Chapter

Chapter Outline
Outline
Joining
Joining Processes
Processes

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Welding
Welding Processes
Processes

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Welded
Welded Joints
Joints

Gas, electricity, or other heat source?

Is electrode consumed?
z Is a filler material used?
z Is flux used?
z Anything else?
z Video Introduction to welding
z
z

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Fusion
Fusion Welding
Welding Processes
Processes
z

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Oxyacetylene
Oxyacetylene Welding
Welding

Video Fusion welding processes

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Acetylene gas most common (6,000 F)

z Welding
z Cutting
z Straightening
z Can be with or without filler
z

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Weld
Weld Joint
Joint Structure
Structure

Oxyacetylene Torch
Figure 30.2 (a) General view of
and (b) cross-section of a torch
used in oxyacetylene welding.
The acetylene valve is opened
first; the gas is lit with a spark
lighter or a pilot light; then the
oxygen valve is opened and the
flame adjusted. (c) Basic
equipment used in oxyfuel-gas
welding. To ensure correct
connections, all threads on
acetylene fittings are left-handed,
whereas those for oxygen are
right-handed. Oxygen regulators
are usually painted green, and
acetylene regulators red.

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Figure 30.17 Characteristics of a

typical fusion-weld zone in oxyfuelgas and arc welding.

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Arc
Arc Welding
Welding Processes
Processes
z

Figure 30.18 Grain structure in (a) deep weld and

(b) shallow weld. Note that the grains in the
solidified weld metal are perpendicular to their
interface with the base metal (see also Fig. 10.3).
(c) Weld bead on a cold-rolled nickel strip produced
by a laser beam. (d) Microhardness (HV) profile
across a weld bead.

Gas-Tungsten
Gas-Tungsten Arc
Arc Welding
Welding

Nonconsumable electrode

Video TIG welding

Gas tungsten-arc (TIG)

Plasma arc (PAW)
z

Figure 30.4 (a) The gas

tungsten-arc welding
process, formerly known as
TIG (for tungsten inert gas)
welding. (b) Equipment for
gas tungsten-arc welding
operations.

Consumable electrode

Shielded metal arc (SMAW)

Gas metal arc (GMAW or MIG)
Flux-cored arc welding (FCAW)
Submerged arc welding (SAW)

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Plasma-Arc
Plasma-Arc Welding
Welding Process
Process

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Shielded-Metal
Shielded-Metal Arc
Arc Welding
Welding

Video plasma arc welding

z 60,000 degrees F
z

Video shielded metal arc welding

Figure 30.7 Schematic illustration of the shielded metal-arc

welding process. About 50% of all large-scale industrial welding
operations use this process.
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Shielded-Metal
Shielded-Metal Arc
Arc Welding
Welding

Gas
Gas Metal-Arc
Metal-Arc Welding
Welding
z

Figure 30.8 A deep weld showing the

buildup sequence of eight individual weld
beads.

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Videos gas metal arc welding

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Fluxed-Cored
Fluxed-Cored Arc-Welding
Arc-Welding
z

Video submerged-are welding

Figure 30.9 Schematic illustration of the submerged arc welding process and
equipment. The unfused flux is recovered and reused.

Figure 30.11 Schematic illustration of the flux-cored arc welding process. This
operation is similar to gas metal-arc welding, shown in Fig. 30.10.
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Submerged-Arc
Submerged-Arc Welding
Welding

Video flux core welding

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Other
Other Welding
Welding Processes
Processes

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Weld
Weld Design
Design

Electron beam - video

z Laser beam - video
z

Figure 30.29 Some design guidelines for welds. Source: After J.G. Bralla.
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Welded
Welded Joints
Joints
z

Defects
Defects in
in Fusion
Fusion Welds
Welds

Metallurgy concerns
Figure 30.19 Examples of
various discontinuities in fusion
welds.

Solidification process
z

Heat-affected zone weakest part of joint

Figure 30.20 Examples of

various defects in fusion welds.

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Cracks
Cracks in
in Welded
Welded Joints
Joints

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Distortion
Distortion of
of Parts
Parts After
After Welding
Welding

Figure 30.23 Distortion of parts after welding. (a) Butt joints and (b) fillet welds.
Distortion is caused by differential thermal expansion and contraction of different
regions of the welded assembly.

Figure 30.21 Types of cracks developed in welded joints. The cracks are caused
by thermal stresses, similar to the development of hot tears in castings (see also
Fig. 10.12).
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Solid-state
Solid-state Processes
Processes

Weld
Weld Testing
Testing
z

Mechanical methods
Ultrasonic
Friction

Electrical
Resistance

Figure 30.26 (a) Specimen for longitudinal tension-shear testing; (b) specimen for
transfer tension-shear testing; (c) wraparound bend test method; (d) three-point
bending of welded specimens (see also Fig. 2.11).
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Ultrasonic
Ultrasonic Welding
Welding

Ultrasonic
Ultrasonic Welding
Welding
z

Video - ultrasonic

z
z

Vibrating tool at high frequency

Lap joints of thin materials

Figure 31.2 (a) Components of an ultrasonic welding machine for making lap welds. The lateral
vibrations of the tool tip cause plastic deformation and bonding at the interface of the
workpieces. (b) Ultrasonic seam welding using a roller as the sonotrode.

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Friction
Friction welding
welding

Resistance
Resistance (Spot)
(Spot) Welding
Welding (RW)
(RW)
Figure 31.6 (a) Sequence of
events in resistance spot
welding. (b) Cross-section of
a spot weld, showing the weld
nugget and the indentation of
the electrode on the sheet
surfaces. This is one of the
most commonly used
processes in sheet-metal
fabrication and in automotivebody assembly.

Rub two parts

together
z Video
z

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Resistance
Resistance Welding
Welding

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Spot
Spot Welding
Welding Equipment
Equipment

Video
z Spot, projection, and seam
z Heating
z

H=I2RT, where
I=current
R=electrical resistance
T=time
Figure 31.7 (a) Schematic illustration of an air-operated, rocker-arm,
spot welding machine. (b) and (c) Two electrode designs for easy
access into components to be welded.

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Resistance
Resistance Projection
Projection Welding
Welding

Spot
Spot Weld
Weld Testing
Testing

Figure 31.13 (a) Schematic illustration of resistance projection welding. (b) A

welded bracket. (c) and (d) Projection welding of nuts or threaded bosses and
studs. (e) Resistance-projection-welded grills.
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Figure 31.10 Test methods for spot welds: (a) tension-shear test, (b) cross-tension
test, (c) twist test, (d) peel test. (see also Fig. 32.9).
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Brazing
Brazing &
& Soldering
Soldering

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Joint
Joint Designs
Designs used
used in
in Brazing
Brazing

Video
Filler material
z Temperature below melting point of
metals
z Differences from welding
z
z

brazing alloy
strength of brazing alloy
capillary action
z

Soldering - lower temperature than

brazing

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Figure 32.3 Joint designs commonly used in brazing operations. The clearance
between the two parts being brazed in an important factor in joint strength. If the
clearance is too small, the molten braze metal will not penetrate the interface fully. If
it is too large, there will be insufficient capillary action for the molten metal to fill the
interface.
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Joints
Joints
Should be clean
z Should have close tolerance

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Advantages
Advantages of
of Brazing
Brazing
Join a variety of metals
z Quick
z Low temperature
z Automation is possible

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Adhesives
Adhesives

Adhesives
Adhesives

Epoxies - most are 2 components

Cyanoacrylates - super glues
Anaerobics

Acrylics

Urethanes

Silicones - flexible joints

Hot melts

z
z

one component, cure when oxygen is removed

catalyst primer and adhesive
low temperatures
z
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z
z
z
z
z
z
z
z
z

Combination of materials
Low temperature
Joining of thin materials
Joining of heat sensitive materials
Inexpensive
Less assembly time
Unstable at higher temperature
Destructive testing required
Surface preparation
Cure time

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Many ideas
Function
z Cost
z Time
z DFM Video
z
z

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DFM
DFM -- Concepts
Concepts
z
z
z
z
z
z
z

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Design
Design for
for Assembly
Assembly (DFM)
(DFM)

Advantages
Advantages &
& Disadvantages
Disadvantages
z

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DFM
DFM Examples
Examples

Reduce the number of parts

Reduce number of fasteners
Use modular designs
Reduce need to handle several components at
the same time
Limit number of directions
Use high quality components
Design fasteners that can be easily
automatically feed

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