters of the ball are 2.5, 5 and 10 mm.
3. Deformation of the ball during applications of indenting load is neglected in calculating
BHN.
4. Usually, the diameter of indentation d = 0.2D 0.7D.
P
d Actual
d Measured
Specimen
Specimen
Figure 3.3: Defect in Brinell hardness test (a) sinking effect and (b) piling-up effect
5.
Thickness of the specimen should not be less than 10 times the expected depth t (Figure 3.2)
of the impression.
6. If the impression of indentation is non-circular, the mean value should be taken from two
diameters that are normal to each other.
7. Value of BHN is expressed in kgf/mm2 or N/mm2.
8. For most of the metals, BHN is proportional to their tensile strengths.
9. For steel, the tensile strength is 35 BHN (in N/mm2)
10. Brinell hardness test is not accurate for BHN > 500, as the ball itself deforms, hence,
Equation 3.1 does not hold good for values above 500.
The drawbacks in Brinell hardness test are shown in Figure 3.3. These are
1. Sinking effect which occurs in manganese steel and austenitic stainless steel (Figure 3.3a).
2. Piling-up effect which occurs in lead, tin, magnesium, etc. (Figure 3.3b).
Example 3.1:
A hardened steel ball of 0.5cm diameter is used to indent a steel specimen in Brinell hardness test.
Diameter of indentation measured by an optical microscope of magnification 10 times is observed
to be 32.5 mm.
Calculate the BHN of the steel specimen.
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Solution:
It is given that D=0.5cm=5mm
Indentation diameter, magnified 10 times, is 32.5 mm
Therefore,
32.5
3.25 mm
10
From Table 3.1, it can be seen that load P for steel specimen is
P 30D 2
P 30 5 2 750 kgf
Using equation 3.2, the hardness is obtained as
BHN
D 2 D
D2 d 2
750
2
5 2 5 52 3.25
79.5 kgf mm 2
It should be clear to our mind that the BHN is expressed in kgf/mm2, but this unit is generally not
written.
3.3
Rockwell Hardness Test

This test is more common due to its quick and simple method. There is no need of any calculation
because the Rockwell hardness (HR) may be read directly on the dial (Figure 3.1). The test
involves applications of an initial load of 10 kgf on the specimen so that the effects of dust, dirt,
oil, etc. are nullified. This makes the Rockwell test more accurate than the Brinell test.
3.3.1
Indentor and Test Procedure

This test employs a ball and a cone as indentors. The specimen is subjected to a major load for
about 15s, after the initial load. ASTM specifies 13 scales for testing of a wide range of materials
ranging from very soft to very hard. These scales are named as A, B, C, D, E, F, M, R, etc. Of
these, B-scale and C-scale are commonly employed. B-scale is preferred for soft steels and
aluminium alloys, while C-scale is chosen for titanium and hard steel; B-scale employs a ball of
1/16 in. = 1.58 mm diameter. A cone indentor is used in C-scale with a cone angle of 120o and
point of radius 0.2 mm. Hardness value determined from B-scale is referred to as HRB and from
C-scale as HRC. Different scales, initial and major loads to be given on them, their suitability to
the kind of materials and other related details are given in Table 3.2.
Result:
If the depth of penetration t in mm is known, then the hardness may also be calculated from.
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Table 3.2: Various Scales in Rockwell Hardness Test

Scale
Type of Indentor
Dimension
Cone, 120
Initial
Major Load
Po inter
Load kgf
kgf on Dial
Position
10
50
Kind of Material
Much harder such as
carburized steel,
cemented carbines
Ball, 1.58 mm
10
90
30
Soft steels, copper,

alu min ium, brasses,
grey cast iron
Hard steels, Ti, W,
Cone, 120 o
10
140
100
Cone
10
90
Thin ferrous metals

Very soft such as
Ball, 3.0 mm
90
metals, magnesium
bearing alloys
Ball, 1.58 mm
10
50
t
0.002
t
HRA 130
0.002
t
HRC 100
0.002
HRA 100
Va, etc.
Soft such as babbits,

bronze, brass
(3.3a)
(3.3b)
(3.3c)
3.3.2
Suitable Application
Rockwell hardness method may be used to determine the hardness of wires, blades and inside and
outside cylindrical surfaces such as in IC engine cylinder and piston. Finished components can
also be tested by this method as the indentation made is small. This method is suitable for
hardness beyond the range BHN.
3.4
Vickers Hardness Test

This test is similar to Brinell test but uses a different type of indentor. A square-based pyramid
indentor of cone angle 136o between opposite faces of pyramid is used. The applied loads
may be 5, 10, 30, 50, 100 or 120 kgf.
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Table: 3.3 Comparison of different hardness test at different loads

Rockwell
C Scale
Brinell
Vickers
Hardness Hardness
10 mm
Brale
Tungsten Pyramidic
Penetrator Carbide Diamond
Ball
150 kgf
3.000 kgf
10 kgf
Tensile
Strength
(approx.)
Ksi
Rockwell
C Scale
Brinell
Vickers
Hardness Hardness
10 mm
Brale
Tungsten Pyramidic
Penetrator Carbide Diamond
Ball
kg/mm2 150 kgf
3.000 kgf
10 kgf
Tensile
Strength
(approx.)
kg/mm2
ksi
67
900
43
400
423
201
141
66
865
42
390
412
196
138
65
739
832
41
381
402
191
134
64
722
800
40
371
392
186
131
63
705
772
39
362
382
181
127
62
688
746
38
353
372
176
124
61
670
720
37
344
363
172
121
60
654
697
36
336
354
167
118
59
634
674
329
232
35
327
345
163
114
58
615
653
319
224
34
319
336
159
112
57
595
633
307
216
33
311
327
154
109
56
577
613
297
209
32
301
318
149
105
55
560
595
288
202
31
294
310
146
102
54
543
577
279
196
30
286
302
142
99
53
525
560
269
189
29
279
294
138
97
52
512
544
262
184
28
271
286
134
94
51
496
528
253
178
27
264
279
130
92
50
481
513
245
172
26
258
272
127
89
49
469
498
238
167
25
253
266
125
88
48
455
484
231
162
24
247
260
122
85
47
443
471
224
158
23
243
254
120
84
46
432
458
218
153
22
237
248
116
82
45
421
446
212
149
21
231
243
113
80
44
409
434
206
145
20
226
238
111
78
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i
Specimen
Indentation
d
Figure 3.4: Square-based pyramid indentor in Vickers test and its indentation on the test piece
The Vickers hardness HV is calculated from

P
HV 2
d 2sin 2
Where
(3.4)
1.8544P
for 136o
2
d
P is the applied load in kgf
d is the diagonal length in mm of indentation made by the pyramid
The indentor and the indentation are shown in Figure 3.4. This test is performed for smaller cross
sections, very hard materials, polished and nitride surfaces and very thin test pieces.
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PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1.
2.
In Brinell hardness Test,

(A) Geometry of Indentation changes with
load
(B) Geometry of Indentation does not
change with the load
(C) Size of Indentation does not change
with the load
(D) None of the above
5.
In Mohs hardness Scale, the index of

Gypsum is
(A) 1
(B) 2
(C) 3
(D) 4
6.
Which of the following are advantages of

Rockwell hardness number?
1. Hardness number can be directly read
out
2. Rapid testing time
3. Free from scale effects (such as
supports, arbitrary effects)
Which of the following is correct w.r.t the

graph provided below
(A) 1,2
(B) 1,3
(C) 1,2,3
(D) 2,3
A
Hardness
number
7.

correct?
1. Rockwell hardness is based on net
increase in depth of impression as a load
is applied.
2. Vickers method is a standard method for
testing metal with a way hard surface.
3. Share hardness first measures hardness
in terms of elasticity of material.
(A) 1,2
(B) 1,2,3 (C) 2,3
(D) 1,3
8.
What does 75HB 10/500/30 denote

(A) Brinell hardness of 75 with 500 N load
applied for 10 seconds
(B) Brinell hardness of 75 with 500
kilogram load applied for 30 seconds
(C) Brinell hardness of 75 with 500 N load
applied for 30 seconds
(D) Brinell hardness of 75 with 500
kilogram load applied for 10 seconds
9.
Rebound hardness is measured by

(A) Scleroscope
(B) Knoop hardness test
(C) Micro hardness test
(D) Mayers hardness number
Applied load
(A) Curve A represents Vickers hardness

number
(B) Curve A represents Brinell hardness
number
(C) Care B represents Vickers hardness
number
3.
Brinell hardness number is unreliable for

loads
(A) 50 100 kgF mm 2
(B) 100 150 kgF mm 2
(C) 150 300 kgF mm 2
(D) above 300 kgF mm
4.
The approximate tensile strength of a

specimen, whose Brinell hardness number is
300 is
(A) 1000 MPa
(B) 500 MPa
(C) 1500 MPa
(D) 2000 MPa
10. Vickers hardness approximately equal to

(A) 1.854 F/D
(B) 1.854 F/D2
(C) 1.854 F2/D
(D)1.854 (F/D)2
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ANSWER KEYS
1
10
EXPLANATIONS
4.
TS 3.38HB 1014MPa
6.
Rockwell hardness is not free from scale

effects
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4. IMPACT TESTS
4.1
Introduction
The capacity of a material to resist or absorb shock energy before it fractures is called its impact
strength. The fracture of a material can be either brittle or ductile. Less energy is absorbed with a
brittle fracture than with a ductile fracture. Usually the term toughness is used to describe the
ability of a material to withstand shock loads, the tougher the material the more it is able to
withstand such loads without breaking. Toughness takes into account both the strength and
ductility of material. Several engineering materials have to withstand impact or suddenly applied
loads while in service. We may note that impact strengths are lower as compared to strength
achieved under slowly applied loads. Impact strength in S.I. units is expressed in Mega Newtons
per square metre (MN/m2).
To study the behaviour of engineering materials under dynamic load, impact testing is done. The
impact test can be considered as an indicator of toughness, i.e. it provides the relative toughness of
the material.
In all types of impact test, a notched specimen is used, since unnotched specimen do not always
reveal the susceptibility (sensitivity) of a metal to brittle structure. Some normally ductile
materials have a tendency to behave in a brittle manner in the presence of notches and this is
termed as notch sensitivity. This property of the material depends on its response to change strain
rates, triaxiality and temperature. There are some materials, which are notch sensitive, e.g. carbon,
steels and plastics, whereas, there are also other materials which are not notch sensitive, e.g. FCC
metals. One can visualize the effect of notch sensitivity in terms of the ductile-brittle transition
curve of fracture energy versus temperature. On the energy scale of an impact testing machine,
fracture energy can be measured in kg-m.
Impact strength is affected by the rate of loading, temperature, and presence of stress raisers in the
material. It is also affected by variations in heat treatment, alloy content, sulphur and phosphorus
content of the material. Impact strength tests are used considerably in some industries to know
shock-absorbing property of the material under the given variations. In impact tests by high
velocity loading and the introduction of a notch to create triaxiality and stress concentration, a
high strain rate is provided. Impact tests are usually conducted on pendulum impact testing
machine. There are two standard test methods:
(i) Charpy test and (ii) Izod test-for notched bar impact testing.
4.2
Impact Testing Machine

The standard machine for impact testing is of the pendulum type (Fig. 4.1). A notch is cut in the
specimen, i.e. a standard test piece which struck under impact conditions by a heavy weight
attached to the end of the pendulum. The test piece, i.e. specimen is held in an anvil (vice) and is
broken by a single blow of the pendulum weight or hammer which is allowed to fall from a fixed
starting point of a known height. The pendulum swings on after breaking the specimen and the
height to which pendulum rises on the other side is measured. Obviously, the energy absorbed in
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breaking the specimen may be determined and if this energy is low, the specimen is brittle. One
can also note the impact energy required to break the specimen from the scale provided on the
impact testing machine. When one releases the pendulum from the position of maximum height or
maximum energy, the pointer on the scale also moves along with the pendulum and stops at a
particular position to exhibit the energy absorbed in breaking and energy still left unutilised. Most
test machines are constructed in such a manner that both types of tests can be used with only
minor adjustments.
Striking
knife edge
Scale with
pointer
Pendulum
Striking
edge
Speimen
test piece
Anvil vice
Specimen sup port
Figure 4.1: Standard machine for impact testing
Striking edge of pendulum

Direction of blow
28 mm
22 mm
Standard notch 45o

Same as charpy
Specimen size
10 10 75 mm
Clamping
vice
Figure 4.2: Cantilever beam of Izod test
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4.2.1
Izod Test
This test is carried out on a cantilever test piece of 10 mm 10 mm section and 75 mm length (Fig
4.2). It has a V-notch 2 mm deep and the angle of the notch is 45. The pendulum hammer strikes
near its end. The test piece is placed vertically between the supports. The energy required to
rupture the test piece (specimen) can be calculated.
4.2.2
Charpy Test
This is a most common test. In this test, a bar of material to be tested is 10 mm10 mm cross
section 55 mm length. It has a V-notch 2 mm deep of 45 included angle and a root radius 0.25
mm. The specimen bar is placed on the supports or anvil as a simply supported beam between the
two supports of the machine (Figure 4.3).
The pendulum, having weight at one end, is raised to certain height, from where it is released. The
below of the pendulum hammer is from a direction opposite to the notch section and rupture the
specimen. In its upward swing the pendulum carries the friction pointer over a semi-circular scale
graduated in degrees or Kgf-m. The pointer reads the reading of the impact strength. The energy
required to rupture the specimen is a function of the angle of rise.
Specimen 10 10 55 mm
Notch 45o
2 mm deep
Striking edge
Direction of blow
45o
40 mm
8 mm
Cross-section
of notch
Figure 4.3: Specimen for Charpy test
The Charpy test has two following advantages over the Izod test: (i) Placing the specimen on the
test machine facilitates even low-temperature tests without the risk of changing temperature
during the period of clamping in Izod test and (ii) it is not required to clamp the specimen as in the
Izod test and moreover is free from compressive stresses around the notch which are produced by
vice (or anvil).
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One can calculate the energy used in breaking or fracturing the specimen in both the Charpy test
and Izod test as follows (Figure 4.4).
Point of support
Angle of fall
Centre of mass of
pendulum
Angle of rise
H
Pendulum swing
h
W
Figure 4.4: Impact Test
Let us consider any position of pendulum in the beginning of its motion.

Let W weight of the pendulum
H height of fall of centre of gravity of the pendulum
height of rise of centre of gravity of the pendulum
h
R length of the pendulum i.e. the distance from C.G. of pendulum
to the axis from point of support O.
angle of fall and
angle of rise
WH WR 1 cos
Initial potential energy
Potential energy after rupture Wh WR 1 cos

Energy required to rupture the specimen
WH Wh W H h
WR cos cos
WR cos , when 90o
Typical Charpy V Impact strength test values for some metals and plastics at 0oC are summarized
in Table 4.1.
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Table 4.1: Charpy V Impact strength of some metals and plastics

Material
Charpy V Im pact strength
Copper oxygen free HC
annealed
34 J
Alu minium commercial
annealed
30 J
Cupronickel 70% Cu, 30% Ni
annealed
157 J
Magnesium Alloy 3% Al, 1%Zn annealed
8J
Nickel Alloy
annealed
290 J
Grey Cast Iron
annealed
3J
Malleable Cast Iron black heart
annealed
15 J
Carbon Steel 0.2% C as rolled
annealed
50 J
Austenitic S.S
annealed
217 J
Polythene high density
annealed
30 kJ m 2*
PVC unplasticised
annealed
2 kJ m 2*
ABS
annealed
25 kJ m 2*
Notch tip radius 0.25 mm, depth 2.75 mm
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PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1.
Impact tools are used for

i. Estimate the energy absorbing capacity
of the material
ii. To determine transition temperature
from ductile to brittle behaviour.
Which of the above statements are correct?
(A) only i
(B) only ii
(C) Both i and ii
(D) Neither i and ii
2.
In Charpy impact test,

(A) the striker hits opposite face directly
behind the notch
(B) the striker hits directly on the notch
(C) the striker hits away from the notch
(D) the striker hits at the supports
3.
In the ductile to brittle transition curious as

shown below Region A represents?
Impact
energy
5.
(a) FCC structures exhibit ductile brittle

transition temperature
(b) BCC structures do not exhibit ductile
brittle transition temperature
(c) HCP structures do exhibit ductile brittle
transition temperature
Which of the above statements are correct?
(A) only a
(B) only c
(C) only b
6.
Impact best specimens include which of the

below rotor configurations.
(1) v notch (2) o notch (3) key, hole notch
(A) 1 and 2 (B) 2,3
(C) 1,3
(D) 1,2,3
7.
Brittle cleavage type of fracture occur when

1. Tri-axial state of stress
2. low temperature
3. high strain rate
(A) 1,2
(B) 1,3
(C) 2,3
(D) 1,2,3
8.
1.
9.
Temperature and suitable medium used for

charpy testing
Temperature
Medium
o
(P) - 200 C
(i) Liquid nitrogen
Temperature
(A) Ductile fracture

(C) Brittle fracture
4.
(B) Transition zone

% carbon content when increased results in

(A) Decrease of fracture toughness and
Increase of strength
(B) Decrease of fracture toughness and
decrease of strength
(C) Increase of fracture toughness and
Increase of strength
(D) Increase of fracture toughness and
decrease of strength
Direction of notch which faces striker

is different in Izod and charpy tools
2. Type of hammer/striker used is
different in Izod and charpy test
3. Point of strike is different in Izod and
charpy test.
Which of the above statement are correct?
A) 1,2
(B) 2,3
(C) 1,2,3 (D) 1,3
(Q) 0oC
(ii) ICE
(R) 100oC
(iii) Boiling water
(S) -78oC
(iv) Liquid nitrogen

+ ethane
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10. In metals ductile brittle transition

temperature ranges.
(A) 0.1 0.2Tm
(B) 0.2 0.4Tm
(A) P i, Q ii, R iii,S iv

(B) P i, Q iii, R iv,S ii
(C) P i, Q iii, R ii,S iv
(C) 0.4 0.6Tm
(D) P i, Q iv, R iii,S ii
(D) 0.6 0.8Tm
When Tm is absolute melting temperature
ANSWER KEYS
1
10
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THEORY OF MACHINES
1. CAMS AND GEARS
1.1
1.1.1
Cams
Introduction to Cams
A cam is a mechanical member used to import desired motion to a follower by direct contact. The
cam may be rotating or reciprocating whereas the follower may be rotating, reciprocating or
oscillating.
They are manufactured usually by die-casting,
die
milling or by punch presses.
1.1.2
Classification of Cams
Cams are classified in to two types
1.
Radiall (or) disc cam: In radial cams, the follower reciprocates (or) oscillates in a direction
perpendicular to the cam axis.
2.
Cylindrical cam: In cylindrical cams the follower reciprocates or oscillates in direction

parallel to the cam axis.
(a) Cylindrical cam with reciprocating

follower
(b) Cylindrical cam with oscillating

follower
Figure: 1.1
1.1.3
Nomenclatures in Cams
With reference to Figure 1.2 some definitions are given below:
Base Circle: It is smallest circle tangent to the cam profile (contour) drawn from the centre of
rotation of a radial cam.
Trace point: It is a reference point on the follower to trace to cam profile such as the knife
knife-edge
of a knife-edged
edged follower and centre of the roller of a roller follower.
Pitch Curve: It is curve drawn by the trace point assuming that the cam is fixed, and the trace
point of the follower rotates around the cam.
Pressure Angle: The pressure angle, representing the steepness of the cam pprofile, is the angle
between the normal to the pitch curve at a point the direction of the follower motion.

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Pressure angle
(Maximum)
Follower
Pitch point
Pitch curve
Prime circle
Pressure angle
Cam profile
Trace angle
Base circle
Pitch circle
Figure: 1.2
It varies in magnitude at all instants of the follower motion. A high value of the maximum
pressure angle is not desired as it migth jam of the follower in the bearing
Pitch Point: It is point on the pitch curve at which the pressure angle is maximum.
Pitch Circle: It is the circle passing through the pitch point and concentric with the base circle
Prime Circle: The smallest circle drawn tangent to the pitch curve is known as the prime circle.
1.1.4
Motion of the follower

As a cam rotates about the axis, it imparts a specific motion to the follower which is repeated with
each evolution of the cam. Thus, it is enough to know the motion of the follower for only one
revolution.
olution. During rotation of the cam through one revolution, the follower is made to execute a
series of events such as rises, dwells and returns. The motion of the cam can be represented on a
graph, the x-axis
axis of which may represent the angular displacement
displacement of the cam and yy-axis, the
angular or the linear displacement of the follower. The follower displacement is measured from its
lowest position and is plotted with the same scale as is to be used in the layout of the cam profile.
The following terms are used
ed with reference to the angular motion of the cam:
Angle of Ascent a : It is the angle through which the cam turns during the time the follower rises.
Angle of Dwells : The angle of dwell is the angle through which the cam turns while the
follower remains stationary at the highest or the lowest position.
Angle of Descent d : It is the angle through which the cam turns during the time the follower
returns to the initial position.
Angle of Action:: The angle of action is the total angle moved by the cam durin
during the time,
between the beginning of rise and the end of the return of the follower.

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F cos
Shorter dwell
period
F sin
Angle of action
Figure: 1.3
1.1.4.1 Simple harmonic motion (SHM)

0 or cam rotation angle for the maximum follower displacement.
Consider a point A which is moving on the circumference of circle with a uniform angular
velocity as shown in Figure 1.4
0
O
a
A
s/2
y
b
Figure: 1.4
Displacement of point A is given by the projection of point A on diameter of circle where

diameter = stroke.
During out stroke angle 0 , the point A turned angle .
Forn angle turned by cam, the point A will turn the angle
0
Displacement of follower:
y Ob Oa
s
y OA cos
2
0
y
s s
cos
2 2
0
y 1 cos
2
0

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Displacement of Follower at Cam Angle:

Angle
s
y 1 cos
2
0
0,
0
,
2
0 0
s
0 s
y 1 cos
2
0 2 2
s

y 1 cos 0 s
2
0
0 ,
Velocity of Follower:
dy d s

1 cos
dt dt 2
0
s
d
v sin
2
0 0 dt

s
v
sin
2 0
0
For cam angle:
0,
v0
s
0 , v
2
0 2
0 , v 0
v max
0 2
Acceleration of Follower:

dv d s

sin
dt dt 0 2
0

2 s 2
cos
2
0 2
0
For cam angle

0, f
0
,
2
2 s 2
20 2
f 0
0 , f
f max
2 s 2
20 2
2 s 2
20 2

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Jerk of Follower:
J

df
d 2 s
2 2 cos
dt dt 0 2
0

2 s 2
cos
3
0 2
0
For cam angle,
0
,
2
3s
J 3 3
0 2
V=0
s/2
0,
J0
V = Vmax
0
V=0
0
J0
At begining
At mid stroke
0 /2; y s/2
At fullstroke
0 ; y s
0; y 0
Figure: 1.5
Maximum jerk occurs at
0
2
Schematic diagram of SHM motion of follower is shown in figure 1.6.
Displacement
0 20o
90 o
160o
200o 270o
Cam 1angle
340o360o
Velocity
Acceleration
Jerk
Figure: 1.6
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1.1.4.2 Constant acceleration and deceleration (Parabolic)

In this motion, follower moves with uniform acceleration during the first half of outward stroke
and it covers with uniform retardation, the remaining half of stroke.
By Newtons second equation of motion displacement
displac
1
y ut ft 2
2
As follower starts from rest so initial velocity is zero
Displacement of follower
1
2y
s
0 ft 2 f 2
2
t
y
At midway of outstroke,
s

y and t 0
2
2
Then, f
2 8 / 2
0 / 2
4s
4s
2
0 2
0
Figure: 1.7
Displacement of follower,
For cam angle,
0,
y0
0 ,
2
1
1 4s2 0
ft 2
2
2 02
2
ys/2
0 , y s
Velocity of follower
dy d 1 2
ft
dt dt 2
v ft, v
4s2 4s
2
02
0
0,
4s
0 0
20
0
2
4s 0 2s

02
2
0
0
,
2
v 0 due to retardation
Maximum velocity
2s
which occurs at 0
0
2

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4s
02
It is constant but changes its direction after half stroke.
Jerk of follower is infinite at 0, 0 , 0

2
Acceleration of follower
P erabola
Displacement
20 o
90 o
160 o
200 o
270 o
340 o
2
Cam angle
Velocity
Acceleration
Jerk
Figure: 1.8
1.1.4.3 Constant Velocity

Let 0 is the total angle of rise and s is lift of follower. Let cam turned through an angle in time
t and follower moves up y distance then
C
y
v and
t
t
y v
cons tan t

s
Hence, displacement curve with angular rotation
will have constant slope as shown in Figure 1.9
s
y s

or y
0
0
y
B
A
when 0, y 0
o , y s/2, =0 , y s
2
0
Figure: 1.9

50
Velocity of follower:
dy s d s

dt 0 dt 0
v
Displacement
s
constant
0
0 20o
Acceleration of follower
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dv
0
dt
1.1.4.4 Cycloidal motion
2hw
v max
at 0 ,
0
2
20
h 1
s sin
0 2
0
2hw 2
f max
at 0
2
0
4
160o
200o
Cam angle
340o 360o
Velocity
Acceleration
where v velocity of the follower

s follower displacement
Jerk
f acceleration of follower
Figure:
1.10
Example 1.1:
The profile of a cam in a particular zone is given by x 3 cos and y sin . The normal to the
cam profile at is at an angle (with respect to Y axis):

4
(A)
(B)
(C)
(D) 0
4
2
3
Solution:
(C)
x 3cos 1.2247, y sin 45 0.7071

4
0.7071
Tan
30 90 30 60
1.2247
3
Example 1.2:
A planar cam drives a translating follower as shown in the figure. The
cam profile is given by r = 5 + 2 sin t cm where is the angular
velocity of the cam. The cam is initially pressed by the follower by a
compression spring of stiffness 2 kN/cm when r = 5 cm. Calculate the
maximum operating speed of this system for the follower to maintain
contact with the camp profile. The
T mass of the follower can be taken as 1
kg. The initial spring compression is 15 mm.
K=2000N/cm
.
r
Cam
Follower (1 kg)
r = 5+2sint

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Solution:
F K 2000
15
3000N
10
2e p
me
2 2000 5 3009.81
67.83rad / sec
5
(p F 1 9.81 3009.81N)
1.2
Gears
1.2.1
Introduction to Gears
Gears are used to transmit motion from one shaft to another shaft or between a shaft and a slide.
Gears use no intermediate link or connector and transmit the motion by direct contact. In this
method, the surfaces of two bodies make a tangential contact. The two bodies have either a rolling
or a sliding motion along the tangent at the point of contact. No motion is possible along the
common normal. The gear drive is also provided, when the distance between the driver and
follower is very small. Gears are also used to transmit exact power velocity ratio.
1.2.2
Classifications of Gears
Classification based on the position
po
of axis of shafts
Parallel shafts:
(a) Spur Gears
(b) Spur Rack and pinion
(c) Helical gears or Helical spur gears
(d) Double-helical
helical and Herring bone Gear
Intersecting shafts:
(a) Spiral Bevel Gear
(b) Zero Bevel Gears
Skew shafts:
(a) Crossed helical Gears
(b) Worm Gears
1.2.2.1 Parallel Shafts

Regardless of the manner of contact, uniform rotary motion between two parallel shafts is equivalent to
the rolling of two cylinders, assuming no slipping. Depending upon the teeth of the equivalent cylinders,
i.e., straight or helical, the following are the main types of gears to join parallel shafts.
(a) Spur Gears
They have straight teeth parallel to the axes of shaft and thus are not subjected to axial thrust due
to tooth load [Figure 1.11(a)]
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Line
Contact
Line
Contact
a
Figure: 1.11
At the time of engagement of the two gears, the contact extends across the entire width on a line
parallel to the axes of rotation. This results in sudden application of the load, high impact stresses
and excessive noise at high speeds.
Further, if the gears have external
external teeth on the outer surface of the cylinders, the shafts rotate in
the opposite direction. [Figure 1.11(a)]. In an internal spur gear, the teeth are formed on the inner
surface of an annulus ring. An internal gear can mesh with an external pinion (small
(smaller gear) only
and the two shafts rotate in the same direction as shown in [Figure 1.11(b)].
1. Spur gears are very noisy
2. Due to sudden engagement and disengagement impact loads are induced and impact stress is
introduced.
3. No axial thrust.
4. No requirement of thrust bearing because of no axial thrust is there.
Eg:
1. Used in automobile at the power transmission during first gear

2. Used in watch.
(b) Spur Rack and Pinion

Spur rack is a special case of a spur gear where it is made of infinite
infinite diameter so that the pitch surface
is a plane (Figure 1.12). The spur rack and pinion combination converts rotary motion into translatory
motion, or vice-versa.
versa. It is used on a lathe in which the rack transmits motion to the saddle.
Figure: 1.12

53
(c) Helical Gears of Helical Spur Gears

In helical gears, the teeth are curved,
each being helical in shape.
Two mating gears have the same helix angle,
but have teeth of opposite hands (Figure 1.13)
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Axial
Thrust
Helical gears can be used at higher velocities

than the spur gears and have great load-carrying
load
capacity. Helical gears have the disadvantage
di
of
having end thrust as there is a force component
along the gear axis. The bearings and the
assemblies mounting the helical gears must be
able to withstand thrust loads.
Axial
Thrust
Figure: 1.13
1.
Helical gear operations are very

ve smooth
that high speed also.
2.
Due to gradual engagement and disengagement static load is applied on the gear tooth.
3.
Use at high speed.
4.
Use at high speed.
5.
6.
Due to axial thrust, axial bearing are used in this gear.

Manufacturing is difficult.
(d) Double-helical
helical and Herringbone
Herringbo Gears
A double-helical
helical gear is equivalent to a pair of helical gears secured together, one having a right
righthand helix and the other a left-hand
left hand helix. The teeth of the two rows are separated by a grove used
for tool run out. Axial thrust which occurs in
i case of single-helical
helical gears is eliminated in double
doublehelical gears. This is because the axial thrusts of the two rows of teeth cancel each other out.
These can be run at high speeds with less noise and vibrations.
Figure: 1.14
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This is not possible because manufacturing is difficult therefore some gap is given between both
the gears. This is called tool run off.
If the left
ft and the right inclinations of a double-helical
double helical gear meet at a common apex and there is no
groove in between, the gear is known as herringbone
gear (Figure 1.14).
shaft 1
1.2.2.2 Intersecting Shafts

Kinematically, the motion between two intersecting shafts
is equivalent to the rolling of two cones, assuming no
slipping. The gears, in general, are known as bevel gears.
When teeth formed on the cones are straight, the gears are
known as straight bevel and
a
when inclined, they are
shaft 2
known as spiral or helical bevel.
bevel
Straight Bevel Gears

The teeth are straight, radial to the point of intersection of
Figure: 1.15
the shaft axes and vary in cross section throughout their
length. Usually, they are used to connect shafts at right angles which run at low speeds (Figure 1.15).
Gears of the same size and connecting two shafts at right angles to each other are known a mitre gears.
Example in governor shaft axis and governor axis are connected
connecte by metre gear.
1
1
2
At the beginning of engagement, straight bevel gars make the line contact similar to spur gears.
There can also be internal bevel gears analogous to internal spur gears.
(a) Spiral Bevel Gears
When the teeth of a bevel gear are inclined at an angle to the face of the bevel, they are known as
spiral bevels or helical bevels (Figure 1.16). They are smoother in action and quieter than straight tooth
bevels as there is gradual load application and low impact stresses. Manufacturing is difficult.
Figure: 1.16
Figure: 1.17

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(b) Zero Bevel Gears

Spiral bevel gears with curved teeth but with a zero degree spiral angle are known as zero bevel
gears (Figure 1.17). Their tooth action and the end thrust are the same as that of straight bevel
gears and, therefore, can be used in the same mountings. However, they are quieter in action than
the straight bevel type as the teeth are curved.
1.2.2.3 Skew Shafts or Non-parallel,
parallel, Non-intersecting
Non
Shafts
In case of parallel and intersecting shafts, a uniform rotary motion is possible by pure rolling
contact. But in case of skew (non-parallel,
(non
non-intersecting)
intersecting) shafts, this is not possible.
(a) Crossed helical Gears
The use of crossed-helical
helical gears or spiral gears is limited to light loads. These gears are used to
drive feed mechanisms on machine tools, camshafts and oil pumps on small IC engines, etc.
(b) Worm Gears
Worm gear is a special case of a spiral gear in which the larger wheel, usually, has a hollow or
concave shape such that a portion of the pitch diameter of the other gear is enveloped on it. The
smaller of the two wheels is called the worm which also has a large spiral angle. Speed reduction
ratio up to 1:300 is possible.
1.2.3
Gear Terminology
Face width
Top land
Addendum
circle
Face
Circular pitch
Space
Tooth
width
thick
ness
Pitch
circle
Addendum
Flank
Working
depth
Bottom
land
Dedendum
Dedendum root
circle
Clearance
Figure: 1.18
1.
Pitch circle: it is an imaginary circle, by which pure rolling action, would give the same
motion as the actual gear.
2.
Pitch circle diameter: it is the diameter of the pitch circle. The size of the gear is usually
specified by the pitch circle diameter. This is also
also known as pitch diameter.

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3.
Pressure angle or angle or obliquity: It is the angle between the common normal to two
gear teeth at the point of contact and the common tangent at the pitch point. It is usually
denoted by . The standard pressure angles are 14 and 20 .
4.
Dedendum circle/Root circle: Circle drawn through the bottom of the teeth.
Mathematically, Root circle diameter = Pitch Circle Diameter Cos ,
where - pressure angle
5.
Circular Pitch: Distance measured on the circumference of the pitch circle from a po
point of
one tooth to the corresponding point on the next tooth
D
Mathematically, circular pitch, PC
T
where D = pitch circle diameter
T = number of teeth on wheel
6.
Diametral pitch: Ratio of number of teeth to the pitch circle diameter in millimeters
T
Mathematically, diametral pitch, Pd
D PC
where D = pitch circle diameter
T = number of teeth
7.
Module: Ratio of the pitch circle diameters in millimeters to the number of te

teeth. It is also
specification of gear.
1
Module, m = D T
where Pd diametral pitch
Pd
8.
Addendum: Radial distance of a tooth from the pitch circle to the top of the teeth
9.
Dedendum: Radial distance of a tooth from the pitch circle to the bottom of the teeth.
10. Addendum circle: circle drawn through the top of the teeth and concentric with the pitch
circle.
11. Pitch point: It is a common point of contact between two pitch circles where pure rolling
takes place.
12. Pitch Surface: It is the surface of the rolling discs
discs which the meshing gears have replaced at
the pitch circle.
13. Clearance: It is the radial distance from the top of the tooth to the bottom of the tooth, in a
meshing gear. A circle passing through the top of the meshing gear is known as clearance
circle.
14. Total depth: It is the radial distance between the addendum and the dedendum circle of a
gear. It is equal to the sum of the addendum and dedendum.

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15. Working depth: It is the radial distance from the addendum circle to the clearance circle. It
is equal to the sum of the addendum of the two meshing gears.
16. Tooth thickness: It is the width of the tooth measured along the pitch circle.
17. Tooth space: It is the width of space between the two adjacent teeth measured along the
pitch circle.
18. Backlash: It is the difference between the tooth space and the tooth thickness, as measured
on the pitch circle. It is given to avoid the jamming of the tooth in running time and also at
higher temperature if tooth are expanded some amount, then it will be compensated by
backlash.
19. Face of the tooth: It the surface of the tooth above the pitch surface.
20. Top land: It is the surface of the top of the tooth. Top land may be flat (in spur gears) or
may be conical (in spiral gear).
21. Flank of the tooth: It is the surface of the tooth below the pitch
pi surface
22. Face width: It is the length of the gear tooth measured parallel to its axis.
23. Profile: It is the curve formed by the face and flank of the tooth.
24. Fillet radius: It is the radius that connects the root circle to the profile of the tooth.
25. Path of contact: It is the path traced by the point of contact of two teeth from the beginning
to the end of engagement. Path of contact = path of approach + path of recess.
26. Length of the path of contact: It is length of the common normal out-off
off by the addendum
circles of the wheel and pinion.
27. Arc of contact: It is the path traced by a point on the pitch circle from the beginning to the
end of engagement of a given pair of teeth. The arc of contact consists of two parts, i.e.,
(A) Arc of approach: It is the portion of the path of contact from the beginning of the
engagement to the pitch point.
(B) Arc of recess: It is portion of the path of contact from the pitch point to the end of the
engagement of a pair of teeth.
Thee ratio of the length of arc of contact to the circular pitch is known
known as contact ratio i.e., number
of pairs of teeth in contact.
Contact ratio is always greater than one. It tells about the strength of gear.
1.2.4
Law of Gearing
This law also gives the
he condition for constant velocity ratio of toothed wheels.
This law states that the common normal at the point of contact between a pair of teeth must
always pass through the pitch point.

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If D1 and D2 are the pitch circle diameters of wheels 1 and 2 having teeth T1 and T2 respectively,
D
T
then velocity ratio is defined as 1 2 2
2 D1 T1
where 1 = angular speed of wheel 1
2 angular speed of wheel 2
2 N 1
60
2 N 2
60
1.2.5
Velocity of Sliding
If the curved surfaces of two teeth of gear 1 and 2 are to remain in contact, one can have a sliding
motion relative to the other along the common tangent.
Velocity of sliding = sum of angular velocities distance between the pitch point and the point of
contact
1.2.6
Interference in involute
te gears
The phenomenon when the tip of tooth under cuts the root on its mating gear is known as
interference. Interference may only be prevented if the addendum circles of the two mating gears
cut the common tangent to the base circles between the points of tangency.
1.2.7
Minimum number of teeth

Minimum number of teeth on the pinion in order to avoid interference:
2A P
t
1 G G 2 sin 2 1
where t = minimum no. of teeth
T R
G = contact ratio =
t
r
pressure angle of angle of obliquity
AP = fraction by which the standard
standard addendum of one module for the pinion should be multiplied
in order to avoid interference
If G = 1 then above equation reduces to
2A P
t
1 3in 2 1
Minimum number of teeth on the wheel in order to avoid interference
2A W
T
11
2
1 2 sin 1
GG
...(1.1)
where G = gear ratio

AW = fraction by which the standard addendum for the wheel should be multiplied
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From equation (1.1), we can obtain the minimum number of teeth on pinion
2A W
t
1
11
2
1 2 sin 1
G
GG
Minimum number of teeth on a pinion for involutes rack in order to avoid interference
2A R
t
sin 2
where AR fraction by which the standard addendum of one module for the rack is to be
multiplied
The minimum numbers of teeth on the pinion which will mesh with any gear (also rack) without
interference are given in the table 1.1.
Table 1.1
System of Gear Teeth
Minimum
Number of Teeth
on Pinion
1
14 composite
2
12
1.2.8
1
14 full depth involute
2
32
20 full depth involute
18
20 stub volume
14
Interference between Rack and Pinion

Figure 1.19 shows a rack and pinion in mesh. The pinion is rotating in clockwise direction and
driving the rack.
Let r = Pitch circle radius of the pinion
mt
2
where t = No. of teeth on pinion
m = Module
Pr essure angle
AR m Addendum for rack where AR is the addendum co-efficient

efficient by which the standard
addendum of one module for the rack is to be multiplied.
multipli
Rack is a part of toothed wheel of infinite diameter. Hence the base circle diameter and profile of
involute teeth of Rack will be straight lines. In Figure 1.19, P is the pitch point and PE is the line
of action. The rack tooth starts engaging with the pinion
pinion tooth at point E. The point E gives the
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maximum value of the addendum of the rack. Hence addendum of rack must be less than GE for
no interference. Consider triangle PEG.
O Pinion
Base circle pinion

Pitch circle
E
Addendum circle
pinion
Addendum
line for rack
Pitch line for

rack or common
tangent
Base circle or line

for rack
Rack
Figure: 1.19
Now GE PE sin r sin sin

PE from right angled triangle PAE r Sin
r sin 2
mt 2
sin
2
m t
r 2
There will be no interference if

mt
GE AR m or
sin 2 A R m
2
2A R m
2 AR
t
2
m sin
sin 2
Minimum no. of teeth on pinion for no interference is given by

2 AR
t min
sin 2
If AR 1 which is true for standard addendum,
t min
2
sin 2
If pressure angle 20 , then

2
17.1 or 18
sin 20
The minimum no. of teeth required on the pinion to avoid interference is 18.
t min

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PRACTICE QUESTIONS
Data for Questions: 1 & 2
5.
Consider a cam rotating with uniform

angular velocity 40rad s . Follower also
moves with uniform velocity. Lift of the
th
follower is 80mm.
1.
2.
If there is no dwell between ascent and

descent then the angle of ascent is
(A) 90
(B) 100
(C) 120
(D) 180
Data
ata for Questions: 6 & 7
With above conditions satisfying velocity and

acceleration of follower at mid stroke is
(A) 1m s and 1m s 2
A symmetrical tangent cam with least radius

of 25mm operates a roller follower of radius
of 10mm.
mm. The angle of ascent is 60O and
total left is 15mm. If speed of the cam is
400rpm,then
(B) 1.5 m s and 0m s 2

(C) 2.2 m s and 1m s 2
6.
(D) 2.5 m s and 0m s 2

3.
The below figure shows a cam with a circular

follower, rotating with a uniform angular
velocity of rad/s. What is the nature of
displacement of follower. Where is angle
of rotation of cam with vertical axis.
A circular disc having a mass of 40kg is

mounted symmetrically between two
bearings. It is used as an eccentric cam with
eccentricity of 0.02m. If the shaking force
an each of the bearing is not to exceed
2000N, the speed of rotation of the cam
should not exceed
(A) 175rpm
(B) 375rpm
(C) 1087rpm
(D) 675rpm
7.
Acceleration of the
beginning of the lift.
(A) 80.21m/s2
(C) 61.3m/s2
follower
8.
(B) Parabolic
C
(C) SHM
Acceleration of follower at the apex of the

nose
(A) 80.21m s 2
(B) 100.4m s 2
(D) Cycloidal
(D) 131.54 m s 2
The cam has a minimum radius of 40mm

and rotates counter clockwise at a uniform
speed of 900 rpm.
e
R
the
(B) 100.4m/s2
(D) 131.54m/s2
(C) 61.3m s 2
(A) Uniform
at
uniform acceleration
Displacement
SHM
4.
A circular arc cam with flat faced follower

base circle diameter 40mm. Angle of action
is 160O, speed 250rpm and radius of circular
flank is 52.6mm. What is the maximum
acceleration during the lift in m sec 2 .
(A) 22.34
(C) 60.23
120
Velocity
(B) 30.24
(D) 89.37
150
240
3.6m sec
Cam
angle
3.76m sec

62
Figure shows a displacement and velocity

diagram of a follower. Which of the
following is correct acceleration diagram?
|ME| Study Material
Then accelerating period and angular

velocity of cam is __________respectively
(A) 2sec, 1rad/sec
(B) 1sec, 2rad/sec
(C) 4sec, 4rad/sec
(D) 1sec, 1rad/sec
324m sec 2
(A)
710.6m sec
acceleration
0
120
150
240
710.6m sec
324 m sec 2
710.6m sec 2
(B)
324m sec
acceleration
0
11. The raise of the follower through 30mm with

cycloidal motion during 120O rotation of cam.
What is the velocity of follower at 60O and
acceleration off the follower at 30O respectively.
(Take speed of the cam is 120 rpm)
(A) 0.36 m s , 6.78 m s 2
(B) 2.36 m s , 7.76 m s 2
120
150
(C) 6.36 m s , 2.72 m s 2
240
(D) 0.22 m s , 3.24 m s 2

324 m sec
710.6m sec
(C)
710.6m sec 2
324m sec 2
acceleration
120
240
150
324 m sec 2
710.6m sec 2
(D)
710.6m sec 2
324m sec 2
acceleration
150
240
120
710.6m sec 2
9.
324 m sec 2
The cam has a minimum radius of 20mm

and rotates at 85rad sec . To raise the
follower with uniform acceleration and
deceleration during 120O rotation of cam, to
lower the follower with SHM during 90O
rotation of the cam, ratio
atio of maximum
velocity of SHM to uniform acceleration of
follower is ________
(A) 1
(B) 2
(C) 1.7
(D) 2.7
The cam with a minimum radius of 26mm is

to be designed for a knife
knife-edge follower
with following data.
To rise the follower through 25mm
during 60O rotation of the cam (follower
moves with SHM)
Dwell for next 40O of the cam rotation
Descending of the follower during the
next 90O of the cam rotation (follower
moves with SHM)
Dwell during the rest of the cam
rotation.
12. What is the ratio of maximum velocity
during the ascent to descent, iif the cam
rotates at 100rpm
(A) 1
(B) 1.5
(C) 2
(D) 2.5
13. What is the maximum acceleration during
the ascent and descent, if the cam rotates at
150rpm
(A) 10.7m s 2 and 12.3m s 2
(B) 6.97m s 2 and 10.6m s 2
10. To raise the follower through 20mm with

uniform acceleration and saturation of
20mm/s2 during 120O of rotation of cam.
(C) 2.6 m s 2 and 3.2 m s 2

(D) 27.7 m s 2 and 12.3m s 2

63
Data for Questions: 14, 15 and 16

Consider a cam follower in which cam is
rotating with uniform angular velocity
rad/sec and follower moves in S.H.M. If
displacement of follower is given as
S

Y 1 cos , where is angle turned
2
a
by cam in time t sec a - angle of ascent
S maximum lift of follower
14. Maximum velocity of follower is _______
S
S

(A)
(B)
a
a 2
(C)
15.
S
2
a 2
16.
2 S
2
2
a
2
(D) Zero
Jerk at end of stroke is _______

(A)
3
S3 sin
3
a
a
(B)
3 S 3
sin
3
a 2
a
(C) Zero
(D)
the lift, the roller passes through straight

flank is ________
(A) 20.4m s 2 ,0
(B) 30.7m s 2 ,0
(C) 10m s 2 , 2 m s
(D) 56.8m s2 ,4m sec

A tangent cam with straight working faces
tangent to the base circle of rC radius has
roller follower of rr radius. The nose circle
radius of cam is rn, is angle turned by the
cam from the beginning of the follower
motion, cam rotates with uniform angular
velocity of and roller passes through
straight flank.
(D) Zero
Maximum acceleration
eration of follower is ___.
2
S
S
(A) 2 2
(B) 2 2
a 2
a 2
(C)
|ME| Study Material
3 S 3
sin
3
a 3
a
17. A tangent cam with straight working faces

tangent to base circle of 100mm dia has a
roller follower of 40mm diameter. The line
of stroke of the roller follower passes
through the axis of cam. Speed of the cam is
200 rpm than minimum acceleration and
minimum velocity of the follower during
18. The acceleration of follower minimum

when.
2 cos 2
(A)
is minimum
cos3
(B) cos is maximum
(C) 2 cos 2 cos3
(D) All the above
19. A tangent cam with a base circle diameter
of 60mm operates a roller follower 30mm in
dia. The line of stroke of the roller follower
passes through the axis of the cam. The
angle between the tangential faces of the
cam is 60O and lift of the follower is 20mm.
What is the distance between cam and the
nose centers.
(A) 20mm
(B) 30mm
(C) 40mm
(D) 20.6mm
20. A tangent cam with a base circle diameter
of 60mm operates a roller follower 30mm in
dia. The line of stroke of the roller follower
passes through the axis of the cam. The
angle between the tangential faces of the
cam is 60O, speed of the cam shaft is
300rpm and lift of the ffollower is 20mm,

64
then what is the acceleration of follower at

the beginning of lift.
(A) 36.21m s 2
(B) 40.22 m s 2
(C) 44.41m s 2
(D) 20.62m s
21. A circular disc cam as shown in Fig. The

mass of the follower is 4kg and is pressed
press
downward with a spring of stiffness
4N mm . In the lowest position, The spring
force is 60N. The
he speed at which the
follower begins to lift from the cam surface
is _____rpm
spring
40mm
(A) 100.6
(C) 102.6
30mm
(B) 507.6
(D) 500
22. Which of the following is used for parallel

and co-planer shafts?
(i) spur gear (ii) helical gear
(iii) bevel gear (iv) Herringbone gear
(A) Only (i)
(B) (i) and (ii)
(C) (i), (ii) and (iii)
(D) (i), (ii) and (iv)
23. Bevel gears are used to connect two
(A) Intersecting
ting and coplanar shafts
(B) Non-intersecting and non-coplanar
coplanar shafts
(C) Parallel and co-planar
planar shafts
(D) Parallel and non-coplanar
coplanar shafts
24. Herringbone gear is an example of
(A) spur gear
(B) Helical gear
(C) Double Helical gear
(D) Bevel gear
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25. Two parallel and coplanar shafts are

connected by gear, and the teeth of gear is
parallel to the axis, gear would be
(A) spur gear
(B) Helical gear
(C) Bevel gear
(D) Hypoid gear
26. Two parallel and coplanar shafts are
connected by gears, teeth of gear is inclined
with axis, gear would be
(A) spur gear
(B) Helical gear
(C) Bevel gear
(D) Hypoid gear
27. It is assumed that two pairs of cylinder by
pure rolling transmit the same power, as the
pair of gear. The diameters of the
these
cylinders known as
(A) Pitch circle diameter
(B) Addendum circle diameter
(C) Dedendum circle diameter
(D) Prime circle diameter
28. Module of gear is defined as
D
D
T
(A)
(B)
(C)
T
T
SP
(D)
T
D
29. Diametral pitch is defined as

D
D
(A)
(B)
T
T
T
(C)
(D) None of these
D
30. Circular pitch is given as
D
D
(A)
(B)
T
T
T
(C)
(D) None of these
D
31. Module for two mating gears is
(A) higher for pinion
(B) higher for gear
(C) equal for gear and pinion
(D) None of these

65
32. Which of the following

wing is true for pressure
line?
(i) It passes through the pitch point and
point of contact of two teeth.
(ii) It is common normal at the point of
contact of the mating gears.
(A) Only (i)
(B) Only (ii)
(C) Both
(D) None of these
33. Pressure angle is angle between
(A) Pressure line and common tangent at
pitch point
(B) Pressure line and common normal at
pitch point
(C) Pressure line and common tangent at
point of contact of two gears
(D) None of these
34. Component of the force
rce along ________ is
responsible for power transmission.
(A) pressure line
(B) common tangent at pitch point
(C) common normal at pitch point
(D) none of these
35. Component of the force along ________, is
responsible for separation of gears.
(A) pressure line
(D) none of these
36. Resultant force is transmitted along:
(A) pressure line
(D) none of these
37. Velocity of sliding is given as
(A) 1 2 PC
(C)
1 2
PC
(B) 1 2 PC
(D)
1 2
PC
|ME| Study Material
Where 1 and 2 are angular velocities of

pinion and gear respectively, PC is the
distance between pitch point and point of
contact.
38. Path of contact is a line tangent to
(A) Base circle
(B) Pitch circle
(C) Addendum circle
(D) Dedendum circle
39. Base circle diameter is: (D = Pitch circle
diameter)
(A) D cos
(B) D sin
D
D
(C)
(D)
cos
sin
40. Which of the following is not true for
involute teeth?
(A) Pressure angle is constant throughout
the engagement of teeth.
(B) Interference can occur, if the condition
of minimum number of teeth on gear is
not followed.
(C) Involute teeth is stronger than cycloidal
(D) Little change in centre distance does
not change the velocity ratio.
41. Which of the following is not true for
cycloidal teeth?
(A) Pressure angle varies from zero to
maximum.
(B) Pressure angle is zero at pitch point
(C) These are simple to manufacture as
compared to involute teeth
(D) Phenomenon of interference does not
occurs at all.
Data for Questions: 42 to 48
Two gears in mesh have a module of 8 mm
and a pressure angle of 20. The larger gear
has 57 teeth while the pinion has 23 teeth.

66
The addenda on pinion and gear wheel are

equal to module.
42. What will be the path of approach?
(A) 15 mm
(B) 18.2 mm
(C) 21 mm
(D) 23.6 mm
48. Ratio of sliding and rolling velocities at

pitch point
(A) 1.5
(B) 0
(C) 2.1
(D) None
49. To avoid interference, maximum length of
path of approach will be
(A) R sin
(B) r sin
(C) R cos
(D) r cos
43. What will be the path of recess?

(A) 15.2 mm
(B) 18.8 mm
(C) 20.3 mm
(D) 24.5 mm
50. Two 20 involute gear have a module of 10

mm. the addendum is equal to one module,
what will be the minimum number of teeth
to avoid interference, if gear ratio is 2
(A) 27
(B) 29
(C) 30
(D) 31
44. What will be the arc of contact?

(A) 42.35 mm
(B) 50.2 mm
(C) 56.78 mm
(D) 59.3 mm
45. Number of teeth in contact is
(A) 1
(B) 1.25 (C) 1.68
|ME| Study Material
(D) 2.28
46. What will be the module, if path of

approach is maximum?
(A) 8 mm
(B) 12 mm
(C) 14 mm
(D) 16 mm
47. The ratio of sliding velocities at engagement
and disengagement
(A) 2.6
(B) 2.12 (C) 1.6
(D) 1.12
51. In involute gear pressure angle iis

(A) dependent on the size of teeth
(B) dependent on the size of gear
(C) always constant
(D) always varies
52. Two mating gears have 20 and 60 teeth. The
pinion rotates at 600 rpm and transmits
torque of 60 N-m,
m, torque transmitted by
gear would be
(A)180 Nm
(B)120 Nm
(C)60 Nm
(D)20 Nm

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ANSWER KEYS
1
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
EXPLANATIONS
1.
a d 360 , d
2.
y S
S
y
D a
a
dy s

dt a
5.
360
120
3
mr2 4000
70.71rad s , N 675.23rpm
6.
80
a
40
120
180
1527.8mm sc 1.52m sec
For uniform velocity of follower

acceleration at mid stroke is O
3.
7.
Maximum acceleration at 0 at the

beginning
f 2 rf rC cos
r
f 2 r 1
l
20
41.882 30 1 131.54 m s
30
8.
This is eq for SHM
2 cos 2
f 2 rr rC
at 0
3
cos
f 61.38 m s 2
X R c cos R e
R 1 cos
4.
Force on each bearing = 2000N

Centrifugal force = 2 2000 = 4000 N
Uniform acceleration
4h2
4 0.04
2 900
2
2
0
120 60
180
324 m s 2
f umi
2 250
52.6 20
60
22.34 m s 2
For SHM f m
cos
2

68

324m sec2
710.6m sec
11.
|ME| Study Material
2N
12.566 rad s
60
2h
2 0.03 12.566
0.36 m s
120
120
Acceleration at
;
4
2h2 2 0.03 12.5662
f max
2
2

120
180
6.78 m s 2
Velocity at
710.6m sec2
324m s2
It is maximum at 0,90
h nw
0.04 94.247

2 d
2 20
180
2
710.6m sec
2
f max
f min at
9.
, f min 0
4
Vmax with uni acceleration 2h
2 0.02 88
1.68m sec
120
180
h
Vmax with S.H.M
2 d
0.02 88
1.76 m s
90
2
180
Vsum 1.76
1
Vsmi 1.68
; Vmax
2 N 2 100
10.47 rad sec

60
60
At ascent.
h 25 10.47
Vmax
2 a
L 60
180
392.625mm s
At descent,
12.
h
261.75mm sec
2 90
180
Vmax at ascent 392.625
1.5
Vmax at descent 261.75
Vmax
10. h 20mm, f 20 mm s 2 , 120

1
S ut ft 2
2
2s
f 2 , u= 0
t
2 h
h
20
s
2
2 t
2
t 1sec
2
t
120
1rad sec
180 2
13. N 150rpm,
2 150
5
60
at ascent,
2
f max
h
25 5 180

2 a
2 60
27.75m s 2
at descent,
25 5 180
f max
12.337 m s 2
2 90
14. Maximum velocity of follower

69

dy 3
0 sin
dt 2
a
at a , V Vmax
2
s
Vmax
a 2
rn r 30 20 rn r 50 1
r cos 60 rn rc 0.5r rn 30 2
From (1) and (2)
r 40 mm
20. at the beginning 0
dv d s
sin
15. acceleration
dt dt a 2
a
|ME| Study Material
s 2 2
cos
2
2 a
a
2 rc rr 2 cos 2
cos
2N 2 300
31.41rad sec
60
60
f 31.412 30 15 44.41m s 2
f f max at 0, a

25e p
me
P 60 4 9.81 99.24 N
S 2

2a 2
21.

df 3 S 2
3 sin at a
0 2
dt
a
J=0
16. J
17. f min rc rr
Fmin
It is SHM
Displacement at any instant

x 30 30cos
2 N 2 200
20.94 rad s
60
60
20.942 50 20 30.7m s 2
Minimum velocity of the follower passes

through straight flank is 0 m/s.
2 cos 2
cos3
2 cos 2
Fminimum when
min imum
cos3
(or) cos3 max imum
18. f 2 rc rr
or 0
2 cos 2 cos3
19. rc 30mm h 20 mm rr 15mm
r distance between cam and nose centers.

rn r rr rC rr h
2 4 103 0.03 99.24

4 0.003
53.16rad sec
N 507.6 rpm
24. If the left and right inclination of a double
helical gear meets at a common apex and
there is no groove in between, the gears is
known as herringbone.
30. Circular pitch is distance measured along
pitch circle from a point on a tooth to the
corresponding point
int on adjacent tooth.
D
circular pitch (P) =
T
42. Path of contact = path of approach + path
of recessing
Path of approach = AP = AC PC
AC OA 2 OC2 R a2 R 2 cos2 ,
P R sin

70
46. To avoid interference maximum path of

approach would be PD
PD r sin 31.46mm , Path of approach
ra
R cos
0
Ra
P
A
31.46 R a2 R cos R sin
R a 240.58nm,
r cos
D
R m 240.58nm, m 12.58nm
47. Sliding velocity = 1 2 CP
Addendum circle
CP is the distance from the contact to pitch

point.
At the point of engagement CP
= Path of approach
At the point of disengagement CP
= Path of recess
sliding velocity at engagement
sliding velocity at disengagement
Pitch circle
Base circle
pressure aangl
ngle
OP R pi
pitch
tch dia of gear
Path of approach
=
|ME| Study Material
R a2 R 2 cos2 R sin
8 57
228mm,
2
R a 228 8 236
R mT
Path of approach 20.98mm 21 mm
48. Sliding velocity = 1 2 CP ,

At pitch point
CP = 0 sliding velocity = 0
43. Path of recess

2
= BP= BD PD ra2 r cos r sin

8 23
92 mm , ra 92 8 100mm
2
Path or recesses = 18.79 mm
r
Path of contact
44. Arc of contact =
cos
Path of approach + Path of recesses
cos
18.79 21
42.35mm
cos 20
45. Contact ratio
Arc of contact Arc of contact
=
circular pitch
m
42.35
1.68
8
Path of approach
21
1.12
Path of recess
18.79
2Aw
50. T
11
1 2 sin 2 1
GG
Here Aw = 1, G = 2, = 20
T 28.32
Tmin 29
52.
Torque Transmitted by Gear

Torque Transmitted by Pinion
No of teeth on gear
No of teeth on Pinion
Torque Transmitted by Gear

60
60 180Nm
20

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|ME| Study Material
2. GOVERNORS
2.1
Introduction
The function of a governor is to maintain the speed of an engine within specified limits whenever
there is a variation of load. In general, the speed of an engine varies in two ways during each
revolution (cyclic variation) and over a number of revolutions. In the former case, it is due to
variation in the output torque of the engine during a cycle and can be regulated by mounting a
suitable flywheel on the shaft. In the latter case, it is due to variation of load upon the engine and
requires a governor to maintain the speed. The operation of a flywheel is continuous whereas that
of a governor is more or less intermittent. A flywheel may not be used if there is no undesirable
cyclic
clic fluctuation of the energy output, but a governor is essential for all types of engines as it
adjusts the supply according to the demand.
If the load of the shaft increases, the speed of the engine decreases unless the supply of fuel is
increased by opening
pening the throttle valve. On the other hand, if the load on the shaft decreases, the
speed of the engine increases unless the fuel supply is decreased by closing the valve sufficiently
to slow down the engine to its original speed. The throttle valve is operated
operated by the governor
through a mechanism for the purpose.
2.2
Types of Governors
Governor can broadly be classified into two types.
(i) Centrifugal Governor
This is the more common type. Its action depends on the change of speed. It has a pair of m
masses,
known as governor balls, which rotate with a spindle. The spindle is driven by an engine through
bevel gears (Fig. 2.1). The action of the governor depends upon the centrifugal effects produced
by the masses of the two balls. With the increase in the
the speed, the ball tends to rotate at a greater
radius from the axis. This causes the sleeve to slide up on the spindle and this movement of the
sleeve is communicated to the throttle through a bell crank lever.
This closes the throttle valve to the required
required extent. When the speed decreases the balls rotate at a
smaller radius and the valve is opened according to the requirement.
(ii) Inertia Governor
In this type, the positions of the balls are affected by the forces set up by an angular acceleration
orr deceleration of the given spindle in addition to centrifugal forces on the balls. Using suitable
linkages and springs, the change in position of the balls is made to open or close the throttle valve.
Thus, whereas the balls are operated by the actual change
change of engine speed in the case of
centrifugal governors, it is by the rate of change of speed in case of inertial governors. Therefore,
the response of inertia governors is faster than that of centrifugal types.

72
|ME| Study Material
Arms
Spindle
Ball
Ball
Stop
Bellcrank lever
Sleeve
free
toside
Throttle valve
Stop
Fluid
From engine
Figure: 2.1
2.3
Watt Governor (Simple Conical Governor)

Figure 2.2 shows three forms of a simple centrifugal or a Watt governor. In this, a pair of balls
(masses) is attached to a spindle with the help of links. In Fig. 2.2(a), the upper links are pinned at
a point O. In the Fig. 2.2 (b), the upper links are connected
connected by a horizontal link and the governor
is known as the open-arm
arm type Watt governor. On extending the upper arms, they still meet at O.
F
O
E
mr2
A
r
mr
mr
mg
mg
Figure: 2.2
73
|ME| Study Material
In Fig.2.2 (c), the upper links cross the spindle and are connected by a horizontal link and the
governor is known as a crossed-arm
crossed arm Watt governor. In this also, the two links intersect at O. The
lower links in every case are fixed to a sleeve free to move on the vertical spindle.
As the spindle rotates, the balls take up a position depending upon the speed of the spindle. If it
lowers, they move near to the axis due to reduction in the centrifugal force on the balls and the
ability of the sleeve to slide on the spindle. The movement of the sleeve is further taken to the
throttle of the engine by means of a suitable linkage to decrease or increase the fuel supply.
The vertical distance from the plane (horizontal)
(horizontal) of rotation of the balls to the point of intersection
of the upper arms along the axis of the height of the governor. The height of the governor
decreases with increase in speed, the increases with decreases in speed.
Let m = mass of each ball
h= height of governor
w = weight of each ball (= mg)
angular velocity of the balls, arms and the sleeve
T = tension in the arm
r = radial distance of ball-centre
ball
from spindle-axis
Assuming the links to be massless and neglecting the friction of the sleeve,
sleeve, the mass m at A is in
static equilibrium under the action of
Weight w (= mg)
Centrifugal force mr2
Tension T in the upper link
If the sleeve is massless and also friction is neglected, the lower links will be tension free.
The equilibrium of the mass provides
T cos mg and T sin mr2
tan
or
or
mr2 r2
mg
g
r r 2
h
g
or
2
g
g
60 9.81 895
2 2 m
2
N
N
2N 2
60
895000
mm
N2
Thus, the height of a Watt governor is inversely proportional to the square of the speed. This
equation would reveal that the variation in h is appreciable for low values of speed N. As the
speed N becomes larger, the variation in h becomes very small.

74
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The following table shows the height h with the variation in speed:
N(rpm) 50
h(mm)
100
150
200
300 400
358 89.5 39.8 22.4 9.9
5.6
This shows that in this type of governor, the movement of the sleeve is very less at high speeds
and thus is unsuitable for these speeds. However, this drawback has been overcome by loading the
governor with a dead weight or by means of a spring.
Example 2.1:
In an open-arm
arm type governor AE = 400 mm, EF= 50 mm and angle 35o. Determine the
percentage change in speed when decreases to 30o.
O
O
35
50
400
35
25
H
h
400
D A
Solution:
Refer Fig. (b),
h = GO= GH + HO = AE cos EH cot
h 400cos35o 25cot 35o
363.4mm
h 400 cos 30o 25cot 30o
389.7mm
Now, h
g
g
and h '2
2
h
363.4
0.966
h
389.7
Decrease in speed
(1 0.966) 100 3.44%

75
2.4
|ME| Study Material
Porter Governor
If the sleeve of a Watt governor is loaded with a heavy mass, it becomes a Porter governor
[Figure 2.3(a)]
Let M = mass of the sleeve
m = mass of each ball
f = force of friction at the sleeve
O
O
h
A
mr A
M
B
mg
Fh
Mg f
Figure: 2.3
The force of friction always acts in a direction opposite to that of the motion. Thus when the
sleeve moves up, the force of friction acts in the downward direction and the downward force
acting on the sleeve is (Mg + f). Similarly, when the sleeve moves down,
down, the force on the sleeve
will be (Mg f). In general, the net force acting on the sleeve is (Mg f ) depending upon
whether the sleeve moves upwards or downwards.
Forces acting on the sleeve and on each
e
ball have been shown in Figure 2.3(b).
Let h = height of the governor
r = distance of the centre of each ball from axis of rotation
The instantaneous centre of rotation of the link AB is at I for the given configuration of the
governor. It is because the motion of its two points A and B relative to the li
link is known. The
point A oscillates about the point O and B moves in a vertical direction parallel to the axis. Lines
perpendicular to the direction of these motions locates the point I.
Considering the equilibrium of the left-handed
left
half of the governor and taking moments about I,
Mg f
mr2 .a mgc
(c b)
2
or
c Mg f
mr2 mg
a
2
c b

a a

76
Mg f
(tan tan )
2
Mg f
tan mg
(1 k)
2
|ME| Study Material
mg tan
tan
taking k
tan
r
Mg f
mg
(1 k)
h
2
or
or
1 2mg Mg f (1 k)
mh
2
g 2mg (Mg f )(1 k)

2N
or

h
2mg
60
N2
895 2mg (Mg f )(1 k)
h
2mg
(Taking g = 9.81 m/s2)
This equation would provide two values of N for the same height of the governor. The
phenomenon can be explained as below.
First assume that the sleeve has just moved down. This means that the force acting on the sleeve is
(Mg - f) downwards. Now, if the speed of the engine increases, the balls would tend to move away
from the axis, but now as the friction has to act in the downward direction, the resistance to the
motion would be (Mg + f), Thus until the speed rises to such a value as to overcome this
resistance, the sleeve will not move. In the same way, when the sleeve has moved up and the
speed decreases, the resistance to the sleeve movement would
wo
be only (Mg - f). Thus, until the
speed reduces to such a value as to give a force equal to (Mg - f), the sleeve will not move.
Thus, for a given value of h, the governor is insensitive between two values of given by
If , k = 1, N 2
If f = 0, N 2
If k = 1, f = 0
985 mg Mg f
h
mg
895 2m M(1 k)
h
2m
N2
895 m M
h m
Example 2.2:
Each of a Porter governor is 200 mm long and is pivoted on the axis of the governor. The radii of
rotation of the balls at the minimum and the maximum speeds are 120 mm and 160 mm
respectively. The mass of the sleeve is 24 kg and each ball is 4 kg. Find the range of speed of the
governor. Also determine the range of speed if the friction at the sleeve is 18N.

77
|ME| Study Material
Solution:
m= 4kg, M= 24kg, f = 18N
200
At minimum speed, h (200) (120) 2 160mm
h1
200
120
As k =1, f=0,
895 m M 895 4 24
39.156
h m 0.16 4
or N 197.9 rpm
h2
160
N2
mg
mg
200
200
At maximum speed, h 2002 160 2 120 mm

As k = 1, f = 0,
895 m M 895 4.24
52.208
h m 0.12 4
or N 228.5rpm
N2
mg 2
mg 2
Range of speed = 228.5-197.9

197.9 = 30.6 rpm
When friction at the sleeve is 18N
At minimum speed,
N2
895 mg (Mg f )
h
mg
895 4 9.81 (24 9.81 18)
0.16
4 9.81
36.590or N 191.3rpm
At maximum speed,
N2
895 mg (Mg f )
h
mg
895 4 9.81 (24 9.81 18)
0.12
4 9.81
55.630or N 235.9rpm
Range of speed 235.9 191.3 44.6 rpm

Example 2.3:
In a Porter governor, each of the four arms is 400 mm long. The upper arms are pivoted on the
axis of the sleeve whereas the lower arms are attached to the sleeve at a distance of 45 mm from
the axis of the rotation. Each ball has a mass of 8 kg and the load on the sleeve is 60 kg. What will
be the equilibrium speeds for the two extreme radii of 250 mm and 300 mm of rotation of the
governor balls?

78
|ME| Study Material

O
Solution:
Refer Figure given below,
M = 8 kg, BG = 45 mm
M = 60 kg,OA = 400 mm
We have,
400
h
T
mg f
mr2 tan mg
1 k
2
(i) When r = 250 mm

r
r
tan
2
h
OA r 2
250
400 250
205 343.4 mm
400
400
45
60 2 kg
AB
mg
tan b a
k
tan tan
As b 250 45 205 mm,
a
f 0
0.8
205 343.4
0.746
0.8
60 9.81
8 0.25 2 0.8 8 9.81

1 0.746
2
22 0.8 78.48 513.85

2 237
2N
15.39
60
N 147 rpm
(ii) When r = 300 mm,

300
tan
400
300
1.134
b 300 45 255 mm
a
k
400
255 308.2 mm
tan b a 255 308.2
0.73
tan tan
1.134
60 9.81
8 0.3 2 1.134 8 9.81

1 0.73
2

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2.42 1.134 78.48 509.14

2 277.6
2N
16.66
60
N 159.1 rpm
Also, range of speed = 159.1 147 = 12.1 rpm

Example 2.4:
Each arm of a Porter governor is 250 mm long. The upper and tower arms are pivoted to links of
40 mm and
d 50 mm respectively from the axis of rotation. Each ball has a mass of 5 kg and the
sleeve mass the mechanism is 40 N. Determine the range of speed of the governor for extreme
radio of rotation of 12.5 mm and 150 mm.
Solution:
E 40
E 40
Refer Figure as shown below
H
H
M = 5 kg,
AB = AE = 250 mm
M = 50 kg,
BG = 50 mm
f = 40 kg,
EH = 40 mm
(i) When r = 125 mm,

125 40
sin
0.34
250
tan tan19.88o 0.362
125 50
sin
0.3
250
tan tan17.46o 0.315
tan
k
0.87
tan
250
17.46o
250
125
19.88o
250
150
250
B 50
B 50
mm
As the radii decrease, the sleeve moves down and the force of friction f acts upwards.
Mg f
mr2 tan mg
1 k
2
5 0.1252 0.362
50 9.81 40
1 0.87
5 9.81
2
2
272.4
2N
16.5
60
N min 157.6 rpm

80
(ii) When r = 150 mm

150 40
sin
0.44
250
tan 0.49
150 50
0.4
250
tan 0.436
sin
|ME| Study Material
26.1o
23.58o
0.436
0.891
0.49
Mg f
mr2 tan mg
1 k sleeve moves up
2
50 9.81 40
5 0.152 0.49 5 9.81

1 0.89
2
2 359.8
2N
18.97
60
N min 181.1 rpm
Range of speed = 157.6 rpm to 181.1 rpm = 23.5 rpm

Example 2.5:
Each arm of Porter governor is 200 mm long and is hinged at a distance of 40 mm from the axis of
rotation. The mass of each half is 1.5
1.5 kg and the sleeve is 25 kg. When the links are at 30o is the
vertical, the sleeve begins to rise at 260 rpm. Assuming that the friction force is constant, find the
maximum and the minimum speeds of rotation when the inclination of the arms to the vertic
vertical is
45o.
Solution:
Refer Figure as given below
h
200 30
r 200sin 30o 40 140 mm
r
140
243 mm
o
tan 30
tan 30o
At 30o angle, the sleeve begins to rise,
therefore, the friction force is to act downward.
h
895 mg Mg f
2602
h
mg
A
30
1.5 kg
30
200
mm
895 1.5 9.81 25 9.81 f
0.243
1.5 9.81
40
25 kg
14.7 245.3 f 270

Or f = 10 N
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|ME| Study Material
When the angle is 45o,
r 200 Sin45o C 40 181.4 mm

h
r
181.4
181.4mm
o
tan 45
tan 45o
N12
895 1.5 9.81 25 9.81 10
90519
0.1814
1.5 9.81
N1 300.9 rpm
N 22
895 1.5 9.81 25 9.81 10
83812
0.1814
1.5 9.81
N 2 289.5rpm
2.5
Proell Governor
A Porter governor is known as a Proell governor if the two balls (masses) are fixed on the upward
extensions of the lower links which are in the form of bent links BAE and CDF [Figure 2.4(a)].
Considering the equilibrium of the link BAE which is under the action of [Figure 2.4(b)]
the
he weight of the ball, mg
the centrifugal force, mr 2 2

the tension in the link AO
the horizontal reaction of the sleeve
the weight of sleeve and friction,
1
Mg f
2
As before, is the instantaneous centre of the link BAE. Taking moments about I.
r'
O
O
m
F
mr '2
mg T
D
M
B
Fh
Mg f
Figure: 2.4
82
|ME| Study Material
mr ' e mg c r r ' Mg2 f c b

2
Where b, c, d and r are the dimensions as indicated in the diagram
1
MgK f
mr 2 mg c r r
c b
e
2
In the position when AE is vertical, i.e., neglecting its obliquity
(2.1)
1
Mg f
mr 2 mgc
c b
e
2
a
c Mg f c b
mg

e
a
2 a a
a
Mg f
mg tan
tan tan
e
2
a
Mg f
tan mg
1 k
e
2
a r
Mg f
mg
1 k
e h
2
...(2.2)
...(2.2)
2N a g 2mg Mg f 1 k

e h
2mg
60
N2
895 a 2mg Mg f 1 k
h e
2mg
N2
895 a mg Mg f
h e
mg
N2
895 a 2m M 1 k
h e
2m
N2
895 a m M
h e m
(Taking g = 9.81 m/s2)
Example 2.6:
Each arm of a Proell governor is 240 mm long and each rotating ball has a mass of 3 kg. The
central load acting on the sleeve is 30 kg. The pivots of all the arms are 30 mm from the axis of
rotation. The vertical height of the governor is 190 mm. The extension links of the lower arms are
vertical and the governor speed is 180 rpm when the sleeve is in the mid-position.
mid position. Determine the
lengths of the extension links and the tension
t
in the upper arms.
Solution:
Refer Figure as shown below
m 3kg; M 30kg; h 190mm
N2
895 a m M
4 e m

83
1802
|ME| Study Material
895 0.19 3 30
e 0.304.
0.19
e 3
240
Therefore, length of the extension links e a 304 190 104 mm

Let T be the tension in the upper arms.
arms
Considering the vertical components of the forces
on the lower link
Mg
T cos mg
2
0.19
cos
0.792
0.24
30 9.81
T 0.792 3 9.81
2
T 223 N
h 190
T
T cos
3 kg
240
30
30 kg
Example 2.7:
The mass of each hall of a Proell governor is 7.5 kg and the load on the sleeve is 80 kg. Each of
the arms is 300 mm long. The upper arms are pivoted on the axis of rotation whereas the lower
arms are pivoted to links of 40 mm from the axis of rotation. The extensions of the lower arms to
which the balls are attached are 100 mm long and are parallel to the governor axis at the minimum
radius. Determine the equilibrium
equilibrium speeds corresponding to extreme radii of 180 mm and 240 mm.
Solution:
When AE is vertical, r r 180 mm
a
Mg
mr2 tan mg
1 k
e
2
We have, a
300 180 40
friction neglected
2
265.3 mm
e 265.3 100 365.3 mm

180
sin
0.6;
36.87 o
300
tan 0.75
180 40
sin
0.467; 27.82o
300
tan 0.528
tan 0.528
k
0.704
tan 0.75
0.2653
80 9.81
7.5 0.18 2
0.75 7.5 9.81
1 0.704
0.3653
2
2
299.5
2N
17.305
60
N 165.3
84
|ME| Study Material
O1
'
E
m r 2
m r '
r'
E1
r'
mg
mg
A1
e'
'
' '
'
a'
'
c'
b'
Mg
2
Mg
2
BE e2 b 2
B1
365.3
140 391.2mm
e
365.3
0.934
BE 391.2
b
140
sin
0.467
AB 300
cos
20.97 o
27.82o
27.82o 20.97 o 6.85o
sin '
b'
240 40
0.667
A1B1
300
' 41.81o
' ' 41.81o 6.85o 34.96o

e ' B1E1 cos ' BE cos y ' 391.2 cos 34.96o 320.6 mm
r ' B1E1 sin ' 40 391.2sin 34.96o 320.6 mm
b ' 200 mm
a ' A1B1 cos ' 300 cos 41.81o 223.6 mm
sin '
240
0.8
300
' 53.13o
c ' ' tan ' 223.6 tan 53.13o 298.1mm
Taking moments about I,

mr ' 2 e ' mg c ' r r '
Mg
c ' b '
2
7.5 0.2642 2 0.3206 7.6 9.81 0.2981 0.24 0.2642

80 9.81
0.2981 0.2
2
85
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2 339.4
2N
18.4
60
N 175.9 rpm
2.6
Hartnell Governor
In this type of governor, the balls are controlled by a spring as shown in Figure 2.5(a). Initially,
the spring a fitted in compression so that a force is applied to the sleeve. Two bell
bell-crank levers,
each carrying a mass at one end and a roller at the other, are pivoted to a pair of arms which rotate
with the spindle. The rollers fit into a groove in the sleeve.
S p rin g
B all
B ell cran k lev er
A rm
A
b
R o lle r
S leeve
c1
S p in d le
c2
r
F2 mr2 22
mg
C
r1
F1 mr111
r2
1
mg
a2
A
B
A
a1
b1
b2
Mg Fs2 f
2
Mg Fs1 f
2
Figure: 2.5

86
|ME| Study Material
As the speed increases and the balls move away from the spindle axis, the bellbell-crank levers move
on the pivot and lift the sleeve against the spring force. If the speed decreases, the sleeve moves
downwards. The movement of the sleeve is communicated to the throttle of the engine. The spring
force can be adjusted with the help of a screw cap.
Figure 2.5(b) shows the forces
force acting the bell-crank
crank level in the two positions (assuming that the
sleeve moves up to that f is taken positive).
Let F = centrifugal force mr2
Fs = spring force
Taking moments about the fulcrum A,
1
(2.3a)
F1a 1 Mg Fs1 f b1 mgc1
2
1
(2.3b)
F2 a 2 Mg Fs 2 f b 2 mgc 2
2
In the working range of the governor, is usually small and so the obliquity effects of the arms
of the bell crank levers may be neglected. In that case,
a1 a 2 a,b1 b2 b,c1 c2 0
1
Mg Fs1 f b
2
1
And
F2 a 2 Mg Fs 2 f b
2
Subtracting (2.4a) from (2.4b)
1
F2 F1 a Fs2 Fs1 b
2
2a
Fs2 Fs1 F2 F1
b
Let s = stiffness of the spring
h1 = movement of the sleeve
2a
2 a
Fs2 Fs1 h1s F2 F1 or s
F2 F1
b
h1 b
F1a
But h1 .b
s
(2.4b)
r2 r1
b
a
2
(2.4a)
2 a
a F2 F1
F2 F1 2
r2 r1 b
b F2 r1
(2.5)
Example 2.8:
In a Hartnell governor, the extreme radii of rotation of the balls are 40 mm and 60 mm, and the
corresponding speeds are 210 rpm and 230 rpm. The mass of each ball is 3 kg. The lengths of the
ball and the sleeve arms are equal. Determine the initial compression and the constant of the
central spring.

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|ME| Study Material
Solution:
2 210
22 rad s;
60
2 230
2
23.04 rad s
60
F1 mr122 3 0.04 222 58.1 N
1
And F2 mr2 22 3 0.06 23.04 2 95.6 N

Spring constant,
2
a F F
s 2 2 1
b r2 r1
2 95.6 58.1
2 1
3.75 N mm
60 40
F
1
Mg Fs1 f b or F1 s1
2
2
Fs1 2 58.1 116.2N
We have, F1a
Or
Initial compression
M 0, f 0, a b
116.2
31 mm
3.75
Example 2.9:
In a spring-loaded
loaded governor of the Hartnell type, the lengths of the horizontal and the vertical
arms of the bell crank lever are 40 mm and 80 mm respectively. The mass of each ball is 1.2 kg.
The extreme radii of rotation of the balls are 70 mm and 105 mm. The distance of the fulcr
fulcrum of
each bell crank lever is 75 mm from the axis of rotation of the governor. The minimum
equilibrium speed is 420 rpm and the maximum equilibrium speed is 4% higher than this.
Neglecting the obliquity of the arms, determine the
(i) spring stiffness,
(ii) initial compression, and
(iii) equilibrium speed corresponding to radius of rotation of 95 mm.
Solution:
2 420
1
44 rad s;
60
2 44 104 45.76 rad s
F1 mr112 1.2 0.07 44 2 162.6 N
And F2 mr2 22 1.2 0.105 45.762 263.8 N

(i) Spring constant,
2
a F F
80 263.8 162.6
s 2 2 1 2
b r2 r1
40 105 70
2314 N mm

88
(ii) We have, F1a
|ME| Study Material
1
Mg Fs1 f b
2
Fs1
M 0, f 0, a 2b
4
Or Fs1 4 162.6 650.4 N
650.4
Initial compression
28.1 mm
23.14
(iii) Let F3 be the centrifugal force at r3 95 mm,
Or F1
a F F
Then s 2 3 1
b r3 r1
2 F 162.6
Or 23.14 2 2 3
95 70
Or F3 162.6 72.3 234.9N
Or mr3 32 234.9 or 1.2 0.095 2 234.9

2N
Or 45.393 rad s or
45.393
60
Or N 433.5 rpm
The distance of the fulcrum of each bell crank lever from the axis of rotation of the governor (= 75
mm) is superfluous data.
Example 2.10:
The arms of a Hartnell governor are of equal length. When the sleeve
sleeve is in the mid position, she
masses rotate in a circle with a diameter of 150 mm (the arms are vertical in the mid
mid-position).
Neglecting friction, the equilibrium speed for this position is 360 rpm. Maximum variation for this
position is 360 rpm. Maximum
Maximum variation of speed, taking friction into account, is to be 6% of the
mid position speed for a maximum sleeve movement of 30 mm. The sleeve mass is 5 kg and the
friction at the sleeve is 35 N.
Assuming that the power of the governor is sufficient to overcome the friction by 1% change of
speed on each side of the mid-position,
mid position, find (neglecting obliquity effect of arms), the
(a) mass of each rotating ball
(b) spring stiffness
(c) initial compression of the spring
Solution:
2 360
37.7 rad s
60
(a) Considering the friction at the mid-position,
mid
1
mr12 a Mg Fs f b
2
0.150
1
2
m
a b ... i
37.7 1.01 5 9.81 Fs 35
2
2
89
And mr22 a
|ME| Study Material
1
Mg Fs f b
2
1
2
0.150
m
37.7 99 5 9.81 Fs 35
2
2
Subtracting (ii) from (i)
1
2
2
2
m 0.075 37.7 1.01 0.99 35 35
2
Or
m 8.21 kg
(b) In the extreme positions,
1
mr2 22 a Mg Fs2 f b
2
0.03
1
2
8.21 0.075
37.7 1.06 5 9.81 Fs 2 35
2
2
... ii
a b
Fs2 2275.8 N
1
Mg Fs1 f b
2
0.03
1
2
8.21 0.075
37.7 0.94 5 9.81 Fs1 35
2
2
Fs1 1223.2 N
mr112 a
h1s Fs2 Fs1

0.03 s 2275.8 1223.2
s 35088 N m or 35.088 N mm
(c) Initial compression
Fs1 1223.2
34.86 mm
s 38.088
Example 2.11:
In a spring-loaded
loaded Hartnell type of governor, the mass of each ball is 4 kg
kg and the lift of the sleeve
is 40 mm. The governor begins to float at 200 rpm when the radius of the ball path is 90 mm. The
mean working speed of the governor is 16 times the range of speed when friction is neglected.
The lengths of the ball and roller arms
arms of the bell crank lever are 100 mm and 80 mm respectively.
The pivot centre and the axis of governor are 115 mm apart. Determine the initial compression of
the spring, taking into account the obliquity of arms.
Assuming the friction at the sleeve to be
be equivalent to a force of 15N, determine the total
alteration in speed before the sleeve begins to move from the mid-position.
mid
Solution:
m 4kg, N1 200rpm
h1 40mm, r1 90mm
a 100 mm, r 115mm
b 80 mm
90
|ME| Study Material
r 115
r 115
c1
a 100
a1
B
C
4kg
100
4kg
100
A
b 80
a2
b 80
B
20
b1
b 80
r2
r 115
c2
r1 90
20
Mg 2
b2
mg 2
Mg 2
Mean speed, N
N1 N 2
2
As N 16 N2 N1
N1 N 2
16 N 2 N1
2
200 N 2
or
16 N 2 200
2
N2 212.9rpm
Angle turned by bell-crank

crank lever between two extreme positions
Lift(h1 ) c1 c 2
b
a
a
100
or c1 c 2 h1 40
50mm
b
80
But c1 r r1 115 90 25mm
c2 20 25 25mm
r2 r c 2 115 25 140mm
b1 b 2 b 2 (h / 2) 2
802 102 77.46mm
a1 a 2 1002 252 96.82 mm
2 200
20.94 rad / s
600
2 212.9
2
22.29rad / s
60
In the extreme positions,
1
0,ff 0)
mr112 a1 Fs1b1 mgc1 (M 0,
2
1

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1
4 0.09 20.942 0.09682 Fs1 0.07746 4 9.81 0.025
2
Fs1 392.5N
1
mr2 22 a 2 Fss22 b 2 mgc 2
2
4 0.14 22.29 2 0.09682
1
Fs 2 0.07746 4 9.81 0.025
2
Fs2 698N
h1s Fs 2 Fs1
40 s 698 392.5
s 7.64N / mm
Initial compression
Fs1 392.5
51.37mm
s
7.64
Fs at mid-position Fs1 20s = 392.5+7.6420 = 543.3N

Mean speed
N1 N 2 212.9 200
206.45rpm
2
2
At the mid-position,
position, taking friction into account,
mr2 a
1
Fs f b
2
1
4 0.0115 2 0.1 (545.3 15) 0.08
2
12 487.2
1
2N1
22.07
60
N1 210.8rpm
Also, mr2 a
1
Fs f b
2
1
4 0.0115 22 0.1 (545.3 15) 0.08
2
22 461.13
2 N
21.47
60
N2 205.1rpm
Change in speed 210.8 205.1 5.7 rpm

92
2.7
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Hartung Governor
A Hartung type of governor is shown in Fig. 2.6. It is a spring-controlled
spring controlled governor in which the
vertical arms of the bell-crank
crank lever are fitted with spring balls The springs compress against the
frame of the governor while the rollers at the horizontal arm press against the sleeve.
Let F = centrifugal force
m = mass of each ball
S = spring force
s = stiffness of the spring
M = Mass of sleeve
r = radial distance of the masses
angular velocity of the balls at radius r
r0 radius at which the spring force is zero

a = length of vertical arm of bell-crank
bell
lever
b = length of horizontal arm of
o bell-crank lever
Spring balls
Spring
Frame
A
Sleeve
Bell crank lever

Figure: 2.6
Neglecting the obliquity of the arm and taking moments about the fulcrum A,
g
or F.a s.a
.b
2
Mg
mr2 .a s r r 0 .a
.b
2
Example 2.12:
In a spring-controlled
controlled Hartung type of governor, the length of the ball arm is 84mm and the sleeve
arm is 126 mm. When the mid-position,
mid position, each spring is compressed by 60 mm and the radius of
rotation of the masss centres is 160 mm. The mass of the sleeve is 18 kg and each ball is 4 kg. The
spring stiffness is 12 kN/m of compression and total lift of the sleeve is 24 mm. Determine the
ratio of the range of speed to the mean speed of the ratio of the range of speed to the mean speed
of the governor. Also find the speed in the mid-position.
mid position. Neglect the momentum due to the
revolving masses when the arms are inclined.
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|ME| Study Material
Solution:
m = 4kg, r = 160 mm
M = 18 kg, s = 12kN/m
a = 84 mm , r0 160 60 100mm
b = 126 mm, h = 24mm
In the mid-position,
r 160
r
r1
S
a 84
r2
r
B
A
b 126
Mg 2
a
mr2 .a s r r0 .a
Mg 2
Mg 2
Mg
.b
2
4 0.162 0.084 12000 0.06 0.084
18 9.81
0.126 60.48 11.125
2
2 1332
36.5rad / s
36.5 60
N
or 348.5rpm
2
Thus, mean speed = 348.5rpm
For the minimum speed, (neglecting obliquity of arms)
r2 r h
a
b
a
0.24 0.084
or r2 r h. 0.16
.
0.152mm
b
2 0.126
18 9.81
4 0.1522min 0.084 12000 0.152 0.1 0.084
0.126
2
52.416 11.125
2min 1244
min 35.27rad / s
35.27 60
or 336.8rpm
2
Thus, minimum speed = 336.8 rpm
N min

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|ME| Study Material
For the maximum speed (neglecting obliquity of arms)

r r1 h
a
b
a
0.24 0.084
or r1 r h. 0.16
.
0.168mm
b
2 0.126
18 9.81
4 0.168 2max 0.084 12000 (0.168 0.1) 0.084
0.126
2
68.544 11.125
2max 1411.4
max 35.57 rad / s
35.27 60
or 358.75 rpm
2
Range of speed 358.75 336.8 21.95rpm
N max
Ratio of range of speed to mean speed

2.8
21.95
0.063
348.5
Wilson-Hartnell
Hartnell Governor
A Wilson-Hartnell
Hartnell governor is a spring-loaded
spring loaded type of governor. In this, two bell
bell-crank levers are
pivoted at the ends of two
o arms with the spindle [Fig. 2.7(a)]. The vertical arms of the bell
bell-crank
levers support the two balls at their ends while the horizontal arms carry two rollers at their ends.
The two balls are connected by two main springs arranged symmetrically on eithe
either side of the
sleeve. While rotating, when the ball radius increases with the increase in speed, the springs exert
an inward pull Fs on the balls and the rollers press against the sleeve which is raised, closed the
throttle value.
Main springs two
S
Ball
FS
FS
Arm
Auxiliary
spring
Sa
Bellcrank
lever
Fs '
y
B
Lever
a
95
|ME| Study Material
r
C1
r2
Fs1
F1
1
mg
C2
F2
a1
b1
Fs2
b2
mg
1 2 Mg F's1 f
x
a2
1 2 Mg F's2 f
x
b
Figure: 2.7
Usually, the main springs are not adjustable and, for this reason, an adjustable auxiliary spring is
provided. It is attached to one end of a lever, the other end of which fits into a groove in the
sleeve. The lever is pivoted at a fulcrum B. The auxiliary tend to keep the sleeve down so tthat it
assists each main spring, i.e., main and the auxiliary springs are in tension simultaneously.
Let s stiffness of each of the main springs
Sa = stiffness of the auxiliary spring
Fs' = force applied by the auxiliary spring
Assuming that the sleeve moves up, take moments about the fulcrum A in two positions [Fig.
2.7(b)],
1
y
F1a1 Fs1a1 Mg Fs1' f b1 mgc1

2
x
1
y
F2 a 2 Fs2 a 2 Mg Fs2' f b2 mgc 2

2
x
If obliquity effects are neglected,

a1 a 2 a, b1 b2 b and c1 c 2 0
F1 Fs1 a
' y
Mg Fs1 f b
2
x
' y
Mg Fs2 f b
2
x
Subtracting (2.7a) form (2.7b),
(2.6b)
(2.7a)
F2 Fs2 a
a F2 F1 a Fss22 Fs1 Fs'2 Fs1'
(2.6a)
(2.7b)
yb
2x
(2.7c)
The main spring consists of two springs. Therefore, the force exerted is given by,
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|ME| Study Material
Fs2 Fs1 2 Force exerted by each spring

2 Stiffness of each spring Elongation of each spring
sp
2 s 2 r2 r1
4s r2 r1
Let h1 movement of the sleeve

and h 2 deflection of the auxiliary spring
Then
Fs2' Fs1' h 2 sa
y
h1 Sa
x
by
r2 r1
Sa
ax
Then (2.7c) becomes
a F2 F1 4as r2 r1 r2 r1
b y yb
Sa
a x 2x
or F2 F1 4s r2 r1 r2 r1
Sa b y
Sa
2 a x
or
S b y
F2 F1
4s a
r2 r1
2 a x
(2.8)
To find the stiffness of the main springs while using this equation, the stiffness of the auxiliary
spring may be fixed first.
Example 2.13:
In a Wilson-Hartnell
Hartnell type of governor, the mass of each ball is 5 kg. The lengths of the ball arm
and the sleeve arm of each bell-crank
bell crank lever are 100 mm and 80 mm respectively. The stiffness of
each of the two springs attached directly to the balls is 0.4 N/mm. The lever for the auxiliary
spring is pivoted at its midpoint. When the radius of rotation is
is 100 mm, the equilibrium speed is
200 rpm. If the sleeve is lifted by 8 mm for an increase of speed of 6%, find the required stiffness
of the auxiliary spring.
Solution:
m = 5 kg, s = 0.4 N/mm= 400 N/m
r1 100mm, a 100mm
N1 200rpm, b 80mm
y / x 1
We have,
S
F2 F1
4s a
r2 r1
2
b y

a x

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When r1 100mm, N1 200rpm.

200 2
20.94rad / s
60
F1 mr112 5 0.1 (20.94) 2 219.2N
For 6% rise of speed,

2 20.94 1.06 22.2rad / s
For sleeve rise of 8 mm,

Increase in ball radius 8
100
10mm
8
r2 100 10 110mm
F2 mr2 22 5 0.11 (22.2) 2 271.1N
S 0.08
271.1 219.2
4 400 a
1
0.11 0.1
2 0.1
Sa 11.219 N / m or11.219N / mm
2.9
Pickering Governor
A Pickering governor consists of three leaf springs which are arranged at equal angular intervals
around the governor spindle (Fig. 2.8), only one leaf spring is shown in the figure. The upper end
of each spring is fixed by a screw to a hexagonal nut attached to the spindle. The lower end is
fastened to the sleeve which can move up and down the governor spindle. Each spring has a fly
mass m attached at its
ts centre. As the spindle rotates, a centrifugal force is exerted on the leaf
spring at the centre which causes it to deflect. This deflection makes the sleeve move up.
A stop is also provided to limit the movement of the sleeve.
Spindle
Horizontal
nut
Leaf
spring
Flymass
Stop
Sleeve
Figure: 2.8
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|ME| Study Material
Let m = mass fixed to each spring

e = distance between spindle axis and centre of
of mass when the governor is at rest
Angular speed of the sleeve
deflection of the centre of the leaf spring for spindle speed
Centrifugal force, F m e 2
To find , the leaf spring is treated as a beam of uniform cross section fixed at both ends and
carrying a load at the centre.
F3
m(e )2 3
192EI
192EI
Where,
E = modulus of elasticity of the spring material
I = moment of inertia of the cross-section
cross
of the spring about neutral axis
bt 3
, b and t being the width and the thickness of the leaf spring.
12
An empirical relation to between the deflection and the lift h of the sleeve may also be used as
follows:
2
A Pickering governor is used in gramophones to adjust the speed of the turn table.
h 2.4
Example 2.14:
Each spring of a Pickering governor of a gramophone is 6 mm wide and 0.12 mm thick with a
length of 48 mm. A mass of 25 g is attached to
to each leaf spring at the centre. The distance
between the spindle axis and the centre of mass when the governor is at rest is 8 mm. The ratio of
the governor speed to the turn table speed is 10. Determine the speed of the turn table for a sleeve
lift of 0.6
.6 mm. Take E = 200 GN/m2.
Solution:
m = 0.025 kg, b = 0.006m
e 0.008m, t 0.00012mm
h 0.6mm, 48mm
E 200 109 N / m 2
I
bt 3 0.006 0.00123
0.864 1015 m
12
12
Lift of the sleeve, h 2.4
2
48
or 3.464mm 0.003464m
Now,
or 0.6 2.4

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F 3
m(e )2 3
192EI
192ei
0.025(0.008 0.003464)2 0.0483
0.003464
192 200 109 0.864 1015
2 3626
or 60.22rads
60.22 60
575rpm
2
Therefore, speed of the turn table
575
57.5rpm
10
2.10
Spring-Controlled
Controlled Gravity Governor
controlled gravity governor, two bell-crank
bell
levers are pivoted on the moving sleeve
[Fig. 2.9(a)]. The rollers at the ends of the horizontal arms of the levers press against a cap fixed
to the governor shaft. Thus, the motion of the pivots will be vertically upwards whereas the rollers
will be able to move horizontally
izontally over
ov the cap. As the speed increases, the balls move away, the
pivots are raised and the spring is compressed between the sleeve and the cap.
Rollers
A
Bell crank
lever
b1
C2
A
B, I
b2
I
B
Mg Fs2
2
Mg Fs1
2
a2
a1
Spring
mr112
mr222
r1
r2
Sleeve
mg
mg
Shaft
Axis
Axis
Figure: 2.9

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Example 2.15:
controlled gravity governor, the mass of each ball is 1.6 kg. The distance of fulcrum
from the axis of rotation is 60 mm. The bell-crank
bell
lever has 120 mm long vertical arm and a 50
50mm long horizontal arm. The mass of the sleeve is 6.5 kg. The sleeve begins to rise at 200 rpm
and the rise of sleeve for 5% increase is 9 mm. Determine the initial thrust in the spring and its
stiffness.
Solution:
m = 1.6 kg, N1= 200 rpm
M = 6.5 kg, a a1 200mm
r1 60mm, b b1 50mm
2 200
20.94rad / s
60
(i) For initial (neutral) position, taking moments about B, the I-centre,
I
Mg Fs1
mr112 a1 mgb1
b1
2
Where Fs1 is the spring load on the sleeve.
The total sleeve load (Mg Fs1 ) acts on the levers through the fulcrums A-A.
A.
1
Thus,
6.5 9.81 Fs1
1.60 0.06 (20.94) 2 0.12 1.6 9.891

0.05
2
Initial thrust, Fs1 107N

(ii) When the sleeve rises through 9 mm, the radius is increased by c2 ,
120
21.6mm
50
or r2 60 21.6 81.6mm
c2 9
2 20.94 1.05 21.99rad / s

a 2 a 2 c 22 (120) 2 (21.6)2
118mm
b 2 (50)2 (9)2 49.2mm
Sine the point A can move vertically and the point B horizontally, the I-centre
I centre of the lever BAC
will be at . Taking moments about this point,
1.6 0.0816 (21.99) 2 0.118 1.6 9.81(0.0492 0.021
0.0216)
6)
6.5 9.81 Fs2

0.0492
2
Fs2 193.8N
Stiffness of spring
Fs2 Fs1 193.8 107
9.6N / mm
h2
9

101
2.11
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Inertia Governor
As described earlier, an inertia governor is based on the principle of inertia of matter and is
operated by the acceleration or deceleration of the rotating masses in addition to centrifugal
forces.
m
dV
dt
mr2
mr
mr2
x
C
dV
dt
Figure: 2.10
In this type of governor, a mass m, having its centre at G, is fixed to an arm QG which is pivoted
to a rotating disc on the engine shaft at Q. The points Q, G and the centre of rotation O are not to
be collinear (Fig.2.10). The arm QG is connected to an eccentric that operated the fuel supply
valve. Whenever the arm moves relatively to the disc, it shifts the position of the eccentric which
changes the fuel supply.
Let r = radial distance OG
angular velocity of the disc
v = tangential velocity of G ( r)
Centrifugal force of the rotating mass, F mr2 (radially outwards)
If the engine shaft s accelerated due to increase in speed, the ball does not get accelerated at the
same amount on accountt of its inertia, the inertia force being equal to.
dv
F1 mf m
dt
Moment of F about Q mr2 x (counter clockwise)
Moment of F, about Q m
dv
y (counter-clockwise)
dt
Thus, it is seen that the moments due to the two forces add together to make the governor action
rapid. Note that, as the mass moves
moves outwards, the arm rotates in a direction opposite to that of
rotation of the shaft. In case the arm is arranged on the disc in a manner shown in Fig. 2.10(b), the
two moments due of F and F1 act in the opposite directions to make the governor action sluggish.
This
his arrangement is, therefore, avoided.
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It is also possible to use ball masses fixed to the arm as shown in Fig. 2.10(c). The arm is pivoted
at its midpoint C. A change in the angular speed of the disc makes the ball masses to have an
angular movement about
ut C. If Ic is the moment of inertia of the arm and the masses about an axis
through C, then
Torque on the arms Ic ddt
Note that in an inertia governor, when the acceleration (or deceleration) is very small or the
change in velocity is very slow, the additional
additional inertia force is practically zero an inertia governor
in effect, becomes a centrifugal governor.
Example 2.16:
Figure shows the arrangement of an inertia governor. The disc rotates about the centre O. Two
arms negligible masses are pivoted at A and B which are 80 mm apart. Each arm has a mass of
300 g attached at the other end as shown in the figure. The distance of the centre of each mass
from the respective point is 60 mm. Points C and D on the arms at 25 mm from the pivots are
connected by a spring.. It is ensured by linkage that the angle 1 and 2 remain equal. The spring
stiffness is 4N/mm. Determine the
(i) tension in the spring when each angle, i.e., 1 and 2 is 30o and the speed is 210 rpm.
(ii) speed of rotation when rotating in the counter-clock
counter
direction the governor accelerates at a
2
o
rate of 40 rad/s . Each angle becomes 45 .
60
mm
G1
a
G1
D
25mm
Solution:
As the arrangement is symmetrical, forces on only one half may be considered for the equilibrium
purposes.
(i)
Draw the configuration to scale as shown in Fig. (a) for each angle of 30o.
2 210
22rad / s
60

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y 22.6
S 45
x 37
C
y 24.2
30 40
G2
60 mm
F1
O
G1
x 39.3
40
FS
G2
D
30
25mm
G1
40 D
On measurement, the perpendicular distance of the centrifugal force, x = 37mm

And the perpendicular distance of the spring force y = 22.6mm
OG1 = 32.3 mm
2
Centrifugal force F = mr = 0.3 0.0323 22 2 4.69 N
Taking moments about the pivot A,

F x Fs y
or
4.69 37 Fs 22.6
or
Fs 7.68 N
(ii) Draw the configuration to scale as show in Fig. b for each angle of 40o.
On measurement, the perpendicular
perpendicular distance of the centrifugal force, x = 39.3 mm and the
perpendicular distance of the spring force, y = 24.2 mm
Perpendicular Distance of Ft ,s 45mm
OG1 39mm
Elongation of spring = 53.05 45.15 7.9mm
2
Centrifugal force F = mr2 0.3 0.039
2 = 0.0117 N
Inertia force, Ft mass tan gential acceleration 0.3 40 0.39 4.68N

Spring force = Initial force + Stiffness Elongation
= 7.68 + 4 7.9 = 39.28N
Taking moments about the pivot A,
F x F1 s Fs y
or
0.0117 2 39.3 4.68 45 39.28 24.2

40.1rad s
or 2 1609.3
2 N
40.1 N 383rpm
60

104
2.12
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Sensitiveness of a Governor
A governor is said to be sensitive when it readily responds to a small change of speed. The
movement of the sleeve for a fractional change of speed is the measure of sensitivity.
As a governor is used to limit the change of speed of the engine between minimum to full
full-load
conditions, the sensitiveness of a governor is also defined as the ratio of the difference between
the maximum and the minimum speeds (range of speed) to the mean equilibrium speed. Thus,
N1 N 2
mean speed
N
Sensitiveness
(2.9)
range of speed
N1 N 2 2 N1 N 2
When
N = mean speed
N1 minimum speed corresponding to full load conditions
N2 = maximum speed corresponding to no-load
no
conditions
2.13
Hunting
Sensitiveness of a governor is a desirable quality. However, if a governor is too sensitive, it may
fluctuate continuously, because when the load on the engine falls, the sleeve rises rapidly to
maximum position. This shuts of the fuel supply to the extent to affect a sudden fall in the speed.
As the speed falls to below the mean value, the sleeve again moves rapidly and falls to a minimum
position to increase the fuel supply. The speed
speed subsequently rises and becomes more than the
average with the result that the sleeve again rises to reduce the fuel supply. This process continues
and is known as hunting
2.14
Isochronism
A governor with a range of speed zero is known as an isochronous
isochronous governor. This means that for
all positions of the sleeve or the balls, the governor has the same equilibrium speed. Any change
of speed results in moving the balls and the sleeve to their extreme position. However, an
isochronous governor is not practical
practic due to friction at the sleeve
For a Porter governor, with all arms equal to length and intersecting on the axis (neglecting
friction),
h1
g M
g M
1 and h 2 2 1
2
1
m
2
m
For isochronisms, 1 2 and thus h1 h 2 . However, from the configuration of a Porter

governor, it can be judged that it is impossible to have two positions of the balls at the same
speed. Thus, a pendulum type of governor cannot possibly be isochronous.
In the case of Hartnell governor (neglecting
(negle
friction),
At 1 ,
mr112 a
1
Mg Fs1 b
2
At 2 ,
mr2 22 a
1
Mg Fs2 b
2

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For isochronisms, 1 2 .
Mg Fs1 r1
Mg Fs2 r2
(2.10)
Which is the required condition of isochronisms

2.15
Stability
A governor is said to be stable if it brings the speed of the engine to the required value and there is
not much hunting. The ball masses occupy a definite position for each speed of the engine within
the working range.
Obviously, the stability and the sensitivity
s
are two opposite characteristics
2.16
Effort of a Governor
The effort of the governor is the mean force acting on the sleeve to raise or lower it for a given
change of speed. At constant speed, the governor is in equilibrium and the resultan
resultant force acting
on the sleeve is zero. However, when the speed of the governor increases or decreases, a force is
exerted on the sleeve which tends to move it. When the sleeve occupies a new steady position, the
resultant force acting on it again becomes zero.
ze
If the force acting at the sleeve changes gradually from zero (when the governor is in the
equilibrium position) to a value E for an increased speed of the governor, the mean force or the
effort is E/2.
For a Porter governor, the height is given by
g Mg 1 k 2mg Mg 1 k
h 2
2m2
2m2
(2.11a)
Let be increased by c times where c is a factor and E be the force applied on the sleeve to
prevent it from moving. Thus, the force on the sleeve is increased to Mg E . Then
h
2mg Mg E 1 k
2
2m 1 c 2
(2.11b)
Dividing (2.11b) by (2.11a)

2
2mg Mg E 1 k 1 c
2mg Mg 1 k
1
Or
2mg Mg E 1 k 2mg Mg 1 k 1 c2 2c 1
2mg Mg 1 k
1
c2 being a small quantity is usually neglected.

E 1 k
2c
2mg Mg 1 k
or
2c
2mg Mg 1 k
1 k

106
E
cg
2m M 1 k
2 1 k
Effort
|ME| Study Material
If k 1 ,
E
m M cg
2
If friction of the sleeve is considered
E
Effort,
mg Mg f c
2
For a Watt governor, M = 0
E
Effort,
cmg
2
Effort,
Thus, the effort of a Watt governor is less than that of a Porter governor.
Sometimes effort is defined as the force required to be applied for 1% change in speed, i.e.,
Effort m M cg 0.01 m M g
In a Hartnell governor,
1
mr2 a Mg Fs b
2
(2.11c)
Let E be the force applied on the sleeve to prevent its movement when the speed changes from
to c
2
mr 1 c 2 a
1
Mg E Fs b
2
(2.11d)
Dividing (2.11c) by (2.11d),
1 c
2.17
Mg Fs
Mg E Fs
or
Mg E Fs
2
1 c
Mg Fs
or
E
1 c 2 2c 1 2c (neglecting c2)
Mg Fs
or
Effort,
E
c Mg Fs
2
(2.12)
Power of a Governor
The power of a governor is the work done at the sleeve for a given percentage change of speed,
i.e., it is the product of the effort and the displacement of the sleeve.
For a Porter governor, having all equal arms which interest on the axis or pivoted at points
equidistant from the spindle axis,

107
power
|ME| Study Material
E
2 height of governor
2
If the height of the governor changes from h to h1 when the speed changes from to 1 c ,
h
or
2m Mg 1 k
2m Mg 1 k
and h1
2
2
2m
2m 1 c 2
h1
1
h 1 c 2
displacement of sleeve = 2 h h1
1
h
2h 1 1 = 2h 1
1 c 2
h
2h 1
1 2c
(neglecting c2)
2c
2h
1 2c
2c
Power m M cg 2h
1 2c
4c 2
m M gh
1 2c
In case k 1 .
(2.13)
2c
Displacement of sleeve = 1 k h h1 1 k h
1 2c
and thus power =
cg
2c
2m M 1 k 1 k h
1 k
1 2c
2
M
4c
m 1 k gh
1 2c
Example 2.17
Each ball of a Porter governor has a mass of 3 kg and the mass of the sleeve is 15kg. The
governor has equal arms each of 200 mm length and provided on the axis of rotation. When the
radius
us of rotation of the balls is 120 mm, the sleeve begins to rise up 160mm at the maximum
speed. Determine the
(i) range of speed
(ii) lift of the sleeve
(iii) Effort of the governor
(iv) Power of the governor
What will be the effect of friction
fricti at the sleeve if it is equivalent to 8N?
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Solution:
h1 0.2 2 0.12 2 0.16 m
200
h1 0.02 2 0.162 0.12m
N12
895 m M
h1 m
200
h1
h2
160
120
895 3 15
33563
0.16 3
N1 183.2 rpm
mg
mg
200
200
And
N 22
or
895 3 15
44750 or N 2 212.5rpm
0.12 3
N 2 212.5 rpm
(i) Range speed = 212.5 183.2 = 29.3 pm

(ii) Lift of sleeve = 2 h1 h 2 2 0.16 0.12 = 0.08m
(iii) Effort = m M cg
Where c N = (212.5 183.2) = 29.2
or c 29.2 183.2 0.16
or Effort = (3 + 15) 0.16 9.81 = 28.3kN
4c2
1 2c
iv Power m M gh
4 0.162
3 15 9.81 0.16
2.26N.m
1 2 0.16
or Power = Effort Displacement 28.3 0.08 2.19Nm
(The difference in the two values is due to the approximations taken in the derivation of relations.)
When friction is considered
dered
N12
895 mg Mg f
h1
mg
895 3 9.81 15 9.81 8
32042
0.16
3 9.81
Nl 179 rpm
N 22
895 mg Mg f
h2
mg
895 3 9.81 15 9.81 8
46.777
0.12
3 9.81
N 2 216.3rpm

109
(iv)
(v)
|ME| Study Material
Range of speed = 23.3 179 = 37.3 rpm

Lift of sleeve = Same as before = 0.08m
Effort = (mg + Mg + f)c
Where c = 373/179 = 0.208
or Effort = 3 9.81 15 9.81 8 0.208 38.4N
(vi) Power = Effort Displacement 38.40.08 3.07N.m

Example 2.18:
Each ball of a Porter governor has a mass of 6 kg and the mass of the sleeve is 40kg. The upper
arms are 300mm long and are pivoted in the axis of rotation whereas the lower arms are 250mm
long and are attached to the sleeve at a distance of 40mm from the axis. Determine the
equilibrium speed of the governor for a radius of rotation of 150mm for 1% change in speed.
Also, find the effort and the power for the same speed change.
Solution:
0.32 0.152 0.26 m
150 40
0.44 or 26.1
250
150
sin
0.5 or 30o
300
sin
300
tan tan 26.1o
0.849
tan
tan 30o
150
h 0.3 cos 30o 0.26 m
895 2m M 1 k
N2
h
2m
mg
895 2 6 40 1 0.849
24658
0.26
26
N = 157 rpm
cg
Effort =
2m M 1 k
1 k
0.01 9.81
2 6 40 1 0.849 = 4.56 N
1 0.849
250
a
40
2
M
4c
Power = m 1 k gh
1 2c
4 0.012
40
6 1 0.849 9.81 0.26
1 2 0.01
42.98 2.55 0.000392 0.043N.m or 43N.mm

110
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Example 2.19:
In a Hartnell governor, the radius of rotation of the balls is 60 mm at the minimum speed of 240
rpm. The length of the ball arm is 130 mm and the sleeve arm is 80 mm. The mass of each ball is
3kg and the sleeve is 4kg. The stiffness of the spring is 20 N/mm.
N/mm. Determine the
(i) Speed when the sleeve is lifted by 50mm
(ii) Initial compression of the spring
(iii) governor effort
(iv) power
Solution:
r2
a = 130mm;
h = 50mm
r
N1 240rpm ;
b 80mm
r1
r1 60mm ;
s 20000 N m
C
F
m 3kg ;
M 4 kg
2 240
8
60
r2 r1
h
ah
or r2 r1
a
b
b
130 50
60
141mm
80
i s 2
B
b
a 2 F2 F1
b2 r2 r1
Mg 2
2
Now, F1 mr112 3 0.06 8 113.7 N
or 20000 2
0.132 F2 113.7
0.082 0.141 0.06
F2 113.7 .306.7 420.4 N

2
2 N 2
3 0.141
420.4
60
N 22 90638
N 2 301 rpm
1
Mg Fs1 b
2
1
2
3 0.06 8 0.13 4 9.81 FS1 0.08
2
Fs1 330.3N
(ii) mr112
Initial compression
330.3
0.0165m 16.5m
20.000

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(iii) Governor effort is also the average force applied on the spring.
20000 0.05
Effort
500 N
2
(iv) Power effort displacement 500 0.05 25N.m
Example 2.20:
The lengths of the ball and sleeve arms of the bell crank lever of a Hartnell governor are 140 and
120 mm respectively. Te mass of each governor ball is 5kg. The fulcrum of the bell
bell-crank level is
at a distance of 160 mm. At the mean speed of the governor which is 270 rpm, the ball arms are
vertical and the sleeve arms are horizontal. The sleeve moves up by 12 mm for a increase of speed
of 4%. Neglecting friction, determine the
(i) Spring stiffness
(ii) Minimum equilibrium speed when the sleeve moves by 24 mm
(iii) Sensitiveness of the governor
(iv) spring stiffness for the governor to be isochronous at the mean speed
Solution:
F
r2
r 60
r1
r
r1
a 140
B
A
b 120
Mg 2
b
B
Mg 2
24
Mg 2
a = 140mm;
h = 24mm
N = 270rpm;
b = 120mm
r = 160mm;
m = 5kg
2 270
9 rad s
60
N 2 1.04 270 280.8rpm
2 1.04 9 9.36 rad s
r r1
h
ah
140 12
or rl r
160
146 mm
120
a
b
b
r r1
h
ah
140 240
or r2 r1
146
174 mm
a
b
b
120
112
|ME| Study Material
F mr2 5 0.16 9 639.6 N

2
F2 mr2 22 5 0.174 9.36 752.3N
i s 2
a 2 F2 F
b 2 r2 r
or s 2
0.142 752.3 639.6
0.122 0.174 0.16
21914 N m or 21.914 N mm
ii s 2
a 2 F2 F1
b2 r2 r1
21 914 2
0.142 752.3 F1
0.122 0.174 0.146
F1 752.3 225.4 526.9 N

2
2 N1
5 0.146
526.9
60
N 12 65.818
N1 256.6rpm
(iii) Sensitiveness
N 2 N1
280.8 256
10.82
2 N 2 N1
2 280.8 256
(iv) For isochronous governor at 270 rpm.

2
F1 mr12 5 0.146 9 583.6 N

2
F2 mr2 2 5 0.174 9 695.5 N
s 2
0.142 695.5 583.6
10880 N m
0.122 0.174 0.146
or 10.88 N mm
2.18
Controlling Force
When the balls of a governor rotate in their circular path, the centrifugal force on each ball tends
to move it outwards. This is resisted by an equal and opposite force acting radically inwards and is
known as the controlling force.
The controlling forcee is supplied by the weight of the rotating mass in a Watt governor, the weight
of the mass and that of the sleeve in a Porter governor and by the compressed spring in the case of
a Hartnell governor.
A graph showing the vibration of the controlling force
force with the radius of rotation is called the
controlling curve or diagram. This curve is useful in finding out the stability of a governor
discussed below.

113
Mg f
Controllling force tan mg

1 k
2
1
b
Mg Fs f
2
a
|ME| Study Material
for a Porter governor

for a Hartnell governor
From the above elations, the values

values o the controlling force may be calculated for different radii of
the ball. Figure 2.11(a) shows AB as the controlling force curve (neglecting friction) plotted
against the ball radius. Alternatively, as the controlling force is equal and opposite to th
the
2
centrifugal force, it may be computed from the elation F = mr for different radii and the
corresponding speeds. This relation also indicates that for a particular speed, the controlling force
is proportional to the radius. Thus a number of lines, such as OC. OC1 , OC2 etc, may be drawn on
the diagram providing the values of controlling does for different radii at particular speeds. The
intersection of the speed curves with the controlling force curve provides the speeds of the
governor corresponding to the radii
B C
1
Controlling
forces
P1
C1
Controlling
forces
C2
P
C2
A P1
P2
P2
A
O
Radius
Radius
Controlling
forces
B
A
Radius
C
Figure: 2.11
Suppose that the point P represents the mean speed of the governor, r is the corresponding radius
of the balls. Now, If the speed increases to P1 the radius o the balls increases to r1 , thus moving
the sleeve up and closing the throttle valve to the require extent. Similarly, if the speed deceases to
the point P2, the radius of the balls deceases to r2, resulting in the lowering of the sleeve and
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|ME| Study Material
opening
ening the throttle valve further. This would increase the speed. This type of governor is said to
be stable.
Now consider a controlling force curve of the type shown in fig. 2.11(b). In this case, the point P
again represents the mean speed of the governor.
govern If the speed increases to P1, the radius of the
balls deceases to r1 . This means that the sleeve is lowered and the throttle valve is further opened
to increase the fuel supply and consequently increasing the speed. Similarly, on decreasing the
speed, the sleeve is moved up, closing the valve and thus further reducing the speed. Such a
governor is therefore unstable.
Thus, for a governor to be stable the slope of the controlling force curve must be greater than that
of the speed curve.
Figure 2.11(c)) shows a controlling force curve AB which sometimes may be obtained in some
spring-loaded
loaded governor by suitable adjustments. It can be observed that, at the speed represented
by the line OC, the balls can take up any radius. Under such conditions, the gove
governor is said to be
isochronous.
If friction is taken into account, two more curves of the controlling force are obtained as shown in
Fig. 2.12. Thus, in all, three curves of the controlling force are obtained as follows:
(i) For steady run (neglecting friction)
(ii) While the sleeve moves up (f positive)
(iii) While the sleeve moves down (f negative)
The vertical intercept gh signifies that between the speeds corresponding to gh, the radius of the
balls does not change while the direction of movement
movement of the sleeve does. In other words, between
speeds N1 and N2 the governor is insensitive. At all radii of the balls within the range, there are
two speeds for no change of the radius.
Coefficient of Insensitiveness
N1 N 2
is known as the coefficient of insensitiveness where N is the corresponding speed
N
Nl
neglecting friction.
F1
Ascending
N2
Controlling
force
F2
Descending
h
O
Radius
r
Figure: 2.12

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Example 2.21:
Each arm of a Porter governor is 180mm long and is pivoted on the axis o rotation. The mass of
each ball is 4 kg and the sleeve is 18kg. The radius of rotation of the balls is 100mm when the
sleeve begins to rise and 140mm when at the top. Determine the range of speed. Also, find the
coefficient of insensitiveness if the friction at the sleeve is 15 N.
Solution:
r1 100mm
h1 0.182 0.12 0.1497 m
N12
895 m M
895 4 18
32882
h1 m 0.1497 4
180 m m
180
h1
h2
N1 181.3rpm
r2 140mm
2
140 m m
100 m m
2
h2 0.18 0.14 0.1131m

and N 22
895 4 18
43523
0.1131 4
4 kg
4 kg
180 m m
180 m m
Or N2 208.6rpm
Range of speed = 208.6 181.3 = 27.3 rpm
N N2
Coefficient of insensitiveness 1
N
N1 N 2 N1 N 2 N12 N12
N
N1 N 2 2N N1 N 2
2
1
18 kg
18 kg
N 12
2N 2
895 mg Mg f 895 mg Mg f
h
mg
mg
h
895 m M
h m
f
15
0.695or 6.95%
m M g 4 18 9.81
Example 2.22:
In a Proell governor the mass of each ball is 8 kg and the mass off the sleeve is 120 kg. Each arm
is 180 mm long. The length of extension of lower arms to which the balls are attached is 80 mm.
The distance of pivots of arms from axis of rotation is 30 mm and the radius of rotation of the
balls is 160 mm when the arms are inclined at 40o to the axis of rotation.
Determine the
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(i) Equilibrium speed

(ii) Coefficient of insensitiveness, if the friction of the mechanism is equivalent to 30 N
(iii) range of speed when the governor is inoperative
Solution:
r'
m 8kg,
r' 160mm
b c 180sin 40o 115.7 mm
180
40o
r b 30 115.7 30 145.7mm
8kg
a 180 cos 40o 137.9 mm
AD r' r 160 145.7 14.3mm
DE 802 14.32 78.7 mm
A
40
Taking moments about I.
I
Mg
mr e mg c r r '
b c
2
8 0.16 2 0.2166 8 9.81 0.1157 0.1457 0.16
2
e a ED 137.9 78.7 216.6mm

(i)
a
o
180 40
mm
30
120 kg
120 9.81
0.1157 0.1157
2
0.2773 2 7.958 136.2
2 519.9
22.8 30
217.7 rpm
(ii) Considering the friction, let 1 and 2 be the maximum and minimum speeds respectively.
22.8 or N
8 0.16 22 0.2166 8 9.81 0.1157 0.1457 0.16
120 9.81 30
0.1157 0.1157
2
0.2773 22 7.958 132.7

22 507.4
22.52 30
215.1rpm
120 9.81 30
0.1157 0.1157
0.2773 12 7.958
2
12 532.4
23.07 30
1 23.07 rad / sec or N1
220.3 rpm
N N 2 220.3 215.1
Coefficient of insensitiveness 1
= 0.0239 or 2.39%
N
217.7
2 22.52 rad / sec or N 2
(iii)
Range of speed = 220.3 215.1 = 5.2 rpm

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Example 2.23:
In a spring- controlled governor, the controlling force curve is a straight line. The balls are
400mm apart when the controlling force is 1500 N and 240 mm when it is 800 N. The mass of
each ball is 10kg. Determine the speed at which the governor runs when the balls are 300 mm
apart. By how much should the initial tension be increased to make the governor isochronous?
Also, find the isochronous speed.
s
Solution :
(i) The controlling force curve of a spring controlling governor is a straight line and thus can
be expressed as
F ar b
Where, r = 200mm and F 1500N
1500 0.2a b
F 800N
When, r = 120 mm,
(i)
800 = 0.12 a + b
From (i) and (ii),
0.8a 700
(ii)
or a 8750 and b 250

F mr2 ar b
300
When, r
150 mm,
2
Controlling
force
F ar
F ar b
10 0.15 2 8750 0.15 250

2 708.3 rad / sec
2N
26.6 rad / sec
60
Radius
b
N 254.2rpm
(ii) To make the governor isochronous, the controlling force line must pass through the origin,
i.e., b is to be zero. This is possible only if the initial tension is increased by 250 N
(iii) F mr2 ar b
10 r 2 8750 r 0
2 875
2 N
29.58
60
N 282.5rpm

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Example: 2.24:
In a Porter governor, each arm is 200 mm long and is pivoted at the axis of rotation. The mass of
each ball is 5kg and the load on the sleeve is 30kg. The extreme radii of rotation are 80 mm and
140 mm. Plot a graph of the controlling force vs. radius of rotation and set of a speed scale along
the ordinate corresponding to a radius of 160 mm.
Solution:
Controlling force of a Porter governor,
r
Mg f
mg
1 k
h
2
In this case, k = 1 and f = 0

F
m Mg
r
m Mg 2 2 r
h
r
We have m = 5 kg,
M = 30kg,
= 0A = 200mm
F
5 30 9.81 r 243.35
r
2
2
200 r 2
200 r 2
Prepare Table (i) for different values of r and the corresponding force.
Table (i)
r(mm) 20
F(N)
40 60
80
100 120 140 160
34.5 70 108 150 198 258 336 458
The plot has been shown in Figure

To set off the speed scale,
F mr2
We have m = 5kg and r = 160mm

2
2N
2
F 5 0.160
0.00877 N
60
Now Table (ii) can be prepared:

Table (ii)
N(mm) 100
F(N)
150
160 170 180 190 200 210 220 230
87.7 197.3 224 253 284 317 351 387 425 465
The speed scale can now be marked on the graph as shown in Figure
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500
230
220
210
206
200
180
400
300
B
Controlling
force N
200
150
100
0
A
20
40
60 80
100 120 140
Speed
rpm
160
Radius
mm
To obtain the range of equilibrium speeds, draw vertical line through r = 80mm and 140mm
meeting the controlling force curve at A and B respectively. Draw straight lines from the origin
and through points A and b correspond to speeds 150 and 190 rpm respectively.
The range of speed is from 180 to 206 rpm.

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PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1.
Each arm of a porter governor are 400mm.

Lower arms are attached to a sleeve at a
distance of 45mm from axis. If the load on
sleeve is 60kg and mass of ball is 8kg, find
the equilibrium speed for a extreme radii of
250mm.
(A) 153 rpm
(B) 15.39 rpm
(C) 147 rpm
(D) 159 rpm
2.
A watt governor runs at 200 rpm. Find the

change on vertical height if governor
increases its speed to 204 rpm.
(A) 0.9 mm
(B) 0.04 mm
(C) 2 mm
(D) None of the above.
3.
Mass of each ball in a Hartwell governor is

1.8kg and length of vertical arm of ball rank
lever is 8.75 cm & length of other arm is
10cm speeds corresponding to the radii of
rotation 12cm and 13cm are 296 rpm and
304 rpm. Determine spring stiffness?
(A) 4547 N/m
(B) 4537 N/m
(C) 4562 N/m
(D) 2268 N/m
4.
5.
Assertion:- Inertia governors are very

frequently used.
Reason:- Inertia governors are more
sensitive than centrifugal governor.
(A) A & R are true & R is the correct
explanation of A.
(B) A & R are true but R is not correct
explanation of A.
(C) A is true. R is false
(D) A is false. R is true.
A watt governor is moving at 100 rpm.
When the speed increase vertical height is
changed by 3.5 mm, then determine its
sensitiveness of governor.
(A) 50.5 (B) 100
(C) 45
(D) 0.02
6.
Speed range for a isochronous governor is

(A) Zero
(B) Decreases with increase in load
(C) Increases with increase iin load
7.
The arms of a porter governor are each

200mm long and are pivoted governor axis
mass of each ball is 5kg and mass of central
sleeve is 20kg. If the radii of rotation of
balls changes from 100mm to 150mm and
friction at sleeve
leeve is equivalent to 20N of
load at sleeve. Determine range of speed?
(A) 23 rpm
(B) 37 rpm
(C) 10 rpm
8.
In a hunting governor ball arm & sleeve arm

length are 80mm & 100mm Each spring is
compressed by 40mm at and position and
radius of rotation of mass centre is 120mm.
Mass of each ball is 4kg and stiffness of
spring is 10 KN/m. equivalent mass at
governor sleeve is 15kg. Find speed at mid
position.
(A) 31 rad/s
(B) 37 rad/s
(C) 32.01 rad/s
(D) 61 rad/s
9.
A porter governor has arms of length 25cm

each pivoted on the axis of notation. Mass
of each ball is 5kg and mass at central load
is 30kg. Radius of rotation is 12cm and
when governor is at maximum speed it is
18cm. Find governor effect?
10. A watt governor is filled

led with two balls each
of mass 2.5kg and is running at 75 rpm.
Find the speed of governor if balls falls by
15mm.
(A) 78.8 rpm
(B) 71.2 rpm
(C) 76 rpm
(D) Doesnt change

121
11. The controlling forces of a spring controlled

governor at radii 10cm & 175cm
cm are 205 &
400N, weight on each of governor ball is
40N. Then determine range of speed?
(A) 12 rpm
(B) 14 rpm
(C) 16 rpm
(D) 10 rpm
12. The mass of ball & sleeve of porter
governor are 7 kg & 35 k radius of rotation
is 20 cm. length of each arm is
i 30cm. find
governor effect for 3% speed change?
(A) 10.79 N
(B) 14.23 N
(C) 12.36 N
(D) 18.19 N
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13. Higher the sensitiveness of governor,

problem of hunting will be
(A) High
(B) Low
(C) Doesnt depend (D) None of the above.
14. Frictional resistance at sleeve.
(A) Increases sensitivity
(B) Decreases sensitivity
(C) Doesnt depend
(D) May increase or decrease the sensitivity.
15. I. If the governor has single speed at a
definite position within range, the governor
is said to be stable.
II. Porter governor cant be isochronous
Which of above statement is false?
(A) I
(B) II
(C) I & II

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ANSWER KEYS
1
10
11
12
13
14
15
EXPLANATIONS
3.
1.
Given m=8kg M=60kg

BG=45mm OA=400mm
r=250mm
r
tan = 0.8
A
h
mr w
a=875 cm ; b=10cm
r1 =12cm ; r2 =13cm
2N1 2 296
1 =
30.99rad/s
60
60
2N 2 2 304
2 =
31.83rad/s
60
60
FC1 =m
12 r1 =207.44N
mg
Given m1 =m 2 =1.8kg=m
FC2 =m
2 2 r2 =237.07N
b
Stiffness
a FC FC1
S=2 2 2
453.7N/m
b r2 r1
a= AB2 r b =343.4 mm
1 tan
0.8
=
; k 0.746
k tan 0.597
4.
Centrifugal governors are frequently used

because they are easy to balance than
inertial governors.
Hence option D is correct.
5.
h1 =
By substituting in equation
m r 2 =tan m+ 1+k g
2
=15.39
2 N
substituting =15.39 in
60
N=147rpm
2.
h1 h 2 =35mm h 2 =0.086m
then N 2 102rpm
Given N1 =200rpm N 2 204rpm
895
895
h1 = 2 , h 2 = 2
N1
N2
895
895
h = h1 - h 2 =
2
2
200 204
0.0224m 0.0215m
change in vertical height
= 0.0224-0.0215=0.9mm
895
895
0.0895m
2
2
N1
100
sensitiveness
7.
N1 N 2 / 2 100 102 0.5 50.5

(N 2 N1 )
h1
102 100
200 100
173.205mm=0.173m

123

2
200 150
h2
200
132.287mm=0.132m
Mg
mg
N1
mg M g F 895
mg
h1
N1 =169rpm
M 1+k
k=1,Given effort =C m g + g
=C mg +M g
C=
5 9.81 20 9.81 20 895
5 9.81
0.173
N1 N 2
0.136
N2
Given or effort =0.136 9.81 5 30

46.728N
=167.26rpm
N2
m g M g +F 895
mg
h1
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10. h1 =
895 895
=
=0.159m=159mm
N12 75 2
5 9.81 20 9.81 20 895
5 9.81
0.132
h2 =h1 +15mm=159+15=174mm=0.174m
=191.48 rpm
N=71.2rpm
Range of speed
11. Given FC1 205;
= 191.48-167.26=24.317 rpm
8.
Given x=0.08 , y=0.1
r1 =10cm =0.1m ; =40N; m=
FC =m2 r 44
42 0.120=0.48
0.120=0.48 2 N
Substituting FC =mr112
S=stiffness initial compression
40
N1
2N
205= 0.1
N1 =214rpm
8
60
=10 4 0.04 400N
usingequation FC x Sx= y
2
=32.01rad/s
9.
(FC2 ) 400N; r2 0.175m

40
N 2
2N
FC2 = 0.178
8
60
N 2 226rpm
Range=N 2 N1 226 214 12rpm
h 2 25 2 12 2 0.22m
m+M 895
m
h1
5 30 895
5
0.17
N1 =192rpm
N22 =
h1 252 18 2 0.17m
N12 =
40
8
25cm
12. Given k=1, r=20cm,
C=3%=0.03;m=7kg M=35kg
r
m g25cm
m+M 895
m
h2
length of arm=30cm
Mg
2
Governor effect=C m g +M g
=0.03 7 35 9.81 =12.36V

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3. BALANCING
3.1
Introduction
Often an unbalance of forces is produced in rotary or reciprocating machinery due to the inertia
forces associated with the moving masses. Balancing is the process designing or modifying
machinery so that the unbalance is reduced to an acceptable level and if possible is eliminated
entirely.
A particle or mass moving in a circular path experiences a centripetal acceleration and a force is
required to produce it. An equal and opposite force acting radially outwards acts on the axis of
rotation and is known as centrifugal force [Fig 3.1(a)]. This is a disturbing force on the axis of
rotation, the magnitude of which is constant but the direction changes with the rotation of the
mass.
In a revolving rotor, the centrifugal force remains balanced as long as the centre of the mass of the
rotor lies on the axis of the shaft. When the centre of mass does not lie on the axis or there is an
eccentricity, an unbalanced force is produced (Fig. 3.1b). This type of unbalance is very common.
For example, in steam turbine rotors, engine crankshafts, rotary compressors and centrifugal
pumps.
mr2
me2
m
(a)
(b)
Figure: 3.1
Most of the serious problems encountered in high-speed

high speed machinery are the direct result of
unbalanced forces. These forces exerted on the frame by the moving machine members are time
varying, impart vibratory motion to the frame and produce noise. Also, there are human
discomfort and detrimental effects on the machine performance and the structural integrity of the
machine foundation.
The most common approach to balancing is by redistributing the mass which may be
accomplished by
y addition or removal of mass from various machine members.
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There are two basic types of unbalance

1. Rotating unbalance and
2. Reciprocating unbalance-which
unbalance
may occur separately or in combination.
3.2
Static Balancing
A system of rotating masses is said to be in static balance if the combined mass centre of the
system lies on the axis of rotation.
Figure 3.2 shows a rigid rotor revolving with a constant angular velocity of rad / s. A number
of masses, say three, are depicted by point masses at different
different radii in the same transverse plane.
They may represent different kinds of rotating masses such as turbine blades, eccentric discs, etc.
If m1 , m 2 and m 3 are the masses revolving at radii r1 , r2 and r3 respectively in the same plane,
then each mass produces a centrifugal force acting radially outwards from the axis of rotation. Let
F be the vector sum of these forces,
z
m 2 r2
m1
m2
r1
r2
m 3 r3
1
m1r1
x
3
rc
m c rc
m3
mc
(a)
Figure: 3.2
(b)
F m1r12 m 2 r2 2 m 3 r3 2
The rotor is said to be statically balanced if the vector sum F is zero.

If F is not zero, i.e., the rotor is unbalanced, then introduce a counterweight (balance weight) of
mass mc, at radius rc to balance the rotor so that
Or
m1r12 m 2 r2 2 m 3 r3 2 m c rc 2 0
(3.1a)
m1r1 m 2 r2 m 3 r3 0
(3.1b)

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The magnitude of either m c or rc may be selected and of the other can be calculated. In general, if
mr is the vector sum of m1r1 , m 2 r2 , m 3 r3 , m 4 r4 ,etc., then
(3.2a)
mr m c rc 0
The equation can be solved either mathematically or graphically. To solve it mathematically,

divide each force into its x and z components,
i.e., mr cos m c rc cos c 0
and mr sin m c rc sin c 0
or m c rc cos c mr cos
(3.2b)
and m c rc sin c mr sin
(3.2c)
Squaring and adding (3.2b) and (3.2c),

m c rc
mr cos
mr sin
(3.3)
Dividing (3.2c) by (3.2b),

tan c
mr sin
mr cos
(3.4)
The signs of the numerator and denominator of this function identify the quadrant of the angle. In
graphical solution, vectors, m1r1 , m 2 r2 , m 3 r3 , etc., are added. If they close in a loop, the system is
balanced. Otherwise, the closing vector will be giving m c rc . Its direction ident
identifies the angular
position of the countermass relative to the other masses.
Example 3.1:
Three masses of 8 kg, 12 kg and 15 kg attached at radial distance of 80 mm, 100 mm and 60mm
respectively to a disc on a shaft are in complete balance. Determine the angular positions of the
masses of 12 kg relative to the 8-kg
8
mass.
Solution:
m1r1 8 80 640
m 2 r2 12 100 1200
m3 r3 15 60 900
For graphical solution, take a vector representing m1r1 of 640 - units magnitude along the xx-axis.
Take the other two vectors through its two ends and complete the triangle. Note that the triangle
can be completed in four ways as shown in Figure. The results of the four options are
1. 2 227.4o and 3 79o
2.
2 132.6 o and 3 281o
3.
2 227.4o and 3 79o
4.
2 132.6 o and 3 281o

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However, these are only two sets of solutions.

227.4o
281o
Analytical solution,
mr 0
or
or
1200
640 cos 0o 1200 cos 2 900 cos 3 0
1200cos 2 (640 900cos 3 )
(i)
900
1200
900
II
and 640sin 0 1200sin 2 900sin 3 0

or
1200 sin 2 900sin 3
132.6o
(ii)
79o
640
Squaring and adding (i) and (ii),
227.4o
281o
1200 2 6402 900 2 cos 2 3 2 640 900 cos 3 900 2 sin 2 3

640 2 900 2 2 640 900 cos 3
IV
III
900
900
cos 3 0.1913
3 79o or 181o
1200
When 3 79o , 1200sin 2 900sin 79o
1200
79o
132.6o
sin 2 0.736
2 47.47 o or 132.6o or 227.4o
But as sin 2 is negative and cos 2 is also negative which

hich can be found from (i),
the corresponding angle 3 227.4o.
In a similar way by taking 3 281o , 2 can be found to be 132.6o.
Example 3.2:
A circular disc mounted on a shaft carries three attached masses of 4 kg, 3 kg and 2.5 kg at radial
distances of 75 mm, 85 mm and 50 mm and at the angular positions of 45o , 135o and 240o
respectively. The angular positions are measured counterclockwise from the reference line along
the x-axis.
axis. Determine the amount of the countermass at a radial distance of 75 mm required for
the static balance.
Solution:
Figure 3.2 shows the various masses
mas according to the given data.
m1r1 4 75 300,
m 2 r2 3 85 255,
m3 r3 2.5 50 125
mr mc rc 0
300cos 45o 255cos135o 125cos 240o m c rc cos c 0
and 300sin 45o 255sin135o 125cos 240o m c rc sin c 0
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Squaring, adding and then solving,

1/2
300cos 45o 255cos135o 125cos 240o 2
mc rc
o
o
o 2
300sin 45 255sin135 125cos 240
1
2
m c 75 30.68 (284.2)2 2 285.8 kg mm
m c 3.81kg
tan c
284.2
284.2
9.26
(30.68) 30.68
c 276o12
c lies in the fourth quadrant ( numerator is negative and denominator is positive).
3.3
Dynamic Balancing
When several masses rotate in different planes, the centrifugal forces, in
in addition to being out of
balance, also form couples. A system of rotating masses is dynamic balance when there does not
exist any resultant centrifugal force as well as resultant couple.
In the work that follows, the products of mr and mrl
mr (instead of mr2 and mrl 2 ), usually have
been referred as force and couple respectively as it is more convenient to draw force and couple
polygons with these quantities.
m1
m1r12 m 2 r2 2
r1
r2
m2
Figure: 3.3
If m1 and m2 are two masses (Fig. 3.3) revolving diametrically opposite to each other in different
planes such that m1r1 m 2 r2 . the centrifugal forces are balanced, but an unbalanced couple of
magnitude m1r1 ( m 2 r2 ) is introduced. The couple acts in a plane that contains the axis of
rotation
ion and the two masses. Thus, the couple is of constant magnitude but variable direction.
3.4
Transference of a force from one plane to another

Let m be the mass at radius r rotating in a plane at a distance from another plane (Fig. 3.4). The
equilibrium
m of the system does not change if two equal and opposite forces F1 F2 mr are
added in the latter plane. The net effect would be a single force F1 (= mr) in the second plane
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having the direction of the original force along with a couple mr formed by the forces mr aand F2
in a plane containing these forces and the shaft. As the moment of a couple is the same about any
point in its plane(equal to the product of one of the forces and the arm), the couple may be
assumed to rotate the shaft about the point O.
Re ference
plane
F1
Couple
vectors
F2
2
(Im aginary)
(Original)
Turned thorugh 90o

Figure: 3.4
in the direction
of force
The axis of rotation of the couple is thus a line OA drawn perpendicular to the shaft through OA
line drawn parallel to the axis and to a suitable scale can represent the couple vectorially, the
sense of rotation
ion of which is given by the right-hand
right hand screw rule, i.e., for a clockwise couple, the
direction is to be away from the viewer. However, in balancing problems, it becomes convenient
if the couple vectors are drawn by turning them through 90o , i.e., by drawing them parallel to the
force vectors. This does not affect their relative positions.
A plane passing through a point such as O and perpendicular to the axis of the shaft is called a
reference plane. Other masses acting in different planes can be transferred to the reference plane
in a similar manner as discussed above
3.5
Balancing of several masses in different planes

Let there be rotor revolving with a uniform angular velocity [Fig. 3.5(a)]. m1m 2 and m3 are
the masses attached to the rotor at radii
ra
r` , r2 and r3 respectively. The masses m1 , m 2 and m 3 rotate
in planes 1, 2 and 3 respectively. Choose a reference plane at O so that the distance of the planes
1, 2 and 3 from O and 1 , 2 and 3 respectively.
Transference of each unbalanced force to the reference plane introduces the like number of forces
and couples.
The unbalanced forces in the reference plane are m1r12 , m 2 r2 2 and m 3 r3 2 acting radially
outwards.
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The unbalanced couples in the reference plane are m1r12 1 , and m 3 r3 2 3 which may be
represented by vectors parallel to the respective force vectors, i.e., parallel to the respective radii
of m1 , m 2 and m 3 .
For complete balancing of the rotor, the resultant force and the resultant couple both should be
zero, i.e.,
m1r12 m 2 r2 2 m 3 r3 2 0
2
(3.5)
2
And m1r1 1 m 2 r2 2 m 3 r3 3 0
(3.6)
mc2
Q
C2
C2
3
3
m1r1 1
m 2 r2 2
m3 r3 3
m c2 rc2 c2
c2
r3
m3
c2
(c)
2
r2
m 3 r1
m2
m1
2
m 2 r2
m1
m 3 r1
1
m c1
ct
1
c1
C1 (RP)
C1
m 3 r3
m c2 rc2
(a)
(d)
(b)
Figure: 3.5
If the Eqs (3.5) and (3.6) are not satisfied, then there are unbalanced forces and couples
respectively. A mass placed in the reference plane may satisfy the force equation but the couple
equation is satisfied only by two equal forces in different transverse planes. Thus, in general, two
planes are needed to balance a system of rotating masses.
Therefore, in order to satisfy Eqn (3.5) and (3.6), introduce two counter-masses
counter masses m c1 and m c2 at
radii rc1and rc2 respectively. Then Eq (3.5) may be written as
m1r12 m 2 r2 2 m 3 r3 2 m c1rc12 m c2 rc2 2 0
(3.7a)
m1r1 m 2 r2 m 3 r3 m c1rc1 m c2 rc2 0
(3.7b)

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In general,
n
(3.8)
mi ri mc1rc1 mc2 rc2 0
i 1
Let the two countermasses be placed in transverse plane at axial locations O and Q, i.e., the
countermass mc1 be placed in the reference plane and the distance of the plane of m c2 be c2 from
the reference plane.
Equation (3.6) modifies to (taking moments about O)
m1r1 12 m 2 r2 2 2 m 3 r3 3 2 m c2 rc2 c2 2 0
m1r1 1 m 2 r2 2 m 3 r3 3 m c2 rc2 c2 0
(3.9a)
(3.9b)
In general
n
mi ri i m c2 rc2 c2 0
(3.10)
i 1
Thus, Eqs (3.8) and (3.10) are the necessary conditions for dynamic balancing of the rotor. Again
the equations can be solved mathematically or graphically.
Dividing Eq(3.10a) into component form
mr cos m c2 rc2 cos c2 0
m c2 rc2 c2 cos c2 m i ri i cos
(3.10b)
and mr sin m c2 rc2 sin c2 0

n
m c2 rc2 c2 sin c2 mi ri li sin
(3.10c)
i 1
Squaring and adding (3.10b) and (3.10c)

2
n
n
mc2 rc2 c2 mi ri i cos mi ri i sin

i 1
i 1
(3.11)
Dividing (3.10c) by (3.10b),

n
tan c2
mi ri i sin
i 1
n
(3.12)
m i ri i cos
i 1
After obtaining the values of mc2 and c2 from the above equations, solve Eq. (3.8) by taking its
components,
2
2
n
mc1rc1 mi ri cos mc2 rc2 cos c2 mr sin mc2 rc2sinc2

i 1
(3.13)
and
tan c1
mr sin mc2 rc2 sin c2

mr cos mc2 rc2 cos c2
(3.14)

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To solve Eqn (3.8) and (3.10) graphically, Eq.(3.10) is solved first and a couple polygon is made
by adding the known vectors and considering each vector parallel to the radial line of the mass.
Then the closing vector will be m c2 rc2 c2 , the direction
tion of which specifies the angular position of
the countermass m c2 [Fig. 3.5(c)] in the plane at the point Q. Then solve Eq.(3.8) and make a
force polygon by adding the known vectors (along with the vector m c2 rc2 ). The closing vector is
magnitud and the direction of the countermass m c1 [Fig. 3.5 (d)]. Figure
m c1rc1 , identifying the magnitude
3.5(b) represents the position of the balancing masses on the rotating shaft.
Example 3.3:
A rotating shaft carries three unbalanced masses of 4 kg, 3 kg and 2.5 kg at radial distances of 75
mm, 85 mm and 50 mm and at the angular positions of 45o , 135o and 240o respectively. The
second and the third masses are in the planes at 200 mm and 375 mm from the plane of the first
mass. The angular positions are measured counter-clockwise
counter clockwise from the reference line alon
along x-axis
and viewing the shaft from the first mass end. The shaft length is 800 mm between bearings and
the distance between the plane of the first mass and the bearing at that end is 225 mm. Determine
the amount of the countermasses in planes at 75 mm from
from the bearings for the complete balance of
the shaft. The first counter-mass
mass is to be in a plane between the first mass and the bearing and the
second mass in a plane between the third mass and the bearing at that end.
Solution:
Figure (a) shows the planes of unbalanced masses as well as the planes of the countermasses.
Plane C1 is to be taken as the reference plane and the various distances are to be considered from
this plane.
329o
75
C2
240o
800
135o
C2
240o
135o
375
200
45o
45o
225
C1 (RP)
75
(a)
253o
C1 (RP)
(b)

133
Analytical solution
c2 (800 75 2) 650 mm
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m 3 r3 3
m 2 r2 2
1 225 75 150mm
2 150 200 350mm
3 150 375 525mm
329o
m1r11 4 75 150 45000, m1r1 4 75 300
m1r11
m 2 r2 2 3 85 350 89250, m 2 r2 3 85 255
m c 2 rc 2 c2
m3 r3 3 2.5 50 525 65625, m3 r3 2.5 50 125
(c)
mr m c2 rc2 c2 0
4500cos 45o 89250cos135o 65625cos 240o mc2 rc2 c2 cos c2 0

and 45000sin 45o 89250sin135o 65625sin 240o mc2 rc2 c2 sin c2 0
m c2 rc2 c2
45000cos 45o 89.250 2 45000sin 45o 89250sin135o 2

cos135o 65625cos 240o 65625sin 240o

( 64102) 2 (38096) 2
1/ 2
/ 2
m 3 r3
m 2 r2
m c2 40 650 74568
m c2 2.868kg
tan c2
m c 2 rc 2
253o
38096
0.594
(64102)
m c1rc1
c2 329.3o or 329o18
Now,
mr m c1rc1 m c2 rc2 0
m1r1
(d)
300cos 45o 255cos135o 125cos 240o mc1rc1 cos 1 2.868 40cos329.3

40cos329.3 0
and 300sin 45o 255sin135o 1215sin 240o mc1rc1 sin 1 2.868 40sin 329.3 0
(300cos 45o 255cos135o 125cos 240o 2.868
o
o
o
40cos 329.3 ) (300sin 45 255sin135
m c1rc1
o
o
125sin 240 2.868 40sin 240 2.868
40sin 329.3o ) 2
mc1 75 (67.96)2 (225.62)2
1/2
235.63
mc1 3.14kg
tan c1
225.62
3.32; c 253.2o or 253o12
67.96

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Graphical solution
The graphical solution has also been shown in Figs (c) and (d).
From Fig. (c),
m c2 rc2 c2 74000
74000
2.846 kg at 329o.
40 650
From Fig. (d),
m c1rc1 235,
m c2
235
3.13kg at 253o
75
Figure (b) represents the positions of the balancing masses on the rotating shaft.
m c1
Solution by using complex numbers

m1r111 (4 75 150)45o 4500045o 31820 j31820
m 2 r2 2 2 (3 85 350)135o 89250135o 63109 j63109
m3 r3 33 (2.5 50 525)240o 65625240o 32818 j56833
Now,
m1r1 11 m 2 r2 2 2 m3 r3 33 m c2 rc2 c2 c2 0
(31820 j31820) (63109 j63109) ( 32813 j56833) mc2 rc2 c2 c2 0
m c2 rc2 c2 c2 64102 j38096 74568329.3o
m c2 40 650 74568
mc2 2.868kg
Similarly,
m1r11 (4 75)45o 30045o 212.1 j212.1
m 2 r2 2 (3 85)135o 255135o 180.3 j180.3
m3 r33 (2.5 50)240o 125240o 62.5 j108.3
m c2 rc2 c2 (2.868 40)329.3o 114.72329.3o 98.6 j58.6
Now,
m1r11 m 2 r2 2 m3 r33 mc2 rc2 c2 m c1rc1c1 0

(212.1 j212.1) (180.3 j180.3) (62.5 j108.3) (98.6
(98.6 j58.6) mc1 rc1c1 0
m c1rc1c1 67.9 j225.5
235.5253.2o
m c1 75 235.63
m c1 3.14kg

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Example 3.4:
A shaft supported in bearings that are 1.6m apart projects 400 mm beyond bearings at each end. It
carries three pulleys one at each end one at the centre of its length. The masses of the end pulleys
are 40 kg and 22 kg and their centres of its length. The masses of the end pulleys are 40 kg and 22
kg and their centres of mass are at 12 mm and 18 mm respectively from the shaft axes. The mass
of the centre pulley is 38 kg and its centre of mass is 15 mm from the shaft axis. The pulleys are
arranged in a manner
er that they give static balance. Determine the
(i) relative angular positions of the pulleys
(ii) dynamic forces developed on the bearings when the shaft rotates at 210 rpm.
Solution:
Figure (a) shows the planes of the three pulleys as well as of the two bearings.
Let the plane of the pulley 1 be the reference plane.
260.3o
Pulley 3 (22kg)
Bearing
2400
1600
136.4 o
Pulley 2 (38kg)
1200
Bearing
Pulley 1 (40kg)
0o
(b )
(a)
m1r1 40 0.012 0.48

m 2 r2 2 38 0.015 1.2 0.684
m 2 r2 38 0.015 0.57
m3 r3 3 22 0.018 2.4 0.95
m3 r3 22 0.018 0.396
Complete the force triangle as the three sides are known [Fig. (c)].
( )]. The mass at the plane 1 is
o
chosen at 0 angle. By completing it, the directions of the other two masses are known which have
been marked in Fig.(b).
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260.3o
0.684
0.570
0.95
0.396
0.795
136.4
0.480
Force triangle
(c)
Couple triangle
(d)
Now, as the shaft is in complete static balance, there is only unbalanced couple which is to be the
same about
out all planes. Thus, reactions due to the unbalanced couple are to be equal and opposite
on the two bearings.
To find the magnitude of the unbalanced couple, add the two couple vectors as shown in Fig. (d).
The closing side shown in dotted line represents
represents the magnitude of the unbalanced couple.
The magnitude, mr = 0.795 on measurement.
unbalanced couple mr2
2
2 210
0.795
384.5N m
60
The reactions on each bearing
3.6
384.5
240.3N
1.6
Balancing of reciprocating mass

Acceleration of the reciprocating mass of a slider-crank
slider crank mechanism is given by
cos 2
f r2 cos
Therefore, the force required to accelerate mass m is

cos 2
F mr2 cos
mr2 cos mr2
cos 2
n
(3.15)
mr2 cos is called the primary accelerating force and mr2
cos 2
is called the secondary
n
accelerating force.
Maximum value of the primary force mr2
Maximum value of the secondary force
mr2
n

137

F32
F14
F23
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F34
mr2 cos
F43
mr cos
Inertial force
1
F12
mr2 cos
Pr imary
accelerating force
(Unbalanced)
(a)
F21
F21v
h
21
4
1
(b)
F41
mr2
cos
mr2 sin
2
mr
mr2 cos
Pr imary force
(c)
Figure: 3.6
As n is, usually, much greater than unity, the secondary force is small compared with the primary
force and can be safely neglected for slow-speed
slow
engines.
The inertia force due to primary accelerating force is shown in Fig. 3.6(b), the forces acting on the
engine frame due to this inertia force are shown. The force exerted by the crankshaft oon the main
bearings has two components, F21h and F21v . The horizontal force F21h is an unbalanced shaking
force. The vertical forces F21v and F41v balance each other, but form an unbalanced shaking couple.
The magnitude and direction of this force and couple go on changing with the rotation of the
crank angle . The shaking force produces linear vibration of the frame in the horizontal
direction of the
he frame in the horizontal direction whereas the shaking couple produces an
oscillating vibration.
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Thus, it is seen that the shaking force F21h is the only unbalanced force. It may hamper the smooth
running of the engine and thus, effort is made to balance the
the same. However, it is not at all
possible to balance it completely and only some modification can be made.
The usual approach of balancing the shaking force is by addition of a rotating counter mass at
radius r to the mass used to balance the rotating unbalance
unbalance due to the mass at the crank pin.
Figure 3.6(c) shows the reciprocating mechanism with a countermass m at the radial distance r.
The horizontal component of the centrifugal force due to the balancing mass is mr2 cos in the
line of stroke & vertical component of centrifugal force is perpendicular to the line of stroke
which remains unbalanced and it is zero at the ends of the stroke when 0o and 180 o and
maximum at the middle when 90o. The magnitude of the maximum mounting, the
mechanism tends to jump up and down.
To minimize the effect of the unbalanced force, a compromise is, usually, made, i.e.., 2/3 of the
reciprocating mass is balanced (or a value between one-half
one
and three-quarters).
quarters). If c is the fraction
of the reciprocating mass. Thus, balanced then
Primary
ry force balanced by the mass cmr2 cos
Primary force unbalanced by the mass (1 c) cmr 2 cos
Vertical component of centrifugal force which remains unbalanced
cmr2 sin
In fact, in reciprocating engines, unbalanced forces in the direction of the line of stroke are more
dangerous than the forces perpendicular to the line of stroke.
Resultant unbalanced force at any instant
(1 c) 2 mr2 cos cmr2 sin
(3.16)
The resultant unbalanced force is minimum when c =1/2.

The method just discussed above to balance the disturbing effect of a reciprocating
reciprocating mass is just
equivalent to as if a revolving mass at the crankpin is completely balanced by providing a counter
mass at the same radius diametrically opposite to the crank. Thus, if mp is the mass at the
crankpin and c is the fraction of the reciprocating
reciprocating mass m to be balanced, the mass at the crankpin
may be considered as (cm mp ) which is to be completely balanced.
Example 3.5:
The following data relate to a single cylinder reciprocating engine:
Mass of reciprocating parts = 40 kg
Mass of revolving parts = 30 kg at crank radius
Speed = 150 rpm
Stroke = 350 mm
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If 60% of the reciprocating parts and all the revolving parts are to be balanced, determine the (i)
balance mass required at a radius of 320 mm, (ii) unbalanced force when the crank has turn
turned 45o
from the top-deal centre.
Solution:
2 150
15.7rad / s
60
350
r
175mm
2
(ii) Mass to be balanced at the crankpin cm mp
0.6 40 30
54kg
m c rc mr
m c 320 54 175
m c 29.53kg
(ii)
Unbalanced force (at 45o )

2
1 c mr2 cos (cmr 2 sin ) 2

2
(1 0.6) 40 0.175 (15.7)2 cos 45o 0.6 40 0.175 (15.7) 2 sin 45o
880.7N
3.7
Balancing of Locomotives
Locomotives are of two types, coupled and coupled. If two or more pairs of wheels are coupled
together to increase the adhesive force between the wheels and the track, it is called a coupled
locomotive. Otherwise, it is an uncoupled locomotive.
Locomotives usually have two cylinders, If the cylinders are mounted between the wheels, it is
called
alled an inside cylinder locomotive and if the cylinder are outside the wheels, it is an outside
cylinder locomotive. The cranks of the two cylinders are set at 90o to each other so that the engine
can be started easily after stopping in any position. Balance
Balance masses are placed on the wheels in
both types.
In coupled locomotives, wheels are coupled by connecting their crankpins with coupling rods. As
the coupling rod revolves with the crankpin, its proportionate mass can be considered as a
revolving mass which
ich can be completely balanced.
Thus, whereas in uncoupled locomotives, there are four planes for consideration, two of the
cylinders and two of the driving wheels. In coupled locomotives there as six planes, two of
cylinders, two of coupling rods and two of the wheels. The planes which contain the coupling rod
masses lie outside the planes that contain balance (counter) masses. Also, in case of coupled
locomotives, the mass required to balance the reciprocating parts in distributed among all the
wheels which
ich are coupled. This results in a reduced hammer blow.
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3.8
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Effects of partial balancing in Locomotives

1. Hammer-blow
Hammer-blow
blow is the maximum vertical unbalanced force caused by the mass provided to balance
the reciprocating masses, its value is mr2 . Thus,
us, it varies as a square of the speed. At high
speeds, the force of the hammer-blow
hammer blow could exceed the static load on the wheels and the wheels
can be lifted off the rail when the direction of the hammer-blow
hammer blow will be vertically upwards.
2.
Variation of Tractive
ctive Force
A variation in the tractive force (effort) of an engine is caused by the unbalanced portion of the
primary force which acts along the line of stroke of locomotive engine.
If c is the fraction of the reciprocating mass that is to be balanced then
t
Unbalanced primary force for cylinder 1 1 c mr2 cos
Unbalanced primary force for cylinder 2 = (1 c) mr 2 cos(90o )
1 c mr2 sin
Total unbalanced primary force or the variation in the tractive force
1 c mr2 cos sin

This is maximum when cos sin is max imum,
or when
or
or
or
d
cos sin 0
d
sin cos 0
sin cos
tan 1
or
135o or 315o
When
135o
Maximum variation in tractive force

1 c mr2 cos135o sin135o
1
1
(1 c) mr 2
2
2
2(1 c) mr
When 315o
Maximum variation in tractive force
1 c mr2 cos315o sin 315o

1
1
1 c mr2
2
2
2 1 c mr2
Thus, maximum variation 2 1 c mr2
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3. Swaying Couple
Unbalanced primary forces along the lines of stroke are separated by a distance and thus,
constitute a couple (Fig. 3.7). This tends to make the leading wheels sway from side to side.
(1 c) mr 2 cos
/2
/2
(1 c) mr 2 cos(90o )
Figure: 3.7
Swaying couple = moments of forces about the engine centre line

l
l
(1 c) mr 2 cos (1 c) mr 2 cos(90o )
2
2
l
(1 c) mr 2 cos sin
2
This is maximum when (cos sin ) is maximum.
d
(cos sin ) 0
dt
sin cos 0
sin cos
tan 1
i.e., when
or
or
or
or
45o or 225o
When 45o , max imum sawying couple
1
2
When 225o , max imum swaying couple

Thus, maximum swaying couple
(1 c) mr 2
1
(1 c) mr 2
2
1
(1 c) mr 2
2
Example 3.6:
The following data refer to a two-cylinder
two
uncoupled locomotive:
Rotating mass per cylinder = 280 kg
Reciprocating mass per cylinder = 300 kg
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Distance between wheels = 1400 mm

Distance between cylinder centres = 600 mm
Diameter of treads of driving wheels = 1800 mm
Crank radius = 300 mm
Radius of centre of balance mass = 620 mm
Locomotive speed = 50 km/hr
Angle between cylinder cranks = 90o
Dead load on each wheel = 3.5 tonne
Determine the
(a) balancing mass required in the planes of driving wheels if whole of the revolving and two
twothird of the reciprocating mass are to be balanced
(b) swaying couple
(c) variation in the tractive force
(d) Maximum and minimum pressure on the rails
(e) maximum speed of locomotive without lifting the wheels from the rails
Solution:
Total mass to be balanced mp cm
2
280 300
3
480kg
(a) Take 1 as the reference plane and angle 2 = 0o (Fig). Writing the couple equations,
m 2 r2 2 cos 2 m3 r3 3 cos 3 m4 r4 4 cos 4 0

480 300 400cos 0o 480 300 1000cos90o m 4 620 1400cos 4 0
(i)
m 4 cos 4 66.36
and m2 r2 2 sin 2 m3 r3 3sin3 m4 r4 4 sin 4 0
480 300 400sin o 480 300 1000sin 90o m4 620 1400sin4 0

(ii)
m 4 sin 4 165.9
Squaring and adding (i) and (ii), m 4 178.7kg
165.9
2.5
66.36
4 248.2o
Dividing (ii) by (i), tan 4
Taking 4 as the reference plane and writing the couples equations,

m 2 r2 2 cos 2 m3 r3 3 cos 3 m1r11 cos 1 0
480 300 1000cos 0o 480 300 400cos90o m1 620 1400sin 1 0

m1 sin 165.9
(iii)
Similarly,
(iv)
m1 sin 1 66.36

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From (iii) and (iv), m1 178.7kg m 4

66.36
0.4 or 1 201.8o
165.9
The treatment shows that the magnitude of m1
tan 1
4
4
could have directly been written equal to m4.

50 1000 1000
1
(b)
15.43 rad / s
1800
60 60
2
1
Swaying couple
(1 c) mr 2
2
1 2
2
1 300 0.3 (15.43) 0.6
3
2
3030.3N m
90o
1400
600
(c) Variation in tractive force 2(1 c) mr 2

2
2 1 300 0.3 (15.43) 2
3
10.100N
(d) Balance mass for reciprocating parts only
2
300
3
178.7
74.46kg
480
400
1
1(RP)
(mm)
Hammer-blow mr2
= 74.460.62 (15.43)2 = 10.991 N
Dead load 3.5 1000 9.81 34.335N
Maximum pressure on rails
34.335 10.991 45.326N
Minimum pressure on rails
64.335 10.991 23.344N
(e) Maximum speed of the locomotive without lifting the wheels from the rails will be when the
dead load becomes equal to the hammer blow.
74.46 0.62 2 34.335
27.27rad / s
Speed of wheels,
1.80
r 27.27
m / s
2
1.8 60 60
27.27
km / h
2
1000
88.36km / h
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Example 3.7:
The following data refer to a four-coupled
four coupled wheel locomotive with two inside cylinders.
Pitch of cylinders = 600 mm
Reciprocating mass/cylinder = 315 kg
Revolving mass/cylinder = 260 kg
Distance between driving wheels
wheel = 1.6m
Distance between coupling rods = 2m
Diameter of driving wheels = 1.9 m
Revolving parts for each coupling rod crank = 130 kg
Engine crank radius = 300 mm
Coupling rod crank radius = 240 mm
Distance of centre of balance mass in planes of Driving
D ng wheels from axle centre = 750 mm
o
Angle between engine cranks = 90
Angle between coupling rod Crank with adjacent engine crank = 180o
The balanced mass required for the reciprocating parts is equally divided between each pair of
coupled wheels. Determine
mine the
(i) magnitude and position of the balance mass required to balance two-third
two third of reciprocating
and whole of the revolving parts
(ii) hammer-blow
blow and the maximum variation of tractive force when the locomotive speed is 80
km/h.
Solution:
Leading wheels Balance mass on each leading wheel
1
m p cm
2
12
260 315
2 3
365kg
Taking the plane 2 as the reference plane and
3 0o
m1 m6 130kg;
m3 m 4 265 kg
r1 r6 0.24m; r2 r5 0.75m; r3 r4 0.3m

1 0.2m; 3 0.5m; 4 1.1m; 5 1.6m; 6 1.8m
m1r11 130 0.24 (0.2) 6.24
m3 r3 3 365 0.3 0.5 54.75
m 4 r4 4 365 0.3 1.1 120.45
m5 r5 5 m5 0.75 1.6 1.2m5
m 6 r6 6 130 0.24 1.8 56.16

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(6.24cos180o 54.75cos 0o
2
o
o 2
120.45cos90 56.16cos 270 )
1.2m 5
o
o
(6.24sin180 54.75sin 0 120.45
sin 90o 56.16sin 270o ) 2
270o
6
5
1/2
60.99 (64.29) 2
88.62
m 5 73.85kg
90o
4
64.29
1.054 or 5 226.5o
60.99
From symmetry of the system, m 2 m 5 73.85kg
tan 5
1400
600
1600
60.99
0.949 or 2 223.5o
64.29
Trailing Wheels: The arrangement remains
the same except that only half of the required
reciprocating masses have to be balanced
at the cranks.
and tan 2
2(RP)
1 2
i.e., m3 m 4 315 105kg

2 3
Then, m3 r3 3 105 0.3 0.5 15.75
180o
1
(mm)
and m 4 r4 4 105 0.3 1.1 34.65

1
(6.24cos180o 15.75cos 0o
2
o
o 2
34.65cos 90 56.16cos 270 )
1.2m 5
o
o
(6.24sin180 15.75sin 0 34.65
sin 90o 56.16sin 270o ) 2
1/2
(21.99)2 (21.51) 2
30.76
m5 25.63kg
tan 5
or
(21.51) 21.51
0.978
21.99
21.99
5 135.4o
By symmetry, m 2 m 5 25.63kg
and tan 2
21.99
1.022 or 2 314.4o
21.51

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(ii) Hammer-blow mr2

Where m is the balance mass for reciprocating parts only and neglecting m1 and m6 in the
above calculations
Thus, m1r11 m6 r6 6 0
1/2
(15.75cos 0o 34.65cos 90o ) 2

1.2m5
o
o
(15.75sin 0 34.65sin 90 )
(15.75)2 (34.65)2
1/2
38.06
m 5 31.75kg
80 1000
1
23.39rad / s
60 60 1.9 / 2
Hammer-blow 31.72 0.75 (23.39) 2 13015N
Maximum variation of tractive force
2(1 c) mr 2
2
2 1 315 0.3 (23.39) 2
3
24372N
3.9
Secondary Balancing
It was stated earlier that the secondary acceleration force is defined as
cos 2
Secondary force mr2
(3.17)
n
Its frequency is twice that of the primary force and the magnitude l/n times the magnitude force.
cos 2
The expression can also be written as mr(2) 2
4n
Now, consider two cranks of an engine (Fig. 3.8). One actual one and the other imaginary, with
the following
g specifications:
Actual Im aginary
Angular velocity
2
r
Length of crank
r
4n
Mass at the cranks pin
m
m
Thus, when the actual crank has turned through an angle t, the imaginary crank would have
turned an angle of 2 2t
Centrifugal force induced in the imaginary crank
Components of this force along line of stroke
mr(2) 2
4n
mr(2) 2
cos
4n

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mr2 cos 2
Primary force
Primary crank
r / 4n
mr 22
cos 2
4n
mr2 / n cos 2
Secondary force
Secondary crank
Figure: 3.8
Thus, the effect of the secondary force is equivalent to an imaginary crank of length r/4n rotating
at double the angular velocity i.e., twice of the engine speed.
The imaginary crank coincides with the actual at inner top dead centre. At other times, it makes an
angle with the line of stroke equal to twice that of the engine crank.
The secondary couple about a reference plane is given by the multiplication of the secondary force
with the distance of the plane from
fr
the reference plane.
Complete Balancing of Reciprocating Parts:
From the foregoing discussion, it is concluded that for complete balancing of the reciprocating
parts, the following conditions must be fulfilled.
1. Primary forces must be balanced, i.e., primary force polygon is enclosed.
2.
Primary couples must be balanced, i.e., primary couple polygon is enclosed.
3.
Secondary forces must be balanced, i.e., secondary forces polygon is enclosed.
4.
Secondary couples must be balanced, i.e., secondary

secondary couple polygon is enclosed.
Usually, it is not possible to satisfy all the above conditions fully for a multicylinder engine.
Mostly some unbalanced force or couple would exist in the reciprocating engines.
3.10
Balancing of Inline Engines

If a reciprocating
rocating mass is transferred to the crankpin, the axial component parallel to the cylinder
axis of the resulting centrifugal force represents the primary unbalanced force.
Consider a shaft (Fig. 3.9) consisting of three equal cranks unsymmetrically spaced
spaced. The
crankpins carry equivalents of three unequal reciprocating masses. Then

148
r3
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m3
m 2 r2
m3 r3
m2
m r rr
r2
m1r1
m1
m r rr cos
Line of stroke
r1
Figure: 3.9
Primary force mr2 cos
(3.18)
Primary couple mr2 cos
(3.19)
Secondary force mr
(2) 2
2
cos 2 mr cos 2
4n
n
Secondary couple mr
(3.20)
(2)2
2
cos 2 mr cos 2
4n
n
In order to solve the above equations graphically, first draw the mr cos
(3.21)
polygon ( 2 is
common to all forces). Then the axial component of the resultant force (Fr cos ) multiplied by
2 provides the primary unbalanced force on the system at that moment. This unbalanced force
is zero when 90o and a maximum when 0o.

In case the force polygon encloses, the resultant as well as the axial component will always be
zero and thus, the system will be primary balance. Then
Fph 0 and Fpv 0.

To find the secondary
condary unbalance force, first find the position the imaginary secondary cranks.
Then transfer the reciprocating masses and multiply the same by (2) 2 / 4n or 2 / n to get the
secondary force.
In the following paragraphs, some multi-crank
multi crank arrangements have been examined.

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1. In-line Two-cylinder
cylinder Engine
Consider a two-cylinder
cylinder engine (Fig. 3.10), cranks of which are 180o apart and have equal
reciprocating masses. Taking a lane through the centre line as the reference plane,

Primary force mr2 cos cos(180o ) mr2 cos
2
2
mr2 / 2 (2)
/2
Reference plane
/2
mr
180
mr2
(1)
mr2 / 2 (1)
(2)
mr2 cos
Couple
Force
Primary cranks
Figure: 3.10
2
2
mr2 / n
(1)
mr2 / n
(2)
1
360 o 2
mr2
n
(1)
l
2
mr2 l
n 2
2mr2 / n cos 2
Secondary cranks
Force
Couple
Figure: 3.11
Maximum values are mr2 at 0o and 180o

Secondary force
mr2
mr2
cos 2 cos(360o 2) 2
cos 2
n
n
Maximum values are

or
2mr2
when 2 0o , 180o , 360o and 540o.
n
0o , 90o , 180o , and 270o
Secondary couple
mr2

cos 2 cos(360o 2) 0
n 2
2

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Remember that to find the primary forces and couples analytically, the positions of the cranks
have to be taken in terms of . As it is a rotating system, the maximum values or magnitudes of
these forces and couples vary instant to instant and are equal to the values as given by the
equivalent rotating masses at the crankpin. If a particular position of the crankshaft is considered,
the above expressions may not give the maximum value. For example, the maximum value of
primary couple in this case is found to be mr2 . This is the value which is obtained when the
crank positions are 0o and 180o. However, if the crank positions are assumed at 90o and 270o, the
values obtained are zero. Thus, in case any particular position of the crankshaft is considered, then
both x- and y-components
components of the force and couple can be taken to find the maximum values, e.g.,
if the positions of the cranks are considered at 120o and 300 o , The primary couple can be
obtained as below:
l

x-component mr2 cos120o cos(180o 120o ) mr2
2
2
2
3

mr2
y-components mr2 cos120o sin(180o 120o )
2
2
2
2
1
3
Primary couple mr2
mr2 mr2
2
2
The graphical solution

lution has also be shown in Fig. 3.11 which is self-explanatory.
self explanatory.
2.
In-line Four-cylinder
cylinder Four-stroke
Four
Engine
Such an engine has two outer as well as inner cranks (throws) in line. The inner throws are at 180o
to the outer throws. Thus the angular positions
positio for the cranks are for the first, (180o ) for the
second, (180o ) for the third, and for the fourth (Fig. 3.12).
For convenience, choose a plane passing through the middle bearing about which the arrangement
is symmetrical as the reference plane.
Prime force = mr2 cos cos 180 cos 180 cos 0
3
Primary couple = mr2 cos cos 180

2
2
mr2
4mr2
cos 2 cos 360 2 cos 360 2 cos 2
cos 2
n
n
Secondary force =
Maximum value =

3
cos 180 cos 0
2
2
4mr2
at 2 0, 180, 360 and 540 or 0, 90,180 and 270
n
Secondary couple =
3
mr2 cos 2 cos 360 2

2
2

3
cos 360 2 cos 2 0
2
2

151

2
1
2
360
180o
Force
/2
3/ 2
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Force
2
2
180
/2
RP
360o 2
1
3
3/ 2
Couple
Pr imary cranks
2
3
Couple
Secondary cranks
Figure: 3.12
3. Six-cylinder Four-stroke
stroke Engine
Only a graphical solution is being given for simplicity. In a four-stroke
four stroke engine, the cycle is
completed in two revolutions of the crank and the cranks are 120 apart.
Crank positions for different cylinders for the firing order 142635
142635 for clockwise rotation of the
crankshaft are
For first, 0
For second, 240
For third, 120
For fourth, 120
For fifth, 240
For sixth, 0
Assuming m and r equal for all cylinders and taking a vertical plane passing through the middle of
the shaft as the reference plane, the force and the couple polygons are drawn as shown in figure
3.13.
Since all the force and couple polygons close, it is an inherently balanced engine for primary and
secondary forces and couples.
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240
120
1
6
120
240
Force polygon
120
Force polygon
240
240
5
120
1
6
Couple polygon
Couple polygon
Primary cranks
Secondary cranks
Figure 3.13: Crankshaft of a six-cylinder
six
engine
Example 3.8:
A four-cylinder
cylinder oil engine is in complete primary balance. The arrangement of the reciprocating
masses in different planes is as shown in figure (a). The stroke of each piston is 2r mm.
Determine the reciprocating mass of the cylinder 2 and the relative crank positions.
168
480kg
1.3m
3
500kg
2.8m
2
282
m2
1.3m
1
(a)
123
380kg
(b)

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m4r4
m1r1
m2 r
m4 r
m3r
r 3
m3r
Couple polygon
(triangle)
(c)
Force polygon
(d)
(c)
(d)
Solution:
Crank length = 2r/2= r
Take 2 as the reference plane and 3 0
m1r11 380 r 1.3 494r
m1r1 380 r
m 3 r3 3 590 r 2.8 1652r
m 3 r3 590 r
m 4 r4 4 480 r 2.8 1.3 1968r
m 4 r4 480 r
494r cos 1 1652 r cos 0 1968r cos 4 0
...(i)
494cos 1 1652 1968cos 4
and 494r sin 1 1652 r sin 0 1668 r sin 4 0

...(ii)
494sin 1 1968sin 4
Squaring and adding (i) and (ii),
494
1652 1968cos 4 1968sin 4

2
2
2
1652 1968 cos 2 4 2 1652 1968cos 4 1968 sin 2 4

1652 1968 2 1652 1968cos 4 ,cos 4 0.978
4 167.9 or 192.1
Choosing one value, say 4 167.9
Dividing (ii) by (i), tan 1
1968 sin167.9
1652 1968cos167.9
412.53
1.515
272.28
1 123.4
Writing the force equation, (r is common),

380 cos 123.4 m 2 cos 2 590 cos 0 480 cos167.9 0
...(iii)
m 2 cos 2 88.5
and 380 sin 123.4 m 2 sin 2 590sin 0 480sin167.9 0

...(iv)
m 2 sin 2 417.9

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Squaring and adding (iii) and (iv), m 2 427.1 kg.
417.9
4.72 or 2 282
88.5
Figure (b) shows the relative crank positions. Had we chosen 4 192.1, a different set of
Dividing (iii) by (iv), tan 2
values of m 2 , 1 and 2 would have come.

To solve the problem graphically, draw the couple polygon (triangle) as shown in figure (c) from
the three known values. This provides the relative
rel
direction of the masses m1 , m 3 and m 4 . Now,
complete the force polygon [Figure (d)] and obtain the magnitude and direction of m2. The results
obtained are 4 168, 1 123, 2 282.
Also, m 2 r 427r or m 2 427 kg
Note that the couple triangle can be drawn in more than one way. However, only two sets of
answers are obtained. Also, m1r1 1 is negative and therefore, its direction is reversed in the
diagram.
3.11
Balancing of V-Engines
In V-engines,
engines, a common crank OA is operated by two connecting rods OB1 and OB2. Figure 3.14
shows a symmetrical two cylinder V-cylinder,
cylinder, the centre lines of which are inclined at an angle
to the x-axis.
Let be the angle moved by the crank from the x-axis.
x
y
B1
A
B2
Figure 3.14
Primary force
Primary force of 1 along line of stroke OB1 mr2 cos
Primary force of 1 along x-axis
axis = mr2 cos cos
Primary force of 2 along line of stroke OB2 mr2 cos
Primary force of 2 along x-axis
axis = mr2 cos cos
Total primary force along x--axis
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mr2 cos cos cos

mr2 cos cos cos sin sin cos cos sin sin
mr2 cos 2cos cos 2mr2 cos 2 cos
...(3.22)
Similarly, total primary force along the y-axis

y
mr2 cos sin cos sin
mr2 sin cos cos sin sin cos cos sin sin
mr2 sins 2sin sin 2mr2 sin 2 sin
...(3.23)
Resultant primary force
cos 2 cos 2mr2 sin 2 sin
2mr
2mr
cos
cos sin sin

2
...(3.24)
It will be at an angle with the x-axis,

x
given by
tan
sin 2 sin
cos 2 cos
...(3.25)
If 2 90,resultant force
2mr2
tan
cos
45 cos sin 2 45 sin mr2
sin 2 45 sin
tan
cos 2 45 cos
...(3.26)
...(3.27)
i.e., or it acts along the crank and, therefore, can be completely balance by a mass at a
suitable radius diametrically opposite to the crank such that m r rr mr
For a given value of , the resultant primary force is maximum when
2
or
or
cos cos sin sin is maximum

cos cos sin sin is maximum
d
cos cos sin sin 0
d
4
or
cos 4 .2cos sin sin 4 .2sin 2 cos 0
or
cos 4 .sin 2 sin 4 .sin 2 0
or
sin 2 sin 4 cos 4 0
...(3.28)
As is not zero, therefore,

herefore, for a given value of , the resultant primary force is maximum when
is zero degree.
Secondary force
Secondary force of 1 along OB1
mr2
cos 2
n

156
Secondary force of 1 along x-axis

x
=
Secondary force of 2 along OB2
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mr2
cos 2 cos
n
mr2
cos 2
n
Secondary force of 2 along x-axis

x
=
mr2
cos 2 cos
n
Total secondary force along x-axis

x
mr2
cos cos 2 cos 2
n
mr2
cos cos 2 cos 2 sin 2 sin 2 cos 2 cos 2 sin 2 sin 2

n
2mr2
cos cos 2 cos 2

n
Similarly, secondary force along the y-axis

y
2mr2
sin sin 2 sin 2
n
...(3.29)
...(3.30)
Resultant secondary force

2mr2
2
2
cos cos 2 cos 2 sin sin 2 sin 2
n
sin sin 2 sin 2
tan '
cos cos 2 cos 2
...(3.31)
...(3.32)
If 2 90, or 45,
Secondary force
2mr2 sin 2
n
2
mr2
sin 2
n
tan ' , ' 90
2
...(3.33)
...(3.34)
This means that the force acts along y-axis

y axis and is a harmonic force and special methods are
needed to balance it.
Example 3.9:
The cylinder axes of a V-engine
engine are at right angles to each other. The weight of each piston is 2
kg and of each connecting
necting rod is 2.8kg. The weight of the rotating parts like crank webs and the
crank pin is 1.8 kg. The connecting rod is 400mm long and its centre of mass is 100mm from the
crank-pin
pin centre. The stroke of the piston is 160mm. Show that the engine can be balanced for
the revolving and the primary force by a revolving countermass. Also, find the magnitude and the
position if its centre of mass from the crankshaft centre is 100mm.
What is the value of the resultant secondary force if the speed is 840 rpm?
rp

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Solution:
2N 2 840
88rad/s
60
60
400
n
5
80
Total mass of rotating parts at the crank pin = 1.8
2.8 400 100

400
2 6 kg
Unbalanced force due to revolving mass along the crank = 6r2

Total mass of reciprocating parts/cylinder = 2
2.8100
2.7 kg
400
As the angle between the cranks is 90, i.e., 2 90
The resultant primary force = mr2 2.7r2 (Equation 3.24)

It acts along the crank (Equation
Equation 3.25)
Total unbalanced force along the crank = 6 2.7 r2 8.7 r2
It can easily be balanced by a revolving mass in a direction opposite to that of crank.
Countermass m r at a radial distance
dist
of 100mm,
m r 100 2 8.7 160/2 2
m r 6.96 kg.
The rotating masses do not affect the secondary forces as they are only due to second harmonics
of the piston acceleration.
Secondary force =
mr2
sin 2
n
2.7 0.08 882

sin 2 473.1 sin 2
5
Maximum value at 45 473.1N
2
Example 3.10:
The cylinders of a twin V-engine
engine are set at 60
60 angle with both pistons connected to a single crank
through their respective connecting rods. Each connecting rod is 600mm long and the crank
radius is 120mm. The total rotating mass is equivalent to 2 kg at the crank radius and the
reciprocating mass is 1.2kg per piston. A balance mass is also fitted opposite to the crank
equivalent to 2.2kg at a radius of 150mm. Determine the maximum and minimum values of the
primary and secondary forces due to inertia of the reciprocating and the rotating masses if the
engine speed is 800 rpm.

158
Solution:
From Figure,
m = 1.2kg, M = 2kg, l = 600mm, r = 120mm
m' = 2.2kg, r'' = 150mm,
N=800rpm
2N 2 1050
110rad/s
60
60
400
n=
5
80
|ME| Study Material
m
M
120
30
30
150
m'
mm
Primary force,
Total primary force along x--axis = 2mr2 cos2 cos (Equation 3.20)
Centrifugal force due to rotating mass along x-axis
x
= Mr2 cos
Centrifugal force due to balancing mass along x-axis
x
= m'r2 cos
Total unbalanced force along x-axis
x
2mr2 cos 2 cos Mr2 cos m 'r ' 2 cos
2 cos 2mr cos 2 Mr m 'r '
1102 cos 2 1.2 0.12cos 2 30 2 0.12 2.2 0.15
1102 cos 0.216 .24 0.33 1524.6 cos N
Total primary force along y--axis = 2mr2 sin 2 sin

Centrifugal
ugal force due to rotating mass along y-axis
y
= Mr2 sin
Centrifugal force due to balancing mass along y-axis
y
= m'r2 sin
Total unbalanced force along x-axis
x
2mr2 sin 2 sin Mr2 sin m 'r ' 2 sin
2 sin 2mr sin 2 Mr m 'r '
1102 sin 2 1.2 0.12sin 2 30 2 0.12 2.2 0.15
1102 sins 0.072 0.24 0.33 217.8sin N
2
2
2
2
Resultant primary force 1524 cos 217.8 sin
2.322 576cos2 47.437sin 2
2.275 139cos 2 47.437

cos2 47.437 sin 2
2.275 139 cos 2 47.437

This is maximum when is 0 and minimum when 90
Maximum primary force =
2.275 139 47.437 1524 N
Minimum primary force =
47.437 217.8 N

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Secondary force,
The rotating masses do not affect the secondary forces as they are only due to secondary
harmonics of the piston acceleration.
Resultant secondary force
=
2mr2
2
2
cos cos 2 cos 2 sin sin 2 sin 2
n
2 1.2 0.12 1102
2
2
cos 30 cos 2 cos 60 sin 30 sin 2 sin 60

5
696.96
0.433 cos 2
0.433 sin 2
This is maximum when is 0 and minimum when 90

Maximum primary force 696.96 0.433 301.8 N
Minimum primary force 696.96 0.433 301.8 N
Thus, the secondary force has the same value for maximum and minimum.
3.12
Field Balancing
In heavy machinery like turbines and generators, it is not possible to balance the rotors by
mounting them in the balancing machines. In such cases, the balancing has to be done under
normal conditions on its own bearings. Assume the two balancing planes of a rotor to be A and B.
(Figure 3.15)
A
B
ma
b
mb
Figure: 3.15
1.
2.
First, the rotor is rotated at a speed which provides measurable amplitudes at planes A and B.
Let the vectors A and B represent the amplitudes due to the unbalance of the rotor in planes
A and B respectively.
Attach a trial mass ma in the plane A att a known radius and known angular position and run
the rotor at the same speed as in the first case. Measure the amplitudes in the two planes A
and B. Let A1 and B1 represent the amplitudes of the rotor in planes A and B respectively.
Thus
Effect at A of the unbalance + Effect at A of trial mass in plane A = A1

Effect at A of trial mass in plane A = A1A
Effect at B of the unbalance + Effect at B of trial mass in plane A = B1
Effect at B of trial mass in plane A = B1 B
160
3.
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Make a third run of the rotor by attaching a trial mass mb in plane B at a known radius and
known angular position and run the rotor at the same speed as in the first two cases. Measure
the amplitudes in the two planes A and B. Let A2 and B2 represent the amplitudes of the rotor
in planes A and B respectively. Thus
Effect at A of the unbalance + Effect at A of trial mass in plane B= A2

Effect a A of trial mass in plane B = A2 A
Effect at B of the unbalance + Effect at B of trial mass in plane B= B2
Effect a B of trial mass in plane B = B2 B
Let mca and mcb be the counter or balancing masses in planes A and B respectively placed at the
same radii as the trial masses.
Let m ca m a and m cb m b
Where a.eia , i.e., the countermass in the plane A is a times the trial mass located at an angle
a with its direction
and b.eib , i.e., the countermass in the plane B is b times the trial mass located at an angle b
with its direction.
For complete balancing of the rotor, the
the effect of the balancing masses must be nullify the
unbalance in the two planes, i.e., in the plane A it must be equal to A
A and in plane B equal to B.
Thus
A1 A A 2 A A
and B1 B B2 B B
...(3.35a)
...( 3.35b)
These equations can be solved for & . Multiplying (3.35a) with B2 B and (3.35b) with
A2 A ,
A1 A B2 B A1 A B2 B A B2 B
A 2 A B1 B A 2 A B2 B B A 2 A
...( 3.35c)
...( 3.35d)
Subtracting (3.35d) from (3.35c),

A1 A B2 B A 2 A B1 B B A 2 A A B2 B
or
B A 2 A A B2 B
A1 A B2 B A 2 A B1 B
...(3.35e)
Multiplying (3.35a) with B1 B and (3.35b) with A1 A ,

A1 A B1 B A 2 A B1 B A B1 B
...(3.36a)
A1 A B1 B A1 A B2 B B A1 A
...(3.36b)
Subtracting (3.36a) from (3.36b),

A1 A B2 B A 2 A B1 B B A1 A A B1 B
or
A B1 B B A1 A
A1 A B2 B A 2 A B1 B
...(3.36c)

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Example 3.11:
While balancing a turbine rotor by the field balancing technique, the results are obtained as shown
in Table. Find the correct balance masses to be placed in planes A and B at the same radii as for
the trial masses. Also, find the angular positions of the balance masses with respect to trial masses
to have the complete dynamic balance of the rotor.
Solution:
For the sake of simplicity, the multiplier 10-3 in the vectors A, A1, A2, and B, B1, B2, have been
omitted which does not
ot affect the end result.
As ei cos j sin
A 2.5 20 2.5 cos 20 j sin 20 2.349 0.855j
A1 4.2 cos100 j sin100 0.729 4.136 j
A 2 3.6 cos55 j sin 55 2.065 2.949 j
B 4.5 60 4.5 cos 60 j sin 60 2.25 3.897 j

B1 3.4 cos125 j sin125 1.95 2.785j
B2 2.6 cos 210 j sin 210 2.25 1.3j
A1 A 0.729 4.136 j 2.349 0.855j
3.078 3.281j 4.5e133.2
Similarly, A 2 A 0.284 2.094 j 2.113e197.7
B1 B 4.2 1.112j 4.345e
194.8
B2 B 4.5 i5.197 6.875e
229.1
or writing the vectors in the polar mode and using the complex mode of the calculator,
A 2.5 20; A1 4.2100; A 2 3.6 55
B 4.5 60; B1 3.4125; B2 2.6 210
A1 A 4.5 133.2; A 2 A 2.11397.7;
B1 B 4.345194.8; B2 B 6.875229.1
These values of vector differences can also be obtained graphically as shown in Figure (a) and (b).
Table (i)
Plane A
No. Trial mass
Amplitude (mm) Phase angle
(kg)
(degree)
-3
1.
0
2.5 x 10
20
2.
3(in plane A) 4.2 x 10-3
100
-3
3.
3(in plane B) 3.6 x 10
55
Plane B
Amplitude Phase angle
(mm)
(degrees)
-3
4.5 x 10
60
3.4 x 10-3 125
2.6 x 10-3 210

162

194.8
4.5
9.51
4.34
2.11
133.2
4.2
100
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20.25
6.87
97.7
4.5
3.4
125
55
2.5
30.94
229.1
60
351.7 10.89
28.98
9.18
10.86
17.19
19.6
19.84
97.7
97.7
210
20
2.6
(a)
Now,
(b)
(c)
B A2 A A B2 B
(Equation 3.33)
A1 A B2 B A2 A B1 B
4.5ei 60 2.113ei 97.7 2.5ei 20 6.875ei 229.1

9.51ei 157.7 17.188ei 249.1
or
4.5ei133.2 6.875ei 229.1 2.113e i 97.7 4.345ei194.8

30.94ei 2.3 9.18e i 292.5
The numerator and the denominator can be solved analytically or graphically i.e.,
19.84ei97.7
28.98e
Similarly,
or
i 19.6
0.685ei 78.1
A B1 B B A1 A
A1 A B2 B A2 A B1 B
(Equation 3.34)
2.5ei 20 4.345ei194.8 4.5ei 60 4.5ei133.2

10.86ei 214.8 20.25ei193.2
4.5ei 133.2 6.875ei 229.1 2.113ei 97.7 4.345ei194.8

30.94ei 2.3 9.18ei 292.5
10.895ei351.7
i 19.6
28.98e
0.376i 332.1
Thus, the balance mass in the plane A = 0.685 3 2.055 kg

Angular position = 78.1 counter-clockwise
counter clockwise with the direction of trial mass in the plane A.
Similarly, the balance mass in plane B = 0.376 3 1.128kg
Angular position = 332.1 counter-clockwise with the direction of trial mass
ss in the plane B.

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PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1.
2.
I. The
unbalanced
force
due
to
reciprocating masses varies in direction but
constant in magnitude.
II. The unbalanced force due to resolving
masses variess in magnitude but constant in
direction.
Which of the above states are correct?
(A) I
(B) II
(C) I & II
A single cylinder engine with mass of
reciprocating parts 50kg & mass of
resolving parts 40kg at 175mm radius
rotates at speed of 300 rpm if the 2/3rd of
reciprocating mass is balanced & resolving
mass is fully balanced. What is the residual
force when crank has rotated 900 from top
dead centre?
(A) 3946 N
(B) 4933 N
(C) 8879 N
(D) 5123 N
3.
A V twin cylinder engine has cylinder axes

at right angles and has a common crank.
Then primary forces are.
(A) Primary forces are balanced by means of
a residuing balance mass
(B) Primary forces are zero
(C) Primary forces are unbalanced &
requires
es masses at radius of 0.5 mm.
4.
A single cylinder 1C engine rotates at 600

rpm and has a crank length of 60 mm &
length of connecting rod is 240 mm.
Effective reciprocating mass of engine is 1.2
kg what is the maximum secondary force.
f
(A) 71.06 N
(B) 79 N
(C) 76.72 N
(D) 70.23 N
5.
The unbalanced primary force along the line

of stroke causes.
(I) Variation in effective force

(II) Swapping couple
(III)Hammer row.
(A) (I) , (III)
(B) (I) , (II)
(C) (II) , (III)
(D) (I) , (II) (III)
6.
A two v-twin
twin engines having axes at (I) 600
0
& 120 , and operates on a common crank.
The reciprocating mass per cylinder is
11.5kg and rank radius is 75mm. length of
the connecting rod is 0.3m calculate primary
& secondary unbalanced for
forces for 6200
cylinder when engine speed is 600 rpm for
crank angle 00.
(A) 1721.7 N, 472.7N
(B) 1701.9 N, 425.47 N
(C) 1721.2 N, 472N
7.
The primary force in a reciprocating engine

can be balanced by
(A) A mass m/2, placed at crank pin and
rotating at regular velocity & A mass
m/2, at a crank
pin on imaginary
crank at some angular position and
rotating at angular velocity.
(B) A mass m, placed at crank pin rotating at
/2 & m placed axis binary crank at
same angular position & angular
velocity /2.
(C) A mass of 2m, placed at crank pin
rotating at /2 & 2m pl
plain on imaginary
clank at same angular position & angular
velocity /2.
8.
What is the speed at which will off from

rails.. When the load on each driving wheel
is 40KN and 2/3 of the reciprocating masses
are balanced with balancing mass 249kg &

164
radius of balance=0.8m.
=0.8m. Diameter of driving
wheels=1.2m.
(A) 10.49m/s
(B) 10.8m/s
(C) 9.41m/s
(D) 10.41m/s
9.
Hammer blow in a engine occurs at crank

angles.
(I) 0
(II) 90
(III) 180
180 (IV) 270
(A) (I) , (III)
(B) (II) , (IV)
(C) (II) , (III) , (IV)
(D) (I) , (II) , (III) , (IV)
10. What is the maximum swaying couple from

two cylinder engine whose reciprocating
mass = 300kg, distance between center
lines=0.65m & rotates at 500 rpm & crank
radius is 0.3 m & 2/3 if the reciprocating
masses are balanced.
(A) 39.76kN-m
(B) 377.6kN-m
377.6kN
(C) 37.76kN-m
(D) 30.76kN-m
30.76kN
11. Maximum vertical unbalanced force caused
by balancing mass is.
(A) Trective force
(B) Hammer blow
(C) Swaying couple
12. Assertion:- Hammer blow is lifting low
motive engines off the rail is caused by
balanced mass.
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Reason:- locomotive engines are partially

balanced.
(A) A & R are true & R is the correct
explanation of A.
(B) A & R are true but R is not correct
explanation of A.
(C) A is true. R is false
(D) A is false. R is true.
13. (I) In a four stroke engine, frequency of
secondary imbalance will be two times
the engine speed.
(II) The unbalanced force in a single
singlecylinder reciprocating engine is equal to
inertia force of
reciprocating masses.
(III)Variation in tractive effect is causes by
unbalanced position of primary force,
perpendicular to the line of stroke.
Which
ch of the above statements are correct?
(A) (I) , (II)
(B) (II) , (III)
(C) (I) , (II) , (III)
(D) (I) , (III)
14. The secondary force in an multi cylinder
engine is equivalent to centrifugal force
produced by an equal mass placed at
imaginary crank of length.
(A) l/2n
(B) l/4n
(C) l/6n
(D) l/8n
15. Swaying couple is maximum when angle of
inclination of clank to line of stroke is
(A) 45
(B) 90
(C) 135 (D) 225

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ANSWER KEYS
1
10
11
12
13
14
15
EXPLANATIONS
2.
Given m=50kg,
2 N 2 300
=
31.41rad/s
60
60
r=0.15m; C = 2/3
6.
n 4, 0 , 120
2
m2
at120
2
11.5 62.822 0.075
1701.9N
2
m2
Fs
at120 425.47N
2n
Residual unbalanced force at 90 = m .rC

2
50 32.41 0.15
Fp
2
3
4932.9N 4933N
3.
Resultant primary force

=2mr 2
cos cos + sin sin

2
45
8.
2
2mr
cos sin
2
+
=mr
2
2
m 2r is the centrifugal force of mass m

rotating at rad/s & clank radius r. so,
system is balanced its means resolving
balance mass.
4.
Given that m=1.2 kg; r= 60 mm;

l = 240 mm and N=600 rpm
m2 r
m
Maximum secondary force =
n
2N 2600
=
=
=62.82rad/s
60
60
l 240
n=
4
r 60
max secondary force
2
1.2 62.82 0.06

=
71.06N
4
m=11.5kg r=0.075m; l =0.3m;

2 N
N=600rpm
62.82
60
2
B= 249=166kg,b=0.8
3
P
40103
=
=
=17.35rad/s
B.b 1660.8
.D 17.351.2
1.2
V=
=
=10.41m/s
2
2
2
3
10. m=300kg ,a=0.65,c= , N 500rpm,
2 500
52.35 rad / sec; r = 0.3m
60
a 1-c
max swaying couple=
m
m2 r
2
2
0.65 1
3 300 52.35 2 0.3
2
37.76KN m

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4. GYROSCOPE
4.1
Introduction
The earliest observations and studies on gyroscopic phenomena were carried out during Newtons
time (1642-1727).
1727). These were made in the context of the motion of our planet which, in effect, is
a massive gyroscope. The credit for the mathematical foundation of the principle of gyroscopic
motion goes to Euler (1707-1783).
(1707 1783). He derived a set of dynamical equations relating applied
moment, inertia, angular acceleration, and angular velocity.
velocity. In many machines, the rotating
components are forced to turn about axes other than their own axes of rotation, and gyroscopic
effects are thus set up. This chapter deals with the dynamics of gyroscopic action and some
practical cases where gyroscopic effects
eff
play a dominant role.
4.2
Motion of a rigid body in three dimensions

Consider a rigid body which is free to move, as shown in figure 4.1. P represents a particle of the
rigid body, with a mass m. The total mass of the body is m. The coordinate axes aare fixed in
space, and the coordinate of the particle P at any instant of time are x, y and z. The components of
y,z
and
the velocity and acceleration of P x,
x,
y, z respectively. If G (xG, yG, zG) is coordinate the
CG of the body, then, by definition, we get
xm mx G ,
...(4.1)
ym my G ,
zm mz G ,
the summation being taken over all the particles constituting the body. The component of force
acting on the particle P in the x-direction
x
at any instant is given by
Fx
xm
y
y
y

z
z
x
x
z
z
Figure: 4.1

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Similarly,
Fy
ym,
Fx zm.
Therefore, the components of the resultant force acting on the whole body, obtained by summing
Fx , Fy and Fz for all particles, are given by

d2
d2
x
xGm,
dt 2
dt 2
G , Fy my
G , Fx mz
G
Fx mx
Fx Fx
x m
The resultant force acting on the body will be F
...(4.2)
2
x
Fy2 Fz2 . The angular momentum of the
particle P about the x-axis

axis is given by the relation H x my z mz y (considering the
right-hand-screw
screw rule for the sign convention). We can now obtain the total angula
angular momentum of
the body about the x-axis,
axis, and similarly, get the total angular momentum about the other two axes.
Thus,
H x H x m yz zy ,
H y H y m zx xz ,
...(4.3)
H z H z m xy yx .
The moment of the externally applied force about the x-axis is

d
mzy
m yz zy
M x myz
dt
The moment about the x, y and z-axis
z
can thus be expressed as
dH y
dH x
dH z
Mx
, My
, Mz
dt
dt
dt
4.3
...(4.4)
Rigid bodies in Spheric motion

If one point in a moving rigid body remains fixed in space, then all other particles of the body are
constrained to move on spherical surfaces. This is because the distance of any particle from the
fixed point remains unchanged. Hence, this type of motion is called spheric motion.
Let the fixed point of the body correspond to the origin O (figure 4.1). Then, if the angular
velocity of the body at any instant is (which is represented by a vector passing through the
point O) and the inclination of the angular velocity vector to the x-, y-,, and zz-axis is , and ,
respectively, the components of the angular velocity are given by
z cos , y cos , z cos ,
...(4.5)
the positive direction being clockwise when looking outwards from O. The velocity components
of the particle P, expressed in terms of the angular velocity
velocity components, will be
...(4.6)
x yz zy , y zx xz , z x y yx ]
Using (4.3) and (4.6), the angular momentum, Hx takes the form
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H x m yz zy m z 2 x xzz xyy y 2 x
As m 0, we get
H x z 2 y 2 x xzz xyy dm
x z 2 y 2 dm y xy dm z xz dm
By definition, the moments and the products of inertia are

J xx y 2 z 2 dm, J xy xy dm, J xz xz dm
We can now obtain the angular momentum about the x-axis,

x axis, and similarly, get the angular
momentum about the other two axes. Thus,
H x J xx x J xy y J xz z ,
H y J yy y J yz z J yx x ,
...(4.7)
Hz Jzz z J zx x J zy y .
Principal Axes
If the xy-plane
plane be a plane of symmetry (i.e., for every particle P, there exists an image particle P ',
as shown in figure 4.2), then there will be two axes u and v in the xy-plane
xy plane such that Juv = 0.
y
y
P' x, y, z
x
u
P(x, y, z)
u
u
x
w
z, w
Figure: 4.2
Moreover, as the xy-plane

plane is a plane of symmetry, Juw = Jvw = 0. For this condition, the zz-axis (or
w-axis)
axis) is a principal axis, and the other principal axes u and v can be determined. If N is the
projection of the point P or P ' on the xy-plane, then
u x cos ysin , v y cos x sin
Now,
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J uv uv dm x cos y sin y cos x sin dm

sin cos y 2 x 2 dm cos 2 sin 2 xy dm
1
sin 2 y 2 w 2 x 2 w 2 dm cos 2 J xy
2
1
sin J xx J yy cos 2J xy .
2
If u and v are the principal axes, then Juv should vanish and we will get the equation for . Thus,
2J xy
tan 2
J yy J xx
Juu can now be calculated and Jvv obtained similarly. Thus,
...(4.8)
J uu v 2 w 2 dm y cos x sin w 2 dm
cos 2 y 2 w 2 dm sin 2 x 2 w 2 dm 2sin cos xy dm

J xx cos 2 J yy sin 2 J xy sin 2,
J uv J xx sin 2 J yy cos 2 J xy sin 2
...(4.9)
Angular Velocity and Momentum about the Principal Axes

When the principal axes have been determined and the components of angular velocity
x , y and z are known u , v and w can be readily evaluated. Thus,

u x cos y sin ,
v y cos x sin , w z
...(4.10)
From (4.7), the components of angular momentum are

H u J uu u ,
H v J vv v ,
H w J ww w
...(4.11)
Since J uv J vw J wu 0. The resultant angular momentum will be
2
u
H 2v H 2w
2
uu
2u J 2vv 2v J 2ww 2w
...(4.12)
Moreover,
2
u
2v 2w
...(4.13)
Comparing (4.12) and (4.13), it is seen that the resultant angular velocity and angular momentum
vectors are not in the same direction since
u : v : w H u : H v : H w
Only when J uu J vv J ww , will and H (the angular velocity vector and the angular
momentum vector) act in the same direction.
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4.4
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Eulers equation of motion

Figure 4.3 shows the resultant angular momentum H of a rigid body in motion with the point O
fixed in space. The coordinate system xyz is also fixed, and the components of angular
momentum are Hx, Hy and Hz. At the instant shown, the coordinate system , which is rigidly
connected with the moving body, is coincident with xyz as indicated in figure 4.3. This coordinate
system rotates with the body, the components of angular velocity being , and . Now, a
change in the components of the angular momentum will be due to (i) an absolute change in
magnitude of H or (ii) a rotation of the H-vector.
H vector. The changes in these components in time t are
shown in figure 4.3. The total change in the x-,
x y-, and z-direction or , ,and direction ,
from figure 4.3, is
H H t H t
in the direction ,
H H t H t
in the direction ,
H H t H t
in the direction ,
y,
H
H t
H t
H
H t
H t
O
x,
H t
H t
z,
Figure: 4.3
So, the rate of change of angular momentum in the x-,

x y-, and z-direction
direction [which is equal to the
corresponding component of the externally applied torque, according to equation (4.14)] is given by
dH
dt
H H M ,

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dH
dt
dH
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...(4.14)
H H M ,
H H M .
dt
These equations are known as Eulers equations of motion.
Eulers Modified Equation

In the derivation of (4.14), we assumed that the set of body axes , and are rigidly connected
to the body in motion. It should be noted at this stage that this assumption is made in order to
make the moments and products of inertia integrals invariant with time. If we choose a set of axes
other than the body-fixed
fixed coordinate system, these integrals will then become functions of time
and introduce an undesirable complexity in the angular momentum relationships. However, a
notable exception occurs when a symmetric body spins about its axis of symmetry. Here, the
moments of inertia
ia integrals are not affected by the angular position of the body about its spin
axis. In such a situation, it is advantageous to select another coordinate system ' ' ' such that
the axes rotate about the fixed point O with an angular velocity which is differe
different from that of the
rigid body. The axes ' 'and ' are made to rotate with the frame supporting the body, and the
resultant angular momentum vector H is locked with the system ' ' ' and rotates along with it.
If the components off angular momentum are H ' , H ' , H ' ' , ' , ' being the corresponding
components of angular velocity), then we get
dH '
H ' ' H ' ' M ' ,
dt
dH '
H ' ' H ' ' M ' ,
...(4.15)
dt
dH '
H ' ' H ' ' M ' .
dt
These equations are known as Eulers modified equations.
If ' is the axis of spin, then it can be shown that the
angular momentum component
mponent H ' can be written as
z
p
p
H ' J ' ' ' s ,

x
Where s is the spin velocity.
The other two angular momentum components can be expressed as
H ' J ' '' ,
Figure: 4.4
H ' J ' ' ' .

4.5
Simple precession of a symmetrical rotor

Let us consider the rigid wheel shown in figure 4.4, which rotates at a constant angular velocity
axis. The y-axis
y
is termed the axis of spin and s is known as the spin velocity.
s about the y-axis.
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Now, if the axis of spin is rotated in the xy-plane

xy
with a uniform velocity p about the z-axis,
this is called simple precessional motion. The z-axis
z axis is termed the axis of precession and p is
known as the precessional velocity. Our objective is to determine the required external torque to
produce motion of this type.
Let us consider a coordinate system ' ' ', which rotates about the z-axis
axis with a velocity p ,
and is coincident with the system xyz at any instant. Then,
' ' 0,
F
' p
Precession
F
s
Torque
p M
90
Spin
l
a
b
Figure: 4.5
The axes x, y and z are the principal axes (as each of these is placed symmetrically with respect to
the body at the instant being considered). Therefore, the corresponding components
components of angular
momentum of the rotor are
H x H ' 0, H y H' J yy s , Hz H ' J zz p

Substituting these values in (4.15), we get
M ' J yy s p , M' 0, M ' 0.

So, a torque of magnitude J yy s p has to be applied on the rotor about the xx-axis in a counterclockwise direction when viewed outwards from O. An actual system describing such a motion is
shown in figure 4.5a. In this case, a force F will be automatically developed on the bearings of the
rotor shaft in the directions indicated, if the assembly is given a rotation p about the vertical
axis. If the moment of inertia of the rotor about the shaft axis is J, and if the spin velocity is s ,
then
F J s p l
In other words, the reaction at the bearings will be (-F)

F) if such a spinning rotor is given a
precessional motion. This force is commonly termed the gyroscopic reaction.

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In all such cases of simple precession, the relative orientation of the spin vector, the precession
vector, and the torque vector can be easily determined in figure 4.5b. It is shown therein that if the
spin vector is rotated about the precession vector in the direction of precession through 90, the
new position of the spin vector will indicate the direction of the torque vector.
Example 4.1:
The rotor of a turbojet engine has a mass 200 kg and a radius of gyration 25 cm. The engine
rotates at a speed of 10,000 rpm in the clockwise direction if viewed from the front of the
aeroplane. The plane while flying at 1000 km/hr turns with a radius
radius of 2 km to the right. Compute
the gyroscopic moment the rotor exerts on the plane structure. Also, determine whether the nose
of the plane tends to rise or fall when the plane turns.
M on the plane
2km
90
Velocityof
theplane
Solution:
The moment of inertia of the rotor is
M on the rotor
J 200 0.25 12.5 kg m 2
The spin velocity is
s 10,000 2 60 1047.2rad s
The precessional velocity is
p 1000 2 60 60 0.139 rad s
As p and s areat 90 (see figure above), the magnitude of the gyroscopic moment is
M Js p 12.5 1047.2 0.139 1819.5N m.

Referring again to figure above, we find that the action of the moment M on the plane is such that
it tends to raise the nose upwards.
Example 4.2:
The total mass of a motorcycle with its rider is 200 kg and the resultant centre of mass is 0.6 m
above the road level (when the machine is upright). The moment of inertia of each wheel of the
motorcycle is 1 kg-m2. The engine rotates at a speed six times that of and in the same sense as the
wheels. The moment of inertia of the rotating parts of the engine is 0.15 kg-m
kg m2. The diameter of
the wheels is 0.6 m. Determine the angle
angle of wheel if the unit is travelling at a speed of 60 km/hr
along a curved road with a radius of 30 m.

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V
R
'
mV 2
R
0.6m
mg
'
a
b
Solution:
Let us choose a coordinate system uvw along the principal directions of both the wheels and the
engine rotor (figure (a)). Then, the components of the angular velocity of the wheels, the rotor,
and the frame can be written (with subscripts 1, 2 and 3 referring to the wheels, the rotor, and the
frame, respectively) as
V V
6V V
V
1u sin , 2u
sin , 3u sin ,
r R
r
R
R
1v 0, 2v 0, 3v 0, 1w 2w 3w V R cos ,
Where V is the speed of the vehicle, R is the radius of the curved path, r is the radius of each
wheel, and is the angle of heel. The components of the angular momentum of the unit as a
whole are
H u J1u 1u J 2u 2u J 3u 3u ,
H v 0,
H w J1w 1w J 2w 2w J 3w 3w ,
Where the Js refer to the moments of inertia. As R = 100 r and J1, J2, and J3 are of the same order
of magnitude, the components of H can be approximated, neglecting
neglecting the term V/R, as
H u J1u 1u J 2u 2u
60 1000
6 60 1000
2
1
0.15
105.56kg m s,
0.3
60
60
0.3
60
60
H v 0,
H w 0.
Now, fixing the coordinate system ' ' ' to the motorcycle frame (as done in figure (a)), we can
express the angular momentum and angular velocity components as
H ' H u cos 105.56cos , H ' 0, H ' H u sin 105.56cos ,
' 0, ' 0, '
V
60 1000
0.56rad s.
R
30 60 60

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Using (4.15) and noting that all angular velocities are constant, we
w obtain
M ' H ' ' H ' ' 0
M ' H ' ' H ' ' 59.11cos N m,
M ' H ' ' H ' ' 0.
Considering that the ground force at the tyre-road

tyre road junction balances the weight and the centrifugal
force (see figure (b)), we have
M ' m 2 R 0.6 cos mg 0.6sin 59.11cos
or
tan
0.6m 2 R 59.11 1170.2
0.99
0.6mg
1177.2
or 45.
Example 4.3:
For the turbine rotor of a ship, mass = 20,000 kg, radius of gyration = 0.75 m, and speed = 2000
rpm (clockwise when viewed from the front of the ship). The ship pitches harmonically with an
amplitude of 10 and a time period of 20 s. The turbine is supported
supported on bearings 5m apart.
Determine the maximum reaction at the front bearing and the direction of this reaction force when
the front of the ship is rising. The CG of the rotor may be assumed to be at the mid span between
the bearings.
Solution:
The gyroscopic
opic moment at the rotor will be maximum when the angular velocity of pitching p
is maximum. With a harmonic motion, the instantaneous pitch angle is
p 0 sin 2t T ,
Where 0 is the amplitude and T is the time period. So,
2
2t
0 cos
T
T
The maximum value of p will be
p p
pmax 20 T
When the front of the ship is rising, the direction of s , p , and M will be as shown in figure
below. The magnitude of Mmax is found out to be
Mmax 20000 0.752 2000 2 60 0.054 127235N m

The front bearing reaction (horizontal) on the rotor shaft is
R M max 5 25446 N
The vertical bearing reaction is
1
1
mg 20000 9.8 98000N
2
2
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So, the maximum resultant front bearing reaction on the rotor shaft is given by
25446
12
980002
101250 N
The direction of the reaction force is also shown in figure below.

R
mg
2
mg
2
p
5m
s
s
y, '
R
x, '
', z, w
R on theshaft
B
Example 4.4:
A rotor spinning with a constant angular velocity about its axis is mounted on an inclined
frame as shown in above figure. The frame itself is capable of rotation about the vertical yy-axis.
The distance between the bearings A and B is l.. The axes u, v, and w are the principal axes for the
rotor and frame,, the corresponding components of moments of inertia of the rotor and frame being
J ru ,J rv ,J rw ,Jfu ,Jfv ,and Jfw , respectively. If the axis of spin is inclined to the horizontal plane at an
angle , and if the frame rotates with a constant angular velocity about the vertical axis,
determine the magnitude and direction of the bearing reactions at A and B.
Solution:
The components of the angular velocities of the rotor and frame about the principal axes are
ru sin ,
rv cos , rw 0,
f u sin , fv cos ,
f w 0
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So, the corresponding components of the total angular momentum of the whole system are
H u J ru ru J f u fu J ru J ru J f u sin ,
H J r r J f f J r J f cos ,
H w J rw rw J f w f w 0
Now, the components of the total angular momentum in the system ' ' ' can be calculated.
This system ' ' ' is fixed with the frame and rotates with it. At the instant under consideration,
the system ' ' ' is coincident with
with the system xyz which is fixed in space. Thus,
1
H ' H u cos H v sin J ru cos sin 2 J ru J fu J rv J f v ,
H ' H u sin H v cos J ru J fu sin 2 J ru sin J rv J f v cos2 ,

H ' H 0
Furthermore,
' 0, ' , ' 0.

The torque to be applied for producing the prescribed motion can be determined directly from
Eulers modified equation (4.15). Substituting therein values of the various quantities, w
we get
M ' M x 0,
M ' M y 0,
1
M ' M z H ' ' J ru cos 2 sin 2 J ru J f u J rv J f v
2
Hence, the reactions on the bearings A and B will be horizontal and parallel to the ' axis. At A,
the bearing reaction acts from left to right, and at B, the reaction is in the opposite direction. The
magnitude R of the reaction is obtained from
1
Rl M z J ru cos 2 sin 2 J ru J f u J rv J f v
4.6
Gyrodynamics
This section covers the analysis of different types of gyroscopic motion. We will consider uniform
and nonuniform motion for both symmetrical and unsymmetrical rotors.
Free Motion of a Symmetrical Gyroscope
Let us consider the symmetrical gyroscope shown in figure 4.6 a, which rotates freely with an
angular velocity about the point coincident with the mass centre of the gyroscope (to avoid
any moment exerted by the gravitational force). The moment of inertia
inertia of the gyroscope about the
axis of spin (or about the axis of the gyroscope in the present case) is J and is called the axial
moment of inertia. The moment of inertia of the gyroscope about any axis perpendicular to the
spin axis and passing through the mass centre is termed the equatorial moment of inertia and is
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denoted by J1. If we fix a coordinate system to the gyroscope with the origin O at the CG,
and if the axis is the axis of spin, then, by definition, we have
J J j1 , j J.
Let us assume that the gyroscope rotates with constant angular velocity about the axis
(see figure 4.6 b), which is inclined to the fixed vertical z-axis
z
at an angle . At the same time,
z
P
y
Figure: 4.6
the z plane rotates with a constant angular velocity 1 about the z-axis.
axis. (In figure 4.6 b, the
transformation from the system xyz to the system is effected in several stages. First, the xxaxis and y-axis
axis are rotated about the z-axis
z
through an angle to the new positions OM and OP,
respectively. Then, OM and the z-axis
z axis are rotated about OP through an angle and we get ON
and the axis. Finally, OP and
a ON are rotated about the axis through an angle and the
system is obtained.) So, at any instant of time t, we have
...(4.16)
1 t, t
If it is assumed that, at t = 0, the planes xz and are coincident. The components of the angular
velocity of the gyroscope about the axes , ,and can be expressed in terms of , 1 , ,and .
Thus, we get
1 sin cos 1 sin cos t,

1 sin sin 1 sin cos t,
...(4.17)
1 cos.
Figure 4.7 shows how to arrive at the components of 1 in the and direction. To obtain
Eulers equations
ns of motion (4.14) for this case, we substitute therein values of H ,H ,and H ,
namely
H J J1 ,
H J J1 ,
H J J .

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Thus, we get
d
d
d
(4.18)
J1
J1 J 0, J1
J J1 0, J
0
dt
dt
dt
We find that the third equation is satisfied is constant. To satisfy the two other equations, We
have to satisfy the relationships for , , 1 , J, and J1 , namely,
d
1 sin cos t J1 J 1 cos 1 sin sin t 0,
dt
d
J1 1 sin sin t J J1 1 cos 1 sin cos t 0
dt
Both these conditions reduce to a single condition, that is,
J1
J J J1 1 cos 0,
1
J
J1 J cos
...(4.19)
Therefore, we can conclude that if (4.19) is satisfied, Eulers equations of motion are also
satisfied. In other words, the gyroscope will execute the motion described previously, for the
particular value of 1 given by (4.19). This velocity 1 is called the velocity of precession, and
the motion which a free symmetrical gyroscope executes is known as regular precession.
Now, the resultant angular velocity of the
the gyroscope (see figure 4.6 b) can be resolved into two
components, along O and ON. These are 1 cos and 1 sin , respectively. Since both
O and ON are principal axes for a symmetrical gyroscope, using (4.19), we can express the
corresponding components of angular momentum as

H J 1 cos J11 cos ,
...(4.20)
H N J11 sin
1 sin
90
O
90
x
M
x
Figure: 4.7
Figure: 4.8

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Again, it is obvious that the vector H must lie in the plane containing H and HN. So, from
(4.20), it is seen that the magnitude of H will be J11 and H will act along the zz-axis [i.e., it is
fixed with respect to the system xyz (figure 4.6 b)]. Since no external torque is applied, it is
expected that H will remain fixed in space. So, during
during regular precession of a symmetrical
gyroscope, the resultant angular momentum H remains constant both in magnitude and direction
and can be expressed as
...(4.21)
H J11
4.7
Gyroscopic effects in machines

achines
Gyroscopic effects are present in all systems that involve forced precessional motion of spinning
rotors. In some systems, this motion is readily detectable, whereas in others it is not so apparent.
Precessional motion is set up because of the kinematic requirements of a system. Although
gyroscopic
copic effects are generally not desirable, sometimes their presence is utilized with advantage
in fulfilling the objective of the system. In this section, we will consider a few situations in which
gyroscopic effects may play a dominant role in the operation
operati of the system.
Rotating Shaft with Inclined Disc
Sometimes, a system may have a disc mounted on a rotating shaft, in a manner such that the axis
of the shaft is not perpendicular to the plane of the disc. This may be due to an error in mounting
the disc on the shaft, or it may be deliberately provided as in the case of Swash
Swash-plate pumps.
Anyhow, our problem is to analyze the gyroscopic effect in such a system. Consider the circular
disc and rotating shaft shown in figure 4.9. The disc is inclined at an angle to the true position,
and the angular velocity
y of the shaft is 1. Let J and J1, respectively, be the axial and equatorial
moments of inertia of the disc. The CG of the disc coincides with the point O. Then, adopting the
notations used heretofore, we get
'N 1 sin , 'P 0, ' 1 cos ,
...(4.22)
N 1 sin , P 0, 1 cos .
Thus, the components of angular momentum are
H N J1N J11 sin ,
HP J1P 0,
H J J1 cos
(4.23)
From (4.15), (4.22), and (4.23), the components of gyroscopic moment will be
dH
MGN N H 'p HP ' 0,

dt
dH
MGP P H N ' H 'N J112 sin cos J12 sin cos

dt
...(4.24)
J1 J 12 sin cos ,
dH
MG HP 'N H N 'P 0.
dt

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From (4.24), it is seen that only one component of the gyroscopic moment remains, and its
magnitude does not change with time. However, as the N-axis
N axis rotates with an angular velocity
velocity. T
The effect of the
1 , the gyroscopic moment vector will also rotate with the same velocity.
gyroscopic moment is manifest in the equal and opposite reactions at the bearings A and B (see
figure 4.9), the magnitude R being
1
R J1 J 12 sin cos .
l
These reactions in a direction perpendicular to the axis of the rotating shaft will be contained in
thee plane passing through the axis of the rotating shaft and perpendicular to ON.
x
M
N
R
O
A
z
B
P
2
R
2
Figure: 4.9
Rotors in Vehicles
As already seen, gyroscopic effects may be considerable when a vehicle, carrying rotating bodies
with large angular momentum, changes its course. Turbine rotors in ships, wheels and flywheels
C
1
G
r0
Figure: 4.10

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in automobiles, rotors in helicopters, propellers and gas turbine rotors in aircrafts are examples of
rotating bodies. In ships, the pitching motion will introduce additional alternating variation in the
bearing reactions because of the periodic gyroscopic moment.
Example 4.5:
Figure shows a crusher in which each roller is of mass 100 kg and the driving shaft rotates at 60
rpm. The rollers are cylindrical, and the radius of each roller is 45 cm. The axial moment of inertia
of each roller is 15 kg-m2. Determine
Dete
the total crushing force.
60rpm
60cm
Solution:
The crusher under consideration is a special case of Figure 4.10a, with 90o , r = 45 cm, and
r0 60 cm. It is given that 1 is 2 rad s. Substituting these values in below equation, we get
2 sin
r Fcot
R
r
r
1 cos 1
(J J1 ) cos J 0
1 cos
mg r0
r
mg r0
mgr0
R 980 1 4 980 1500 45 2.34, R 2293 N.

So, it is seen that the crushing force is 134% greater than the weight of the roller. This increase is
purely due to gyroscopic action in the system.
Gyroscopic Stabilization
A spinning body tends to maintain the orientation of its spin axis in space. This is true also of a
bullet fired from a riffle. Therefore, for a given exit velocity, the range of a rifle is more than that
of a shotgun. The reason this is so is that an external torque in a suitable direction is required to
change the orientation of the spin axis. This principle has extensively been applied in guidance of
missiles of rockets, navigation and direction finding, and stabilization of a rocking body. Here, we
shall present one
ne such application, namely, reduction of the rolling of ships and yachts.
Figure 4.11 shows the cross-section
cross section of a ship with a massive gyrorotor spinning with an angular
velocity about the vertical axis. The CG of the rotor is at a distance h below the axis of the
outer gimbal, as shown. The placement of the CG of the rotor below the gimbal axis necessary so
that, under normal working conditions (without rolling), the moment due to the rotor weight
exerts a restoring couple so far as the motion is concerned.
cerned. The gyroscopic moments on the
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ship and the gyrorotor are shown in figure 4.12. In this figure, we have shown only those
moments that we shall need to derive the equations of motion.
Gyroscopic
moment on
the ship
J
h
CG
Gyroscopic moment on
the gyrorotor
Figure: 4.11
Figure: 4.12
Let mg be the weight of the entire gyrosystem, Js the moment of inertia of the ship about the roll
axis, J and J1 the polar and equatorial moments of inertia of the gyrorotor, respectively, kr the
equivalent stiffness of the ship against the rolling motion (i.e., motion), M s cos t the
external disturbing torque (due to waves, wind, and such other factors) causing rolling, and c the
viscous damping coefficient (of the gyrosystem) resisting the motion.
on. Then, the equations of
motion of the ship and the gyrorotor (including the gyroscopic effect) can be written as
...(4.25)
J s k r J M s cos t,
J1 c mgh J
or
...(4.26)
J1 c mgh J 0
Assuming steady-state
state solutions of the form
0 cos t ,
...(4.27a)
0 cos t ,
...(4.27b)
and using these in (4.25) and (4.26), we get the amplitude of rolling 0 as
0
Ms k r
2 12
1 r 2r
2 2
g
1 r 1 r r 2r 1 r
2
g
2 2
...(4.28)
2
Where
rg
12
mgh J1
, r
kr
12
Js
12
2
, c 2 mghJ1 , J
mghJs

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It can be shown that, for a given value of , the maximum amplitude of over a wide range of
frequency is minimum with an optimum value of . In other words, if the value of is more
or less than this optimum value opt , the maximum amplitude increase. However, with typical
values of other parameters and opt , the amplitude of motion becomes very large. So, to
keep the oscillation of the outer gimbal within reasonable limits, in practice, is maintained at a
value higher than opt .
From (4.28), we see that, for r = 1 (i.e., at the natural frequency of rolling),
2
2 12
0
1
1 rg2 2rg
Ms k r
...(4.29)
This implies that, for r = 1, the rolling amplitude is inversely
inversely proportional to the square of the spin
angular momentum of the gyrorotor. The overall effect of adding a gyrorotor is that the moment
of inertia of the ship increases. A significant increase in inertia can be achieved by a relatively
small increase in thee mass of the ship if the gyrorotor has a high spin rate.

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PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1.
2.
3.
4.
A rigid rotor having a mass of 10kg and a

radius of 215 mm is mounted on one end of
the horizontal arm
m of length 200 mm. The
other
ther end of the arm can rotate freely in a
spherical bearing. The rotor is given a
clockwise rotation of 300 rpm as seen from
rotor end of the arm. The angular velocity
of precession to keep the arm in horizontal
position is __________ rad/s.
(A) 1.351 rad/s
(B) 1.0 rad/s
(C) 1.832 rad/s
(D) None of these
A rotor of mass 8kg is mounted centrally on
a rotating shaft of 100 mm length between
the bearings. The radius of gyration of the
rotor is 80mm and it spins about the shaft
s
at
1000rpm clockwise when viewed from the
left hand side bearing. The shaft processes
about a vertical axis at 40 rpm in the
counter clockwise when viewed from below
The resultant reaction at left bearing is
(A) 150.8 N
(B) 165.61 N
(C) 1.656 N
(D) None
An aircraft in flight at 70 m/s turns towards
right and completes a quarter turn of 70m
radius. The mass of the rotating parts of the
engine amounts to 500kg with a radius of
gyration of 300mm. The engine speed is
2000 rpm anti clockwise when viewed from
front. Then the gyroscopic couple is
(A) 10.7kN-m
m & nose is raised
(B) 10.7 kN-m
m & tail is depressed
(C) 9.425 kN-m
m & tail is raised
(D) 9.425 kN-m
m & tail is depressed
A disc having a mass of 25kg and a radius
of gyration of 350mm is given a spin of 500
rpm about its axis which is horizontal. The
fly wheel is suspended at a point 500mm
from the plane of rotation of the fly wheel.
The rate of precession of the wheel is ____

rad/s.
(A) 0.7647 rad/s
(B) 7.647 rad/s
(C) 76.47 rad/s
(D) None of these
5.
The moment of inertia of Aeroplane screw

is 20kg-m2 and the speed of rotation 1500
rpm anticlockwise when seen from the rear
it travels at a speed of 250kmph. The
aeroplane makes a left handed turn on a
path of 150m radius. The reaction
gyroscopic couple of the airscrew on the
aeroplane is _________ N-m the propeller
of a ship rotates at 2500 rpm anti clock wise
when viewed from above. The ship pitches
with angular simple harmonic motion a
period of 15 seconds and an amplitude of
0.1 radian.
(A) 1421.35 N-m
(B) 1500.35 N
N-m
(C) 1454.35 N-m
(D) None
6.
The maximum angular velocity of the rotor

axis and the maximum value of gyroscopic
couple. Take moment of inertia of propeller
as 800kg.m2.
(A) 0.0419 rad/s , 8775.54 N
N-m
(B) 0.0175 rad/s , 8775.54 N
N-m
(C) 0.0175 rad/s , 9775.54 N
N-m
(D) 0.0419 rad/s , 9775.54 N
N-m
7.
The rotor of a marine turbine has a moment

of inertia of 750 kg-m2 and rotates at 3000
rpm when viewed from aft. The ship rolls at
the instant, it angular velocity is 0.06 rad/s
clockwise. When viewed from stern. The
gyroscopic couple due to rolling is
(A) 1837.5 Nm & ship pitches
(B) 1837.5 N-m
m & the ship rolls
(C) 1837.5 N-m
m & the ship steers
(D) No gyroscopic effect

186
8.
The rotor of the turbine of a ship rotates at a

speed of 3000 rpm Anti clockwise looking
from aft. The radius of gyration of rotor is
0.4m. The ship steers to right in a curved
path of 100m radius at a speed of 20
knots(1knot = 1860 m/hr). The gyroscopic
couple is __________ Nm. The mass of
rotor is 2000kg.
(A) 8775.54 N-m
(C) 853.67 N-m
9.
(B) 877.75 N-m

N
(D) 85.367 N-m
N
The turbine rotor of a ship has a mass of 2.5

tonnes and rotates at 2000 rpm C.C.W
looking from the Bow. The radius of
gyration of the rotor is 0.35m. The ship
pitches 6 degrees above and 6 degrees
below the normal position and the stern is
ascending with it maximum velocity. The
pitching motion is simple harmonic with a
period of 35 seconds. The max angular
velocity of precession and max angular
acceleration during pitching are ____rad/s
and ___________ rad/s2 respectively.
(A) 0.0188 rad/s2 and 0.0037 rad/s2
(B) 0.188 rad/s2 and 0.37 rad/s2
(C) 0.01 rad/s2 and 0.037 rad/s2
(D) 0.02 rad/s2 and 0.005 rad/s2
10. The engine axis of a rear engine automobile

is parallel to the rear axle and the crankshaft
rotates in the same sense as the road wheels,
the reaction gyroscopic couples due to
wheels and engine when the vehicle takes a
turn are 380 N-m and 140 N-m
m respectively.
The reaction couple due to centrifugal force
is 15000 N- m. The minimum mass of the
vehicle so that all the four wheels maintain
contact with the road surface is ______ Kg.
Take the track width of the vehicle as 1.5m.
(A) 2109 (B) 2500 (C) 2009 (D) 2090
|ME| Study Material
11. A four wheeled trolley car has a total

mass of 2,500 kg. Each wheel has a moment
of inertia of 2.5kg-m2 and radius of
hydration of 300mm. The rotating parts of
the engine have a moment of inertia of 1.2
kg-m2. The gear ratio is 3. Both the engine
axis and rear wheels axis are parallel and
have are sense of rotation. The reaction due
to centrifugal couple on each wheel has a
magnitude of 5700N. The limiting speed of
the vehicle around a curve with 90m radius
so that all the four wheels maintain contact
with the road surface is __________ kmph.
The centre distance between two wheels on
an axle is 1.4m.
(A)170.8
(B)175.83
(C) 170.26
(D) 176.26
12. A racing car has a trails width of 1.4m. Its
mass is 3000kg, each axle with its two
wheels and gears has a total moment of
inertia of 30 kg-m2. Each wheel has an
effective diameter of 900mm. each axle is
driven by a motor with a speed ratio of 1:3.
Each motor along with its gear has a
moment of inertia of 15kg.m2 and rotates in
the opposite direction to that of axle the
centre of mass of the car is 0.7m above the
road. The total reaction on each inner wheel
when the car has to travel around a curve of
240m radius with a speed of 151 kmph
_________N
(A)1759.83
(C) 17.598
(B)175.83
(D) None
Data for Questions: 13 and 14

The total mass of the motor cycle and the
rider is 220kg and the combined centre of
mass is 580 mm above the ground level
when the motor cycle is upright. The
moment of inertia of the rotating parts of the
engine is 0-2 kg-m2. The gear ratio is 4.5.

187
Each wheel has an effective diameter of

600mm and has a moment of inertia of
wheel is 1.1kg-m2. The angle of heel when
the motor taking a turn of 35m radius at a
limiting speed of 20m/s is 500. Consider
both wheels & engine rotate in the same
direction.
17. Consider a rotor spinning about X-axis with

angular velocity. If the axis of the rotor
processes about Z-axis in X-Y plane. It
angular velocity of spin changes to
in short time interval t . The
total angular acceleration of the rotor is
given by.
d
dt
d
d
(C)
.
dt
dt
13. The gyroscopic couple is __________ N-m.

(A) 70.86
(B)65.91
(C) 80.56
(D) 75.91
(A)
14. Total overturning couple is ________ N-m.

(A) 1056.89
(B) 1087.26
(C) 1523.45
(D) 1013.28
Where
15. The kerb weight of the motor cycle is 150kg

& the mass of the rider is 90kg. each wheel
of the vehicle has radius of gyration of
325mm and moment of inertia of 1.2 kg.m2.
The contained centre of vehicle and rider is
615mm above the road surface when the
vehicle is upright. The moment of inertia of
rotating parts of the engine is 0.18 kgm2.
The engine speed is 5 times the speed of the
wheel and both rotate in the same sense.
The angle of heel necessary when the motor
cycle takes a turn of 40m radius at a speed
of 90kmph is ________
(A) 301.3
(B) 30.13
(C) 50.26
(D) 30.26
(B) .
(D)
d
dt
d
d
.
.
dt
dt
angular displacement of precession.

18. Consider the following statements
(I) A gyroscope is a spinning body which is
free to move in other directions under
the action of external force.
(II) Pitching of the ship is assumed to take
place with cycloidal motion.
Of the above, which are correct?
(A) Only I
(B) Only II
(C) Both I & II
(D) Neither I nor II
19. For stability of a four-wheeled
wheeled vehicle the
vertical reaction of the ground on any of the
wheels is.
(B) 1
(A)
(C) Negative
20.
16. Match the following

1. Steering P. Angular motion about the
longitudinal axis
2. Pitching Q. Turning on one side when
viewing from the top.
3. Rolling R. Angular motion about the
transverse axis.
123
123
(A) P Q R
(B) Q R P
(C) R Q P
(D) Q P R
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(D) Positive.
A racing car takes right turn on a track. The

engine shaft and fly wheel rotate clockwise
when viewed from front. The figure is

188
shown below. Then for which wheel, the

reaction of ground on wheel is upward due
to all the three effects of rotation of wheel,
rotation of engine and centrifugal effect.
(A) 1
(B) 2
(C) 3
(D) 4
21. Consider the following statements.
1. If the direction of either the spin of the
rotor or of the precession is changed, the
gyroscopic effect is reversed.
2. When the axes of the rolling of the ship
and of the rotation are parallel, there is
no gyroscopic effect.
3. If both the direction of the spin of the
rotor and of the precession is changed,
the gyroscopic effect remains the same.
4. A two-wheeler is easier to tilt inwards to
neutralize the overturning effect.
Of the above which are correct?
(A) 1,2,3
(B) 2,3,4
(C)1,3&4
(D) 1,2,3&4
22. Match the following.
1. Angle of Heel P. Sliding pairs
2. Simple Harmonic motion Q.
Representation of angular velocity
3. Screw rule R. Stability of a four
wheeler.
4. R W R G +R C S. Pitching of a ship
|ME| Study Material
5. Ackermann steering gear T. Stability of a

motor cycle
6. Davis steering gear U. Turning pairs.
123456
123456
(A) S T U P Q R
(B) R Q P U T S
(C) R Q S T U P
(D) T S Q R U P.
Notations have their usual meanings.
23. When an aeroplane turns left and engine
spins clockwise on viewing from the nose
end, then
(A) Tail is raised
(B) Nose is depressed.
(C) Both A & B
24. Match the following relating to the terms
used with the motion of naval ships and sea
vessels.
1. Stern P. left hand side when looking from
rear end.
2. Bow Q. right hand side when looking
from rear end.
3. Starboard R. Front end.
4. Port S. Rear end.
1234
1234
(A) S R Q P
(B) P Q R S
(C) S R P Q
(D) Q P R S.

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ANSWER KEYS
1
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
EXPLANATIONS
1.
M = 10kg K = 0.215m l = 200mm=0.2m.

For the arm to remain horizontal, the
couple due to weight of the body is to be
balanced by the reaction gyroscopic couple.
For equilibrium position.
Mgl = IP.
= Angular velocity of spin
p = Angular velocity of precession.
The reaction gyroscopic couple tends to lift

the left bearing
Reaction due to gyroscopic effection left
C
bearing = G
l
CG IP = 8 0.062 104.72 4.19
12.637N m
Reaction due to gyroscopic effection
I mk 2 10 0.2152 0.46225kg m2 N =
left bearing =
300rpm
= 31.416 rad/s.
10 9.81 0.2 0.46225 31.416 p
R L G 126.37N upward
R L = R L 165.61N
p 1.351rad/s
2.
M = 8kg , k = 0.06m , l = 100mm = 0.1m

N = 1000rpm, = 104.72 rad/s , NP =
40rpm = p = 4.19 rad/s
12.637
0.1
3.
front
nose
Rear
tail
D
a'
a'
b'
b'
Reaction due to weight on left bearing

8 9.81
2
R L 39.24N upwards
From the figure, it is clear that the reaction

gyroscopic couple tends to raise the tail and
depress the nose.
The gyroscopic couple, C =I p .
70 200
= 9425Nm
70
3
C 9425N m 9.425kN
500
500
0.32

190
4.
M=25kg k=0.35m,N=500rpm
=J2.36rad/s.
Given the axis of spin in horizontal position
l =0.5m
For equilibrium mgl = I
p
7.
p 0.7647rad/s
I=20kg-m2 N=1500rpm
=157.08 rad/s
V=250kmph 250
0.1 0.419 0.0419rad/s
Gyroscopic couple, (C) = I P

800 261.8 0.0419 8775.54N m
25 9.81 0.5= 25 0.352 5236 p
5.
max
|ME| Study Material
No gyroscope effect
Since the axes of the rolling of the ship and
of the rotor are parallel, there is no
precession of the axis of spin and thus , no
gyroscopic effect.
8.
5
69.44m/s
18
0
a
'
N=3000 rpm =314.16 rad/s
b
b
R=100m
'
V=20knots=
R=150m
Gyroscopic couple C=IP
m=2000kg,k=0.4m I=mk 2 320kg m2 .
C 1454.44N m
C=IP 320 0.1033 314.16
6.
C=10.388N-m
Aft lowers and Bow raises.
view
0
20 1860
10.33m/s
3600
a'
9.
m=2500kg N=2000rpm =209.44rad/s.
0.1047rad
180
2 2
T=35seconds 0
0.1795rad/s
T 35
k=0.35m =6
b'
N = 2500 rpm = 261.8 rad/s
I=800 kg m2 ,T 15 seconds, =0.1 rad

sin 0 t
instantaneous displacement of S.H.M
Amplitude of S.H.M
0 Angular velocity of S.H.M
2
0
0.419rad/s
T
For pitching
d
P =
0 cos 0 t p max 0
dt
view
0
T=35 seconds
p max
p max
p max
.0 0.1047 0.1795
0.0188rad/s
.02

191
a p
max
0.00337rad/s 2
Ce GIe
The ship steers towards left side.

10. Let C G Total gyroscopic couple ,
given track width, w=15m
C W gyroscopic couple due to wheels.
Ce -- gyroscopic couple due to engine

rotating parts
Both rating in
same direction
CG C w Ce
Both rating in
opposite direction
Given C W 380N m,C e 140N m

C G 380 140 520N m
C c couple to centrifugal force
C c 15000N m
When a vehicle takes a turn, the reaction on

the inner wheels may become negative.
R W R G +R C for positive reaction
CG
on each wheel ,
2w
C
R C = C on each wheel
2w
520
15,000
=
&
2 1.5 2 1.5
R G =173.33N & R C 5000N
RG =
V2
0.13333V 2
r.R
CG =CW +Ce 0.50373V 2

CG
0.1799V 2 N
2W
+ve for outer wheels &
ve for inner wheels

Given RG = 5700N (+ve for outer wheels &
-ve
ve for inner wheels)
2500 9.81
RW
6131.25N on each wheel
4
For limiting speed, the reaction of ground
on inner wheels to be zero.
R W =R G +R C
RG =
6131.25 0.1799V 2 5700

V=48.961m/s
V=176.26 kmph
12. Given track width W=1.4m

30
m=3000kg , I W
15kg.m 2
2
0.9
k=
=0.45m
2
G=3 Im =15kg.m2 , h=0.7m, R=240m

V=151kmph=41.667m/s
C W =I W
R W 5173.333N
M min 9.81
5173.333
4
min mass for stability
|ME| Study Material
V2
41.667 2
15
rR
0.45 240
964.52N m
V2
41.667 2
15
3
rR
0.45 240
1446.782N m
Ce =2Ie
M min 2109.412kg
CG CW ; Ce 482.262N m opp.direction
2
11. m=2500kg,IW =2.5kg m ,k=0.3m
Ie =1.2kg.m2 ,G=3, R=90m
RG =
CG
=172.236N
2W
mV 2
41.667 2
h 3000
0.7
R
240
15191.21N m
C
R C = C =5425.43N
2W
CC
Let v-limiting speed of vehicle

V2
C W 4I W P 4I W
0.3704V 2
rR

192
3000 9.81
=7357.5N
4
R IW =R W -R G -R C =1759.834N upwards
RW =
252 2 1.2 + 5 0.18

+ 240 0.615 cos
cos
40
0.325
= 240 9.81 0.615 sin
Since IW- inner wheel

vehicle don't overturn
Tan 0.58743 30.4310
13. Ie =0.2kg.m , G=4.5,
17.
+f
0.6
k=
=0.3m, I W =1.1kg.m 2
2
X
Y
50 0 , R=35m, V=20m/s,
m=220kg , h=0.58m
Gyroscopic couple CG = 2IW +GIe

CG 2 1.1 4.5 0.2
V2
.cos
.cos
r.R
202
cos50
0.3 35
a
c
s
d
d
ac=
cb=.
dt
dt
ac change in magnitude of angular velocit
velocity
cb change in direction of axis of spin
18. Pitching is usually considered to take place

with simple harmonic motion.
C G 75.91N m
14. Overturning couple due to centrifugal force
mv2
CC
hcos
R
C C 937.37N m
220 202
0.58cos50
35
20.
b''
b' b
0
Total over turning couple, C=C C C G
C 75.91 937.37
C=1013.28N m
I W =1.2kg.m 2
h=0.615m, Ie =0.18kg.m2 ,G=5,R=40m

5
25m/s
18
For equilibrium
Total over turning couple = Rightening
couple due to the weight of the vehicle.
V 2 2I W +GIe
+mh cos=mghsin
=mghsin
R
r
''
a'
c
c'
d
d'
d ''
c ''
Force of reaction gyroscopic couple because

of wheels on inner (2&4) wheels is upward
& hence reaction of ground on inner wheels
is downward force of reaction gyroscopic
couple because of engine on front wheels is
upward & hence reacting ground on inner
wheels is downward. The reaction of
ground on inner wheels due to centrifugal
couple is always downward.
15. m=150+90=240kg k=0.325m,
V=90kmph = 90
|ME| Study Material
23. The reaction gyroscopic

couple tends to depress
the nose and raise
the tail.
a '' a
0
b ''

193
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THERMAL SCIENCE
1. THERMODYNAMIC RELATION
1.1
van der Waals Equations

An improvement over the ideal gas equation-of
equation of state based on elementary molecular occupy
arguments was suggested in 1873 by van der Waals,, who noted that gas molecules actually more
than the negligibly small volume presumed by the ideal gas model and also exert long- range
attractive forces on one another. Thus, not all of the volume of a container would be available to
the gas molecules, and force they exert on the container wall would be reduced because of the
attractive forces that exist between molecules.
molecules. Based on these elementary molecular arguments,
the van der Waals equation of state is
RT
a
2
v b v
The constant b is intended to account for the finite volume occupied by the molecules, the term
a/v
accounts for the forces of attraction between molecules, and R is the uuniversal gas
constant. Note that when a and b are set to zero, the ideal gas equation of state results.
The van der Waals equation gives pressure as a function
function of temperature and specific volume and
thus is explicit in pressure. Since the equation can be solved for temperature as a function of
pressure and specific volume, it is also explicit in temperature.
Evaluating a and b
The van der Waals equation is a two-constant
two constant equation of state. For a specified substance, values
for the constants a and b can be found by fitting the equation to p v T data. With this
approach several sets of constants might be required to cover all states of interest. Alternatively, a
single set of constants for the van der Waals equation can be determined by noting that the critical
isotherm passes through a point of inflection at the critical point, and the slope is zero there.
Expressed mathematically,
ally, these conditions are, respectively
2P
P
2 0, 0 critical point
v T
v T
...(1.1)
Although less overall accuracy normally results when the constants a and b are determined using
critical point behavior than when they are determined by fitting p v T data in a particular
region of interest, the advantage of this approach is that the van der Waals constants can be
expressed in terms of the critical pressure PC and critical temperature TC , as demonstrated next.
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|ME| Study Material
p
T Ts
T Ts
T Ts
0
p r
Critical
point
T
Figure: 1.1
For the van der Waals equation at the critical point
RTc
Pc
vc b
a
2
vc
Applying equations.1.1 with the van der Waals equation gives
2P
2
R
Tc
6a
2
4 0
3
v T v c b vc
R
Tc
2a

3 0
2
T vc b v c
Solving the foregoing three equations for a, b, and vc in terms of the critical pressure and critical
temperature
27 R 2 Tc 2
a=
64 Pc
...(1.2a)
RTc
8Pc
...(1.2b)
b=
3 R Tc
vc
8 Pc
...(1.2c)
Values of the van der Waals constants a and b determined from equations.
s. 1.2a and 1.2
1.2b for
several common substances are given in Table 1.1 for pressure in bar, specific volume in
m3 /kmol , and temperature in K.

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Table 1.1: Constants for the van der Waals, Redich-Kwong, and
Benedict Webb-Rubin equation of State
a.
van der Waals and Redlich-Kwong:

Redlich Kwong: Constants for pressure in atm, specific volume in ft3/lb
mol, and temperature in R.
Re dlich Kwong
van der Waals

a
2
ft 3
lbmol
ft 3 o 1/2
atm
( R)
lbmol
ft 3
lbmol
Substance
ft 3
atm
lbmol
Air
Bu tane (C 4 H10 )
Carbon dioxide(CO 2 )
345
3,509
926
0.586
1.862
0.686
5,409
98,349
21,972
0.4064
1.2903
0.4755
Carbon monoxide(CO)
Methane(CH 4 )
Nitrogen(N 2 )
372
581
346
0.632
0.685
0.618
5,832
10,919
5,280
0.4382
0.
0.4751
0.4286
Oxygen(O 2 )
Pr opane(C3 H8 )
Re frigerant 12
349
2,369
2,660
0.509
1.444
1.558
5,896
61,952
70,951
0.3531
1.0006
1.0796
Sulfur dioxide(SO2 )
Water(H 2 O)
1,738
1, 400
0.910
0.488
49,032
48,418
0.6309
0.3380
Source: Calculated from Critical data.

b.
Benedict-Webb-Rubin:
Rubin: Constant for pressure in atm, specific volume in ft3/lbmol,
and temperature in oR.
Substance
C 4 H10
7736.7 2587.6 10.26 1.9921 4.214 109
8.254 108
4
4.527
8.724
CO2
562.3
702.4
1.850 0.7995 1.987 108
1.152 108
0.3
0.348
1.384
CO
150.6
344.1
1.675 0.8737 1.385 107
7.118 106
0.5
0.555
1.540
CH 4
203.0
476.0
0.867 0.6824 3.389 107
1.876 107
0.511 1.540
N2
103.2
270.4
0.597 0.6526 9.700 106
6.700 106
0.52 1.360
0.523
Source: H,W, Cooper and J.C. Goldfrank, Hydrocarbon Processing

196
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Generalized form
Introducing the compressibility factor Z pv / RT , the reduced temperature TR T / TC , the
pseudo reduced specific volume vR pc v / RTc , and the foregoing expressions for a and b, the
van der Waals equation can be written in terms of Z, vR , and TR as
Z=
v'R
27 / 64
v'R 1/ 8 TR v'R
...(1.3)
or alternatively in terms of Z , TR , and pR as
27 PR
Z3 R 1 Z2
2
8TR
64T R
27 P 2 R
Z
512T 3R
...(1.4)
The details of these developments are left as exercises. Equation 1.3 can be evaluated for specified
values of vR and TR and the resultant Z values located on a generalized compressibility chart to
show approximately where the equation performs
performs satisfactorily. A similar approach can be taken
with equation1.4.
The compressibility factor at the critical point yielded by the van der Waals equ
equation is determind
from equation 1.2c as
Zc
Pc v c
0.375
R Tc
Actually, Z c varies from about 0.23 to 0.33 for most substances.
substances Accordingly, with the set of
constants given by equations.1.2,
equation
the van der Waals equation is inaccurate in the vicinity of the
critical point. Further study would show inaccuracy in other regions as well, so this equation is not
suitable
uitable for many thermodynamic evaluations. The van der Waals equation is of interest to us
primarily because it is the simplest model that accounts for the departure of actual gas behavior
from the ideal gas equation of state.
1.2
Important Mathematical Relations

Values of two independent intensive properties are sufficient to fix the state of a simple
compressible system of specified mass and composition. All other intensive properties can be
determined as functions of the two independent properties: p p(T , v), u u (T , v)h h(T , v),
and so on. These are all functions of two independent variables of the form z z ( x, y ) , with x
and y being the independent variables. It might also be recalled that the differential of every
property is exact. The differentials of non properties such as work and heat are inexact.
The exact differential of a function Z, continuous in the variables x and y, is
z
dz = dx +
x y
z
dy
y x
...(1.5)

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This can be expressed alternatively as
dz = M dx + N dy
...(1.6)
where M (z / x ) y and N (z / y ) x . The coefficient M is the partial derivative of z with

respect to x (the variable y being held constant).
constant). Similarly, N is the partial deri
derivative of Z with
respect to y (the
the variable x being held constant).
If the coefficient M and N have continuous first partial derivatives,
derivatives, the order in which a second
partial derivatives of the function Z is taken is immaterial. That is
z
z

y x y x x y x y
M N
y x x y
(1.7a)
(1.7b)
which can be called, the test for exactness, as discussed

disc
next.
In words, equations. 1.7 indicate that the mixed second partial derivatives of the function z are
equal. The relationship in equation 1.7 is both a necessary and sufficient condition for the
exactness of a differential expression, and it may therefore be used as a test for exactness. When
an expression such as M dx N dy does not meet this test, no function z exists whose
differential is equal to this expression.
expr
In thermodynamics, equation 1.7 is not generally used to
test exactness
ctness but rather to develop additional property relations.
relation
Two other relations among partial derivatives are listed next for which applications are found in
subsequent sections of this chapter.
chapter These are
x y
1
y z x z
...(1.8)
y z x
1
z x x y y z
...(1.9)
Or
For example Consider the three quantities x, y, and z any two of which may be selected as the
independent variables. Thus, we can write x x( y, z )and y y ( x, z ) . The differentials of these
functions are, respectively
x
dx dy +
y z
y
y
x
dz and dy dx + dz
x z
z x
z y
Eliminating dy between these two equations results in
x y x
x y
1 dx dz
y z z x z y
y z x z
... (1.10)

198
|ME| Study Material
Since x and z can be varied independently, let us hold z constant

constant and vary x. That is let
dz 0 and dx 0 . It then follows from equation1.10 that the coefficient of dx must vanish.
dx 0 and dz 0 , the coefficient of dz in
So equation1.8 must be satisfied. Similarly, when
w
equation1.10 must vanish. Introducing equation 1.8 into the resulting expression and rearranging
gives equation1.9.. The details are left as an exercise.
Application
An equation of state p p T , v provides a specific example of a function of two independent
variables. The partial derivatives
(p / T )v and (p / v)T of p(T , v) are important for
subsequent discussions. The quantity (p / T )v is the partial derivative of p with respect to T

(thee variable v being held constant).The partial derivative
derivative represents the slope at a ppoint on a line
of constant specific volume (isometric)projected on to the p T plane. Similarly, the partial
derivative (p / v)T is the
he partial derivative of p with respect to v (the variable T being held
constant). This partial derivative represents the slope at appoint on a line of constant temperature
(isotherm)projected on the p-v
p plane. The partial derivatives (p / T ) v and (p / v)T are
themselves intensive properties because they have unique values at each state.
Figure 1.2 shows the liquid, vapor and two-phase
two
regions of a p v T surfaces projected onto
the p v and p T planes.
nes. Referring first to Figure1.2a,
a, note that several isotherms are sketched.
In the single-phase
phase regions, the partial derivative (p / v)T giving the slope is negative at each
state along an isotherm except at the critical point, where the partial derivative vanishes. Since the
isotherms are horizontal in the two-phase
two
liquid-vapor
vapor region, The partial derivative (p / v)T
vanishes there as well. For these states, pressure is independent of specific volume and is a
function off temperature only:
only p psat (T ) Figure 1.2b shows the liquid and vapor regions with
several isometrics(constant specific volume lines)superimposed. In the singlesingle-phase regions, the
isometrics are nearly straight or are slightly curved and the partial derivative (p / T ) v is positive
at each state along the curves. For the two-phase
two
liquid-vapor
vapor states corresponding to a specified
value of temperature, the pressure is independent of specific volume and is determined by the
temperature only.
Hence, the slopes of the isometrics passing through the two-phase states corresponding to a
specified temperature are all equal, being given by the slope off the saturation curve at that
temperature, denoted simply as
(p / T ) sat ,
For these two-phase states
(p / T )v (p / T ) sat
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|ME| Study Material
p
T Tc
T Tc
T Ts
p
0
p T
p
0
p T
Critical
point
p

v T 0
Isotherm
v T 0
Liquid-vapor
Isotherm
a p - v diagram
p
v vc
v vc
p
0
T v
Isometric
p
0
T v
Isometric v vc
Liquid
vapor
dp
dT sat
Triple
point
Locus of saturation states
b phase diagram
Figure 1.2: Diagram used to discuss (p / v ) T and (p / T ) v

200
1.2.1
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Principal Exact Differentials

The principal results of this section are obtained using equations.1.11, 1.12, 1.15, and 1.16. The
first two of these equations are derived, where they are referred to as the T ds equations. For
present purposes, it is convenient to express them as
du T ds - P dv
...(1.11)
...(1.12)
dh T ds v dp
The other two equations used to obtain the results of this section involve, respectively, the specific
Helmholtz function defined by
u Ts
...(1.13)
and the specific Gibbs function g defined by
g h Ts
...(1.14)
The Helmholtz and Gibbs functions are properties because each is defined in terms of properties.
Form inspection of equations.
equation 1.13 and1.14, the units of and g are the same as those of u and h.
These two new properties are introduced solely because they contribute to the present discussion
and no physical significance need to attached to them at this point.
Forming the differential d
d du d (Ts) du Tds sdT

d pdv sdT
...(1.15)
Similarly, forming the differential dg
dg dh d (Ts) dh Tds sdT

Substitutions equation1.12 into this gives
dg v dp s dT
1.2.2
...(1.16)
Property Relations from Exact Differentials

The four differential equations introduced above, equations 1.11, 1.12, 1.15, and 1.16
1.16, provide the
basis for several important property relations. Since only properties are involved, each is an exact
differential exhibiting the general form
for dz M dx n dy . Underlying these exact differentials
are, respectively, functions of the form u ( s, v), h(s, p), (v, T ) and g (T , p) . Let us consider
these functions in the order given.
The differential of the function u u ( s, v) is
u
u
du ds dv
s v
v s
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By comparison with equation 1.11, we conclude that
u
T
s v
...(1.17)
u
P
v s
...(1.18)
The differential of the function h h( s, p) is
h
h
dh ds dp
s p
p s
By comparison with equation 1.12, we conclude that
h
T
s p
...(1.19)
h
v
p s
...(1.20)
Similarly, the coefficients -p

- and -s of equation1.15 are partial derivatives of (v, T )
v T
...(1.21)
T v
...(1.22)
and the coefficients v and s of equation 1.16 are partial derivatives of g (T , p)
g
v
p T
...(1.23)
g
s
T p
...(1.24)
As each of the four differentials introduced above is exact the second mixed partial derivatives are
equal. Thus, in equation 1.11,
1.11 T plays the role of M in equation1.7b and p plays the role of N in
equation1.7b, so
T
P

v s
s v
...(1.25)
In equation 1.12,T and v play the

th roles of M and N in equation 1.7 b respectively Thus
T v

p s s p
...(1.26)

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Similarly, from equations. 1.15 and 1.16 follow
p s

T v v T
...(1.27)
s
v

T p
p T
...(1.28)
Equations 1.27 through 1.28 are known as the Maxwell relations

Table 1.2: Summary of property Relations from Exact Differentials
Basic Relations:
From
u u ( s, v )
From
h h( s, p)
u
T
s v
...(1.17)
h
T
s p
... (1.19)
u
P
v s
...(1.18)
h
v
p s
...(1.20)
From
(v, T )
From
g g (T , p)
v T
... (1.21)
g
v
p T
... (1.23)
T v
... (1.22)
g
s
T p
... (1.24)
T
P

v s
s v
...(1.25)
p s

T v v T
...(1.27)
T
v

s p
p s
...(1.26)
s
v

T p
p T
...(1.28)
Maxwell relations:
Additional relations:
u h

s v s p
v s
v r
h g

p s p r
T v
T p
...(1.29)

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1.3
Evaluating Changes in Entropy, Internal Energy, and Enthalpy

With the introduction of the Maxwell relations, we are in a position to develop thermodynamic
relations that allow changes in entropy, internal energy, and enthalpy to be evaluated from
measured property data.
1.3.1
Considering Phase Change

The objective of this section is to develop relations for evaluating the changes in specific entropy,
internal energy, and enthalpy accompanying a change of phase at fixed temperature and pressure.
A principal role is played by the Clapeyron equation, which allows the change in enthalpy during
vaporization, sublimation or melting at a constant temperature to be evaluated from pressurespecific volume-temperature
temperature data pertaining to the phase change. Thus, the present discussion
provides important examples of how p v T measurements can lead to the determination of
other property changes, namely s, u, and h for a change of phase,
Consider a change in phase from saturated liquid to saturated vapor at fixed temperature. For an
isothermal phase change, pressure also remain constant, so equation 1.12 reduces to
dh T ds
Integration of this expression gives
sg sf
hg hf
...(1.30)
Hence, the change in specific entropy accompanying a phase change from saturated liquid to
saturated vapor at temperature T can be determined from the temperature and the change in
specific enthalpy
The change in specific internal energy during the phase change can be determined using the
definition h u pv
u g u f hg h f p (vg v f )
...(1.31)
Thus, the change in specific internal energy accompanying a phase change at temperature T can
be determined from the temperature and the changes in specific volume and enthalpy.
Clapeyron Equation
The change in specific
cific enthalpy required by equations 1.30 and 1.31 can be obtained using the
Clapeyron equation To derive the Clapeyron equation' begin with the Maxwell relation
s p

v T T v
...(1.27)
During a phase change at fixed temperature, the pressure is independent of specific volume and is
determined by temperature alone. Thus the quantity (p / T ) v determined by the temperature
and can be represented as
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p p
T v T sat
where sat indicates that the derivative is the slope of the saturation pressure
pressure-temperature curve
at the point determined by the temperature held constant during the phase change (Sec.1.2).
Combining the last two equations gives
g
s dp

v T dT sat
Since the right side of this equation is fixed when the temperature
temperature is specified, the equation can be
integrated to give
dp
sg s f
vg v f
dT sat
Introducing equation 1.30 into this expression results in the Clapeyron equation
hg h f
dp

dT sat T vg v f
...(1.32)
Equation 1.32 allows ( hg h f ) to be evaluated using only p v T data pertaining to the phase
change. In instances when the enthalpy change is also measured the Clapeyron equation can be
used to check the consistency of the data. Once the specific enthalpy change is determined, the
corresponding changes in specific entropy
entropy and specific internal energy can be found from
equations 1.30 and 1.31,, respectively.
Equations 1.30, 1.31 and 1.32 also can be written for sublimation
tion or melting occurring at constant
temperature and pressure. In particular
pa
the Clapeyron equation would
uld take the form
h " h '
dp

dT sat T v " v '
...(1.33)
Where ''and ' denote the respective phase, and (dp / dT ) sat is the slope of the relevant saturation
pressure-temperature
temperature curve.
The Clapeyron equation shows that the slope of a saturation line on a phase diagram depends on
the signs of the specific volume and enthalpy changes accompanying the phase change. In most
cases, when a phase change takes place with an increase in specific enthalpy, the specific volume
also increases, and (dp / dT ) sat is positive. However, in case of the melting of ice and a few other
substances, the specific volume decreases on melting. The slope of the saturated ssolid-liquid curve
for these few
w substances is negative.
An approximate form of equation 1.32 can be derived when the following two idealizations are
justified: (1) v f is negligible in comparison to vg and (2) the pressure is low enough than vg can be
evaluated from the ideal gas equation of state as vg RT / P .With these equation
equationn.1.32 becomes

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|ME| Study Material
hg h f
dp
2
dT sat RT / p
which
hich can be rearranged to read
hg h f
d ln p

RT 2
dT sat
...(1.34)
Equation1.34 is called the Clausias - Clapeyron equation A similar expression applies for the
cause of sublimation
The use of the Clapeyron equation in any of the foregoing forms requires an accurate
representation for the
he relevant saturation pressure-temperature
pressure temperature curve. This must not only depict
the pressure-Temperature
Temperature variation accurately but also enable accurate values of the derivative
(dp / dT ) sat to be determined. Analytical representations in the form of equations are commonly
used. Different equations for different portions of the pressure
pressure-temperatures
temperatures curves may be
required. These equations can involve several constants. One form that is used fo
for the vapor pressure curves is the four-constant
constant equation
In psat A
B
C ln T DT
T
In which the constants A, B, C, D are determined empirically.

1.3.2
Considering Single-Phase
Phase Regions
The objective of the present section is to derive expressions for
for evaluating s, u , and h
between states in single-phase
phase regions. These expressions require both p v T data and
appropriate specific heat data. Since single-phase
single phase regions are under present consideration, any two
of the properties
erties pressure, specific volume, and temperature can be regarded as the independent
properties that fix the state. Two convenient choices are T , v and T , p .
T AND v As Independent Properties

With temperature and specific volume as the independent properties that fix the state, the specific
entropy can be regarded as a function of the form s s (T , v) . The differential of this function is
s
s
ds
dT dv
T v
v T
The partial derivative (s / v)T appearing in this expression can be replaced using the Maxwell
relation equation1.27,, giving
s
p
ds
dT dv
T v
v v
...(1.35)
The specific internal energy also can be regarded as a function of T and v : u u (T , v ) .

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The differential of this function is
u
u
du
dT dv
T v
v T
With cv (u / T )v
u
du cv dT dv
v T
...(1.36)
Substituting equations 1.35 and 1.36 into du T ds p dv and collecting terms results in
u
s
p
v p T T dv T T cv dT
v
v
T

...(1.37)
Since specific volume and temperature can be varied independently,

independently, let us hold specific volume
constant and vary temperature. That is, let dv 0 and dT 0 .It then follows from
equation1.37 that
s cv

T v T
...(1.38)
Similarly, suppose that dT 0 and dv 0 . It then follows that
u
p
T
p
v T
T v
...(1.39)
Equations 1.38 and 1.39 are additional examples of useful thermodynamic property relations. For
example equation1.39, which expresses the dependence of the specific internal energy on specific
volume at fixed temperature, allows us to demonstrate that the internal energy of a ggas whose
equation of state is pv RT depends on temperature alone. equation 1.39 requires the partial
derivative (p / T )v If p RT / v of the derivative is (p / T ) v R / v . Introducing this,
equation 1.39 gives
u
p
R
T
p T p p p 0
v T
T v
v
This demonstrates that when pv RT , the
he specific internal energy is independent of specific
volume and depends on temperature alone.
Continuing the discussion, when equation 1.38 is inserted in equation 1.35
1.35, the following
expression results
ds
cv
p
dT
dv
T
T v
...(1.40)
Inserting equation 1.39 into equation 1.36 gives

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du cv dT T
p dv
T v
...(1.41)
Observe that the right sides of equations 1.40 and 1.41 are expressed solely in terms
p, v, T , and cv
Changes in specific entropy and internal energy between two states are determined by integration
of equations. 1.40 and 1.41,, respectively
s2 s1
2 p
cv
dT
dv
1
T
T v
...(1.42)
2
2 p
u2 u1 cv dT T
p dv
1
1
T v
...(1.43)
To integrate the first term on the right of each of these expressions, the variation of cv with
temperature at one fixed specific volume (isometric) is required. Integration of the second term
requires knowledge of the p v T relation at the states of interest.. An equation of state
explicit in pressure would be particularly convenient for evaluating the integrals involving
(p / T )v . The accuracy of
of the resulting specific entropy and internal energy changes would
depend on the accuracy of this derivative.
vx vy
y
T2 Ts
cv cv T,vx
T1 Ts
v
Figure 1.3: Integration path
In cases where the integrands of equations.1.42 and 1.43 are too complicated to be integrated in
closed form they may be evaluated numerically. Whether closed-form
closed form or numerical integration is
used, attention must be given to the path of integration.
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For example Let us consider the evaluation of equation1.43. Referring to Figure

Figure1.3, if the specific
heat cv is known as a function of the temperature along the isometric (constant specific
volume)passing through the states X and Y, one possible path of integration for determining the
change in specific internal energy between states 1 and 2 is 1-x-y-2.
1
2. The integration would be
performed in three steps. Since the temperature is constant from state 1 to state x, the fir
first integral
of equation 1.43 would vanish, so
vx
u x u1 T
p dv
T v
v1
From state x to y, the specific volume is considered and cv is known as a function of temperature
only, so
Ty
u y u x cv dT
Tx
where Tx T1 and Ty T2 . From state y to state2, the temperature is constant once again, and
u2
u2 u y
p
T

T v
u y u x
p dv
When these are added, the result is the change in specific internal
internal energy between states 1 and 22.
T AND p as Independent Properties
P
In this section a presentation parallel to that considered above is provided for the choice of
temperature and pressure as the independent properties. With this choice for the independent
properties, The specify entropy can be regarded as a function of the form s s(T , p) . The
differential of this function is
s
s
ds
dT dp
T p
p T
The partial derivative (s / p )T appearing in this expression can be replaced using the Maxwell
relation, equation 1.28,, giving
s
v
ds
dT
dp
T p
T p
...(1.44)
The specific enthalpy also can be regarded as a function of T and p: h = h (T, p).The differential
of this function is
h
h
dh
dT dp
T p
p T
With c p (h / T ) p
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h
dh c p dT dp
p T
...(1.45)
Substituting equations. 1.44 and 1.45 into dh T ds + v dp and, collecting terms results in
v
dp
c
T
p dT
T p
p T
T p
...(1.46)
Since pressure and temperature can be varied independently, let us hold pressure constant and
vary temperature That is, let dp 0 and dT 0. It then follows from equation
equation1.46 that
cp
s

T p T
...(1.47)
Similarly, when dT 0 and dp 0. equation 1.46 gives
h
v
v T
T p
p T
...(1.48)
Equations 1.47 and 1.48,, like equations. 1.38 and 1.39- are useful thermodynamic property
relations.
When equation1.47 is inserted in equation 1.44, the following equation results:
ds
cp
v
dT
dp
T
T p
...(1.49
1.49)
Introducing equation1.48 into equation1.45 gives
v
dh c p dT v T
dp
T p
...(1.50)
Observe that the right sides of equations. 1.49 and 1.50 are expressed solely in terms of
p, v, T , and c p
Changes in specific entropy and enthalpy between two states are found by integrating equations.
1.49 and 1.50, respectively
2
s2 s1
1
cp
v
dT
dp
T
T p
1
...(1.51)
v
h2 h1 c p dT v T
dp
T p
1
1
...(1.52)
To integrate the first term on the right of each of these expressions, the variation of c p with
temperature at one fixed pressure (isobar) is required. Integration of the second term requires
knowledge of the p v T behavior at the states of interest. An equation of state explicit in v
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would be particularly convenient for evaluating the integrals involving (v / T ) p . The accuracy
of the resulting specific entropy and enthalpy changes would depend on the accuracy of this
derivative.
Changes in specific enthalpy and internal energy are related through, h u pv by
h2 h1 (u2 u1 ) ( p2v2 p1v1 )
...(1.53)
Hence, only one of h and u need be found by integration. Then, the other can be evaluated
from equation 1.53, which of the two property changes is found by integration depends on the
information available. h would be found using equationn1.52 when an equation of state explicit
in v and c p as a function of temperature at some fixed pressure are known . u would be found
from equation1.43 when an equation of state explicit in p and cv as a function of temperature at
some specific volume are known.
1.4
Volume Expansivity, Isothermal and Isentropic Compressibility

In single-phase
phase regions, pressure and temperature are independent, and we can think of the specific
volume as being a function of these two, v v(T , p) . The differential of such a function is
v
v
dv
dT
dp
T p
P T
Two thermodynamic properties related to the partial derivatives appearing in this differential are
the volume expansivity, , also called the coefficient of volume expansion.
1 v

v T p
...(1.54)
And the isothermal compressibility k
1 v
k
v p T
...(1.55)
By inspection, the unit for is seen to be the reciprocal of that for temperature and the unit for k
is the reciprocal of that for pressure. The volume expansivity is an indication of the change in
volume that occurs when temperature changes while pressure remains constant. The isoth
isothermal
compressibility is an indication of the change in an indication of the change in volume that takes
place when pressure changes while temperature remains constant. The value of k is positive for all
substances in all phases.
The volume expansivity and
and isothermal compressibility are thermodynamic properties, and like
specific volume are functions of T and p. Values for and k provided in handbooks of
engineering data. Table 1.3 gives values of these properties for liquid water at a pressure of 1 atm
versus temperature. For a pressure of 1 atm, water has a state of maximum density at about 40C.
At this state, the value of is zero.
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The isentropic compressibility is an indication of the change in volume that occurs when
pressure changes while entropy remains constant
1 v

v p s
...(1.56)
The unit for is the reciprocal of that for pressure

The isentropic compressibility is related to the speed at which sound travels in the substances, and
such measurements can be used to determine . The velocity of sound, or sonic velocity, are
given by
p
c v 2
v s
...(1.57)
Table 1.3: Volume Expansivity and Isothermal Compressibility K of liquid Water

at 1 atm versus Temperature
T (0 C )
Density(kg / m3 )
0
10
20
30
40
50
999.84
999.70
998.21
995.65
992.22
988.04
106 (K)-1
K 106 (bar)-1
-68.14
87.90
206.6
303.1
385.4
457.8
50.89
47.81
45.90
44.77
44.24
44.18
The relationship of the isentropic compressibility and the velocity of sound can be obtained using
the relation between partial derivatives expressed by equation 1.8.. Identifying p with x, v with y,
and s with z, we have
1
p

v s v / p s
With this, the previous two equations can be combined to give
c v /
1.4.1
...(1.58)
Relations Involving Specific Heats

In this section, general relations are obtained for the difference between specific hea
heat (c p cv )
and the ratio of specific heats c p / cv
Evaluating: (c p cv ) An expression for the difference between c p and cv can be obtained by
equating the two differentials for entropy given by equations 1.40 and 1.49 and rearranging to
obtain

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p
v
(c p cv )dT T
dv T
dp
T v
T p
Considering the
he equation of state p = P(T, u), the differential dp can be expressed as
p
p
dp
dT dv
T v
v T
Eliminating dp between the last two equations and collecting terms gives
v p p
v p
(c p cv ) T

dT T

dv
T p T v
T p v T T v
Since temperature and specific volume can be varied independently the coefficients of the
differentials in this expression must vanish, so
v p
(c p cv ) T

T p T v
p
v p

T v
T p v T
...(1.59)
...(1.60)
Introducing equation 1.60 in to equation 1.59 gives

2
v p
c p cv T

T p v T
...(1.61)
This equation allows cv , to be calculated from observed values of c p , or conversely knowing

only p v T data.
The right side of equation 1.61 can be expressed in terms of the volume expansivity and the
isothermal compressibility k. Introducing equations.1.54 and 1.55 we get
T 2
c p cv v
k
... (1.62)
In developing this
is result, the relationship between partial derivatives expressed by equation1.8 has
been used
Several important conclusions about the specific heats equation c p and cv can be drawn from
equation 1.62
For example since, the factor 2 cannot be negative and k is positive for all
substances in all phases, the value of c p is always greater than, or equal to, cv .The specific heats
would be equal when 0 ,as occurs in the case of water at 1 atmosphere and 40C,where water
is at its state of maximum density. The two specific heats also become equal as the temperature
approaches absolute zero. For some liquids and solids at certain states c p and cv differ only
slightly. For this reason tables often give the specific heat of a liquid or solid without specifying
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whether it is c p or cv .The data reported are normally c p values, since these are more eeasily
determined for liquids and solids
Evaluating: c p / cv .Next,
Next, let us obtain expressions for the ratio of specific heats. Employing
equation1.9. We can rewrite equations 1.38 and 1.47, respectively, as
cv s
1

T T v (v / s)T (T / v) s
cp
1
s

T T p (p / s )T (T / p ) s
Forming the ratio of these equations gives
cp
cv
(v / s)T (T / v) s
(p / s )T (T / p) s
...(1.63)
Since (s / p )T 1/ (p / s )T and (p / T ) s 1/ (T / p ) s . equation 1.63 can be expressed as
v s p T

cv s T p T T s v s
cp
...(1.64)
Finally the chain rule from calculus allows us to write (v / p )T (v / s )T (s / p )T and
(p / v) s (p / T ) s (T / v) s ,So equation1.64 becomes

k
cp
v p

cv p T v s
...(1.65)
This can be expressed alternatively in terms of the isothermal and isentropic compressibilitys as
...(1.66)
Solving equation 1.65 for (p / v) s and substituting the resulting expression in to
equation1.57
gives the following relationship involving the velocity of sound c and the specific heat ratio k
c kv 2 (p / v)T
...(1.67)
Equation 1.67 can be used to determine c knowing the specific heat ratio and p v T data, or
to evaluate k knowing c and (p / v)T . For example in the special case of an ideal gas, equation
1.67 reduces to
c kRT (ideal gas)
...(1.68)
As can easily be verified

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1.4.2
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Joule-Thomson
Thomson Coefficient
The value of the specific heat c p can be determined from p v T data and the joule Thomson
coefficient. The Joule Thomson
Thomson coefficient J is defined as
J
p h
...(1.69)
Like other partial differential coefficients introduced in this section, the Joule
Joule-Thomson co
efficient is defined in terms of thermodynamic properties only and thus is itself a property
The units of J are those of temperature
t
divided by pressure.
A relationship between the specific heat c p and the Joule-Thomson
Thomson coefficient J can be
established by using equation 1.9 to write
T p h

1
p h h T T p
The first factor in this expression is the Joule-Thomson
Joule Thomson coefficient and the third is c p . Thus
cp
1
J (p / h)T
With (h / p )T 1/ (p / h)T from equation1.8, this can be written as
cp
1 h
J p T
...(1.70)
The partial derivative (d / p )T called the constant-temperature

temperature coefficient, can be elim
eliminated
from equation 1.70 by use of equation 1.48. The following expression results:
cp
1 v
v
T
J T p
...(1.71)
Equation 1.71 allows the value of c p at a state to be determined using p - v - T data and the
value of the Joule-Thomson
Thomson coefficient at that state. Let us consider next how the Joule
Joule-Thomson
coefficient can be found experimentally
xperimentally.
Experimental Evaluation:: The Joule-Thomson coefficient can be evaluated experimentally
using an apparatus like that pictured in Figure 1.4. Consider first Figure 1.4a
1.4a, which shows a
porous plug through which a gas (or liquid) may pass. During
During operation at steady state, the gas
enters the apparatus at a specified temperature T1 and pressure p1 and expands through the plug
to a lower pressure p2 ,which is controlled by an outlet valve. The temperature T2 at the exit is
measured. The apparatus is designed so that the gas undergoes a throttling process as it expands
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from 1 to 2. Accordingly, the exit state fixed by p2 and T2 has the same value for the specific
enthalpy as at the inlet, h 2 = h1 . By progressively lowering the outlet pressure, a finite sequence
of such exit states can be visited,
visited as indicated on Figure 1.4b.. A curve may be drawn through the
set of data points. Such a curve is called an isenthalpic (constant enthalpy) curve. An isenthalpic
curve is the locus of all points representing equilibrium states of the same specific enthalpy.
The slope of an isenthalpic curve at any state is the Joule-Thomson
Thomson coefficient at that state.
The slope may be positive, negative, or zero in value. States where the coefficient has a zero value
are called inversion states. Notice that not all lines of constant h have an inversion state. The
uppermost curve of Figure 1.4b,
1.4b for example, always has a negative slope. Throttling gas ffrom, an
initial slate on this curve would result in an increase in temperature. However, for isenthalpic
curves having an inversion state, the temperature at the exit of the apparatus may be greater than,
equal to, or less than the initial temperature, depending on the exit pressure specified. For states to
the right of an inversion state, the value of the Joule Thomson coefficient would be negative. For
these states, the temperature
erature would increase as the pressure at negative. For these states, the
temperature would increase as the pressure at the exit of the apparatus is reduced. At states to the
left of an inversion state, the value of the Joule Thomson coefficient would be ppositive. For these
states, the temperature would decrease as the pressure at the exit of the device is reduced. This can
be used to advantage in systems designed to liquefy gases.
T
Inlet
T1 .p1
Porous plug
Inversion state
T2 , p2
Inlet state
Critical
point
Valve
T

p h
Vapor
Liquid
Triple
point
Solid
p
Figure 1.4: Joule-Thomson

Joule
(a) Apparatus (b) Isenthalpics on a T-P diagram
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PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1.
Estimate the differential change in volume

of air assuming an Ideal gas using
differential form of dv. If the temperature
5.
Which are of the thermodynamic relation is

wrong.
V
S

T P
P T
and pressure change from 25 C and 122
(A)
KPa to 29o C and 120 KPa .

(A) 0.02125 m3 / kg
(B)
P
S

T V
V T
(B) 0.04225 m3 / kg
T
P

V S
S V
(C)
(C) 0.2125 m / kg
(D) 2.125 m3 / kg
2.
T
V

P S
S P
(D)
The steam tables started at Psat 2KPa

where
Tsat 17.50 C .
The
desired
to
6.
The relation of internal energy is.
CP C V
P dv+C V .dT
V
saturation temperature at Psat =1KPa, is ___.

Given h fg 2480 KJ / kg ;
(A) du=
R 0.46KJ / kgK
(B) du=
(A) 380K
(C) 280K
CP CV
+P dv+C V .dT
V
(B) 140K
(D) 70K
CP C V
P dv+C V .dT
k.
(C) du=
3.
0
The specific heat C V of copper at 200 C is
CP CV
+P dv+C V .dT
k
(D) du=
desired. If C V is assumed to be equal to C P

Estimate the error. Use =5 10 5 / k ,
B=125GPa , 8770 Kg / m3 .
7.
And assume CP 0.40KJ / kgk

kg .
(A) 4.4%
(C) 4%
4.
(A)
(B) 3.83%
(D)8.8%
Calculate the change in enthalpy of air

which if heated from300K and 100 KPa to
700 K and 200 KPa using the enthalpy
chart.
(A) 413.1 KJ/Kg
(B) 300.19 KJ/Kg
(C) 713 KJ/Kg
(D) 212 KJ/Kg
Which are of the following quantity always

negative for any substance.
TV 2
KT
V
(C)
T P
8.
V T
(B)
2
x y z

y f z f x f
(D)
The vapor pressure, in mm of Hg of solid

ammonia is given by
lnP = 23.03
3754
T
And that of liquid Ammonia by
lnP = 19.49
3063
T

217
What is the temperature of triple point.

(A) 44.67K
(B) 195.2K
(C) 295K
(D) None of these
9.
|ME| Study Material
10. Which of the following statement is wrong?

(A) The numerical value of the slope of an
Isenthalpic on a T-P
P diagram at point is
The pressure on the block of a copper of 1kg

increased from 20 bar to 800 bar in
reversible process maintaining temperature
0
constant at 15 C Determine the work done

on the copper block.
(A) -3.135 J/kg
(B) 2.125 J/kg
(C) -6.270 J/kg
(D) None of these
called Joule-Kelvin
Kelvin coefficient JT .
(B) During throttling process pressure
always decreases.
(C) For achieving the effect of cooling by
throttling the initial temperature must be
above
the
maximum
inversion
temperature.
V dP
T P
(D) dh=CP dT T

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ANSWER KEYS
1
10
EXPLANATIONS
1.
RT
V=
4.
V
V
dV=
dT+
dP
T P
P T
dV
PR1 =
R
RT
dT 2 dP
P
P
2.
700
5.26
133
2000
PR 2
0.532
3700
New according to enthalpy departure chart
h 2 h1 713.27 300.19 413.1KJ/Kg
kg
Since pressure is quite low, we will assume

that Vg Vf .
P
hfg 1 1
ln 2

P1 sat R T1 T2
1
1 2480 1
ln

2 0.46 290.5 T2
5.
7.
T2 280K
3.
P1 100
0.027
PC 3760
TR 2
0.287 0.287 300 2

4
2
121
121
0.02125 m
The Reduced temperature and pressure are

T 300
TR1 = 1
2.26
TC 133
CP CV VT2 B
T
P

V S
S V
x y z
1
y f z f x f
TV2
CP CV
;C P CV
K
2
V P
C P C V T
.
T P V T
2
always positive
T P
P
but
always negative.
V T
1
5 2
9
473 5 10 125 10
8770
C P CV 16.85 J
kg.k
C P Assume equal to 0.4 KJ/Kg.
8.
CV =0.383 KJ/KgK.
0.4 0.383
%=
4.4%
0.383
At triple point the saturated solid and

saturated liquid lines meet.
3754
3063
23.03
19.49
T
T
T=195.2K

219
9.
Data given in the question
5 105 / k ; K T 8.6 1012 m

v 0.114 103 m
kg
; w Pdv ;
1
1 V
KT
V -K T v. dP T
v P T
|ME| Study Material
10. For achieving the cooling effect by Joule

Kelvin expansion
sion or throttling the Initial
temperature of the gas must be below the
point where inversion curve intersect the
temperature axis. i.e. below the maximum
inversion temperature.
2
P 2 P12
w KPv dp vk 2
2
1
0.114 103 8.6 1012
800 1052 20 105 2
3.135 J/Kg

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|ME| Study Material
HEAT TRANSFER
1. HEISLER CHART
1.1
Transient Heat Conduction in Solids with Finite Conduction and Convective Resistances
(0<Bi<100)
As shown in figure 1.1, consider the heating and cooling of a plane wall having a thickness of 2L
and extending to infinity in Y and Z directions. Let us assume that the wall, initially, is at uniform
temperature ti and both the surfaces x L are suddenly exposed to and maintained at the
ambient (surroundings) temperature ta. The governing differential equation is
d 2 t 1 dt
dx 2 d
...(1.1)
The boundary conditions are:

(i) At 0, t = ti
t1
dt
0
dx
(ii) At
x = 0,
(iii) At
dt
x L;kA hA t t a
dx
ta
(The conduction heat transfer equals

convective heat transfer at the wall surface)
The solutions obtained after rigorous mathematical analysis indicate that
t ta
x hl
f , , 2
ti ta
l k l
...(1.2)
From the equation (1.2) it is evident that when

conduction resistance is not negligible, the
temperature history becomes a function of
Infinite
plane wall
2L
Figure 1.1: Transient heat conduction
in an infinite plane wall
hl

x
Biot numbers , Fourier number 2 and the dimensionless parameter which
k
l
l
indicates the location of point within the plate where temperature is to be obtained. The
x
r
dimensionless parameter
is replaced by
in case of cylinders and spheres.
l
R
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|ME| Study Material
For the equation (1.2) graphical charts have been prepared in a variety of forms. In the Figures
from (1.2) to (1.4) are shown the Heisler Charts which depict the dimensionless temperature
t0 ta
1
for solids of different geometrical
versus F0 (Fourier number) for various values of

Bi
ti ta
shapes such a plates, cylinders and spheres. These charts provide the temperature history of the
solid at its mid-planes (x = 0); temperatures at other locations are worked out by multiplying the
mid plane temperature by correction factors read from charts given in figures (1.5) to (1.7). The
following relationship is used:
t ta t0 ta t ta
i t i t a t i t a t 0 t a
The value Bi (Biot number) and F0 (Fourier number), as used in the Heisler charts, are evaluated
on the basis of a characteristic parameters which is the semi-thickness in case of plates and the
surface radius in case of cylinders and spheres.
When both conduction and convection resistances are almost of equal importance the Heisler
charts are extensively used to determine the temperature distribution.
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|ME| Study Material
600
500
400
Bi
hL
k
300
200
150
100 80
60
90
70
50
130
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
28
26
45
40 35
30
25
18
20
16
14 12
10
1Bi
24

22
F
2
20 0 s 2
L
18
14
12
10
8
6
4
2.5
1.8
2.0
1.4
1.6
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.7
0.4
0.5
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.06
0
0.001
0.002
0.003
0.003
0.004
0.005
0.007
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.05
0.07
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.7
t0 ta
ti ta
Figure 1.2: Heisler chart temperature history at the centre of a plane of thickness 2 L or (x/L) = 0
223
|ME| Study Material

350
300
200
150
140
130
120
100
90
80
110
70
60
50
100
45
40
90
35
80
30
70
60
50
40
30
28
25
1Bi
20 18
16
26
24
22

F0 2 2
20
s
R
18
14
12
10
8
14
12 10
9
8
7
6
4
3
0.001
0.005
0.004
0.003
0.002
0.007
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.05
0.07
0.1
1.0
0.7
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
5 4
3.0
2.0
1.6
3.5
2.5
1.2
1.8 1.4
0.8
0.5
1.0
0.3
0.6
0.1
0.4
0.2
0
t0 ta
ti ta
Figure 1.3: Heisler chart for temperature history in a cylinder
224
|ME| Study Material
250
210
170
130
110
90
70
50
100
45
80
90
60
40
35
30
25
20
45
50
35
40
25
30
18
20
16
15
10
14
12
10
1 B
8
7
6
5
4
3
2.6
2.4
3.5
1 .8 1 .6 1 .4
2.2 2.0
1 .2
1 .0
F0
2.5
2.8
3.0
0.75
1.5
0.35
0.5
0.2
0.1
0.05
1.0
0
0.5
0.005
0.004
0.003
0.002
0.001
0.007
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.05
0.04
0.07
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.5
0.4
0.7
1.0
t0 ta
ti ta
Figure 1.4: Heisler chart for temperature history in a sphere
225

2
s2
R
|ME| Study Material
0
1.0
X L 0.2
0.9
0.4
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.6
t ta
t0 ta
0.5
0.4
0.8
0.3
0.9
0.2
0.1
1.0
0
0.01 0.02
0.1
0.05
0.2
0.5
1.0
10
20
50
100
1 k
Bi hL
Figure 1.5: Heisler position-correction factor chart for temperature history in plate
226
|ME| Study Material
0
1.0
r r0 0.2
0.9
0.4
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.6
r R
t ta
t0 ta
0.5
0.4
0.8
0.3
0.9
0.2
0.1
1.0
0
0.01 0.02
0.05
0.1
0.2
0.5
1.0
10
20
50
100
1
k
Bi hR
Figure 1.6: Heisler position-correction factor chart for temperature history in cylinder
227
|ME| Study Material
0
1.0
r r0 0.2
0.9
0.4
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.6
t ta
t0 ta
0.5
0.4
0.8
0.3
0.9
0.2
0.1
1.0
0
0.01 0.02
0.1
0.05
0.2
0.5
1.0
10
20
50
100
1
k
Bi hR
Figure 1.7: Heisler position-correction factor chart for temperature history in sphere
228
|ME| Study Material
PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1.
A long cylindrical shaft of diameter 20cm is

initially at a uniform temperature of 600 C.
The shaft is now kept in an oven whose
temperature is 8000C with average heat
transfer coefficient h = 80 W/m2K.
Material properties:
Thermal conductivity:
k=3W/mK,=6.70x10- 6m2/s.
T0=Centre temperature,
Ts= Surface temperature,
T= Ambient temperature.
The time taken to have a centre temperature
of 7000 C is _____ seconds.
Biot
number
1.33
2.66
(T0-T)/ (Ti-T)
0.1351
0.1351
Fourier
number
1.25
0.82
Biot number r/R (T(r/R)-T)/ (T0-T)

1.33
1
0.5
2.66
1
0.3
Biot number
1.33
2.66
(A) 1223.88
(C) 1250.50
2.
(T0-T)/ (Ti-T)
0.54
0.90
Fourier
number
1.3
0.25
(B) 1225.55
(D) 1333.33
A plane wall of thickness 6 cm is at a

uniform temperature of 400 C. One side of
the plane wall is thermally insulated and the
other side is exposed to an air stream
(h = 30 W/m2K ) of 4000 C .
The temperature of insulated surface after 20
minutes is _____ C.
Material properties of wall material:
k= 12.8 W/mK, = 3.61x10-6, C=461 J/kgK
Biot number
0.07
0.14
(A) 85.0
(C) 82.7
3.
Fourier (T0-T)/ (Ti-T)

number
1.203
1.25
1.203
0.88
(B) 83.2
(D) 87.5
A plane wall of thickness 4 cm is having a

uniform temperature of 400 C. Suddenly
both sides of the wall are brought into
contact using a thermal reservoir whose
temperature is maintained at 5000 C all the
time. The time taken for the core to reach
4000 C is _____ seconds.
Material properties of wall material:
k=12.8 W/mK, = 3.61x10-6W/m2K,
C=461 J/kgK
Biot number
(T0-T)/ (Ti-T)
0.01
infinity
0.217
0.217
(A) 74.346
(C) 75.346
Fourier
number
3.15
0.68
(B) 72.346
(D) 73.346

Biot number
0.535
0.535
1.07
1.07
x/L
(T(X/L)-T)/(T0-T)
0,333
0.92
0.666
0.98
0.333
0.72
0.666
0.87
A plane wall 5 cm thickness initially at a

uniform temperature of 600 C is exposed to a
convective heat transfer coefficient of 150
W/m2K and Temperature of 4000 C, whereas
the other side is thermally insulated. The
value of thermal conductivity of the wall is
k =12.8 W/m-K
229
|ME| Study Material
4.
The temperature of insulated surface when

the exposed surface temperature reaches
3000 C
is _____0C.
(A) 270.55
(B) 280.42
(C) 265.71
(D) 271.79
of the insulated surface is 2000C. The

temperature at a plane at a depth of 2cm
from the exposed surface is ____ 0C.
Material properties of wall material: k= 14
W/mK, = 6x10-6W/m2K, C=400 J/kgK
5.
At the same time t Temperature of a plane

at a depth of 1 cm from exposed surface is
_____0C.
(A) 289.73
(B) 290.46
(C) 264.43
(D) 287.47
Biot number
6.
A plane wall of thickness 6 cm is initially at

a uniform temperature of 500C. Its one
surface is exposed to convective environment of h= 200W/m2K, temperature of
3000C and other surface is insulated. If at a
particular instant of time t, the temperature
x/L (T(X/L)-T)/(T0-T)
0.293
0.93
0.293
0.2
0.90
0.293
0.8
0.95
0.586
0.78
0.586
0.2
0.72
0.586
0.8
0.86
(A) 215
(C) 213
(B) 220
(D) 230
230
|ME| Study Material
ANSWER KEYS
1
EXPLANATIONS
1.
4.
Ti 60C,T 800C.
Bi = hR/k= 2.666.
T0 T Ti T
Bi = hL/k= 0.5859
For surface, x/L= 1,
From table,
700 800 60 800
Ts T T0 T 0.78,
0.1351.
From table, F0 0.82 t L2
Solve for T0,

T0 271.79C
Solving, t = 1223.88 seconds.

2.
Ti 40C,
5.
T 400C,
x/L= 4/5= 0.8
h 30 W m 2 K, t 1200sec
From table, T T T0 T 0.86,
Insulated at one surface, so, L= 6 cm

Biot number, Bi = hL/k= 0.14, Fo = 1.203,
Solve for T,
T 289.73C.
From table, T0 T Ti T 0.88,
6.
Solving, T0 83.2C.
3.
Ti 60C, T 400C, Ts=300C, L=5cm
Ti 50C, T 300C,
Insulated surface, T0 200C, L 6cm
Ti 40C,T 500C Ts
At a depth of 2 cm from exposed surface,

x = 6-2 = 4 cm, x/L = 2/3
L= 2 cm, it is also the case of h

Bi h k
Bi 1.07, T0 T Ti T
200 300 50 300 0.4,
T0 T Ti T 0.217
From table, F0 0.68 t L2
From chart, F0 = 1.4

x / L 0.666,
t = 75.346 sec.
Bi T T T0 T 0.87,
Solve for T, T 213 C.
231

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GATE 16 - ME Additional Syllabus

|ME| Study Material

1. Strain Gauge and Rosette.......................................................................

1.1 Strain Gauge......................................................................................

1.2 Strain Gauge Rosettes .......................................................................

2. Universal Testing Machine ....................................................................

2.1 Introduction .......................................................................................

2.2 Universal Testing Machine ...............................................................

2.3 Electrical Equipment .........................................................................

2.4 Installations .......................................................................................

2.5 Method of Testing .............................................................................

2.6 Attendance and Maintenance ............................................................

3. TESTING AND HARDNESS ................................................................

3.1 Introduction .......................................................................................

3.2 Brinell Hardness Test ........................................................................

3.3 Rockwell Hardness Test ...................................................................

3.4 Vickers Hardness Test ......................................................................

4.1 Introduction .......................................................................................

4.2 Impact Testing Machine ...................................................................

GATE 16 - ME Additional Syllabus

|ME| Study Material

THEORY OF MACHINES ................................................................................... 44 193

1.1 Cams .................................................................................................

1.2 Gears .................................................................................................

2.1 Introduction .......................................................................................

2.2 Types of Governors...........................................................................

2.3 Watt Governor (Simple Conical Governor) ......................................

2.4 Porter Governor ................................................................................

2.5 Proell Governor.................................................................................

2.6 Hartnell Governor .............................................................................

2.7 Hartung Governor .............................................................................

2.8 Wilson-Hartnell Governor ................................................................

2.9 Pickering Governor ...........................................................................

2.10 Spring-Controlled Gravity Governor ................................................

2.11 Inertia Governor ................................................................................

2.12 Sensitiveness of a Governor..............................................................

2.13 Hunting .............................................................................................

2.14 Isochronism .......................................................................................

2.15 Stability .............................................................................................

2.16 Effect of a Governor .........................................................................

2.17 Power of a Governor .........................................................................

2.18 Controlling Force ..............................................................................

3.1 Introduction .......................................................................................

3.2 Static Balancing ................................................................................

3.3 Dynamic Balancing...........................................................................

3.4 Transference of a force from one plane to another ...........................

3.5 Balancing of several masses in different planes ...............................

GATE 16 - ME Additional Syllabus

|ME| Study Material

3.6 Balancing of reciprocating mass .......................................................

3.7 Balancing of Locomotives ................................................................

3.8 Effects of partial balancing in Locomotives .....................................

3.9 Secondary Balancing ........................................................................

3.10 Balancing of Inline Engines ..............................................................

3.11 Balancing of V-Engines ....................................................................

3.12 Field Balancing .................................................................................

4.1 Introduction .......................................................................................

4.2 Motion of a rigid body in three dimensions ......................................

4.3 Rigid bodies in Spheric motion.........................................................

4.4 Eulers equation of motion................................................................

4.5 Simple precession of a symmetrical rotor .........................................

4.6 Gyrodynamics ...................................................................................