John Dryden, The Conquest of Granada by the Spaniards

John Dryden (1631-1700)

poet, literary critic, translator, and playwright (satires, religious pieces, fables, epigrams,
compliments, prologues, plays) Restoration England (Age of Dryden)
He established the heroic couplet (couplets of iambic pentameter) as the standard
meter of English poetry + a poetic diction appropriate to the heroic couplet (he tried to
achieve the rhythms of speech)
The Conquest of Granada:
a two-part tragedy (first performed in 1670 and published in 1672).

"heroic drama" pioneered by Dryden & subject of later satire

the Spanish conquest of Granada in 1492 and the fall of Muhammad XII of Granada, the
last Islamic ruler on the Iberian Peninsula.

.
TRAGEDY
Aristotle, Poetics
1. Mimesis
2. The protagonist is a highly placed man (or woman): the play presents only leaders
(royalty, military, chieftains, etc.)
3. He suffers a catastrophe (Gr. peripeteia) or downfall. He suffers beyond what most
people endure.
4. His downfall is brought about by a tragic flaw in his character (hamartia).
E.g.: Hybris (hubris)
5. The protagonist recognises his own flaw
6. Involvement expected from the audience that provides an emotional release, or
catharsis.
7. The action is constructed within the three unities of time, place, and action. In Drydens
play the unity of action was dissolved into one or more sub-plots.

Emotional engagement of characters: pride, lust, grief, rage, etc.

Because I've seen,
This day, what 'tis to hope to be a queen.
Heaven, how you all watched each motion of
her eye!
None could be seen while Almahide was by,
Because she is to beher majesty!
Why would I be a queen? Because my face
Would wear the title with a better grace.[]
Yes! I avow the ambition of my soul,
To be that one to live without controul!
And that's another happiness to me,
To be so happy as but one can be.

(Lyndaraxa to Abdalla, Act II)

When she's in question, Sence and Reason lye.

(Almanzor about Alamhide, Act )
Your new Commands I on my knees attend:
I was created for no other end.
Born to be yours, I do by Nature, serve
(Almanz.to Almahide, Act V)

Idealism (ethical) principles: honour, truth, justice, beauty, etc. that the characters are
willing to sacrifice their lives for
By heaven, you shall not go! I will not be
O'ercome in love or generosity.

All I desire, to end the unlucky strife,

Is but a vow, that you will be my wife.[]

I know you false, yet in your snares I fall;

You grant me nothing, and I grant you all.
(Abdelmelech to Lyndaraxa, ACT IV, Scene II )

More Love, than what I ought, let this attone.

[Going to stab herself.]
(Almahide to Almanzor, Act IV, Scene III)

You've mov'd my heart, so much, I can deny

No more; but know, Almanzor, I can dye.
Thus far, my vertue yields; if I have shown

Kill me: in death your mercy will be seen,

But make me not a Captive to the Queen
(Lyndaraxa to Abdelmelech, Act IV, Scene III)

Inevitable consequences (hamartia, hybris): disobeying accepted order of things leads to

punishment

Characters long for a higher level of life than human existence

Tragic conflict between sentiments and duty:
Assist me, Zulema, if thou wouldst be
I gave my faith to him, he his to me.
That friend thou seem'st, assist me against me. (Almahide to Almanzor, about Boabdelin, Act III)
Betwixt my love and virtue I am tossed;
(Abdalla to Zulema, Act II)
But I am both wayes, curst.
Our souls are tied by holy vows above.
This day

For Almahide must dye, if I am slain;

Or, for my Rival, I the Conquest gain.
(Almanzor, Act IV)

Heroism: superhuman, larger-than-life beings & militarism: the "good soldier" model

So, from his shrinking troops, Almanzor flew;

Each blow gave wounds, and with each wound
he slew.
His force at once I envy'd and admir'd.
(Duke of Arcos to King Ferdinand, about
Almanzor, Act V)

Th'undaunted youth--Then drew; and from his Saddle bending low,

Just where the neck did to the shoulders grow,
With his full force discharg'd a deadly blow.
Not heads of Poppies, (when they reap the
grain)
Fall with more ease before the lab'ring Swayn,
Then fell this head:--It fell so quick, it did even death prevent:

At this he turn'd, and, as the Bull drew near,

Shun'd, and receiv'd him on his pointed Spear. (Abdelmelech to Boabdelin, about Almanzor,
The Lance broke short: the beast then bellow'd Act I)
lowd,
And his strong neck to a new onset bow'd.

o Almanzor <=> James II (To His Royal Highness the Duke)

It is from this consideration, that I have presumed to dedicate to your royal

highness these faint representations of your own worth and valour in heroick
poetry: Or, to speak more properly, not to dedicate, but to restore to you those
ideas, which in the more perfect part of my characters I have taken from you.
Even the first blossoms of your youth paid us all that could be expected from a
ripening manhood.
In the mean time, while your royal highness is preparing fresh employments for
our pens, I have been examining my own forces, and making trial of myself, how
I shall be able to transmit you to posterity. I have formed a hero, I confess, not
absolutely perfect, but of an excessive and over-boiling courage [...] such a
person is Almanzor, whom I present, with all humility, to the patronage of your
royal highness.

Heroes should only be judged by heroes; because they only are capable of
measuring great and heroick actions by the rule and standard of their own.