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Chapter
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1-4
1.2
1-4
1.3
1-6
1.3.1
Gravitational Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1-7
1.3.2
1-7
1.3.3
1.3.4
1.4
1.5
1.4.2
1.6
1.7
Review
of
Phasors
and
s-Domain
Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-35
1.7.1
1-1
1-2
1.7.2
1.7.3
1-3
1.1
Introduction
Chapter one serves as an introduction to the course technical content an review of concepts from math and physics courses outside
the ECE department, and circuit theory with emphasis on sinusoidal
steady-state analysis using phasors
1.2
Table 1-1
Fundamental
Table
1.1: SI Units.SI units.
Dimension
Unit
Length
Mass
Time
Electric current
Temperature
Amount of substance
meter
kilogram
second
ampere
kelvin
mole
Symbol
m
kg
s
A
K
mol
Symbol
Magnitude
exa
peta
tera
giga
mega
kilo
E
P
T
G
M
k
1018
1015
1012
109
106
103
milli
micro
nano
pico
femto
atto
n
p
f
a
103
106
109
1012
1015
1018
1.3
1.3.1
Gravitational Force
1.3.2
Finally getting into some real EM, we consider EM field forces. The
electric field has associated force Fe and the magnetic field has associated force Fm
By way of review from your physics background and analogous to the gravitational field, an electric field results from
electric change which may be positive or negative
The force is again inverse with the distance squared between
two charges and proportional to the product of the charges !
the resulting force may attract or repel
The fundamental unit of charge is that of the electron, taken to
have absolute value e
e D 1:6 10
19
(C)
1-7
Fe21
O 12
DR
12
R
Fe12
Fe21
q1 q2
(N)
2
40 E
R12
+q1
+q2
R12
Fe21 D Fe12
q
40R2
(V/m)
in free space
+q
Electric
field lines
Figure
1.2:1-6
Electric
field
E due
to point
charge
Figure
Electric
field
E due
to charge
q. q
1-9
ne e D .np
ne /e
(C)
Now place a point charge inside the material and observe that
the electron cloud becomes distorted due to the charge imbalance
q
4R2
(V/m)
1.3.3
In physics you learn about magnetisim and may have experimented with iron filings on a sheet of paper placed over a magnet
The iron filings align in a pattern that matches the magnetic
field
Formally, the magnetic field lines, which are actually loops,
are shown below for a bar magnet
1-12
B
Magnetic
field lines
S
Figure 1.4:
lines around
a bararound
magnet
Figure
1-8 Magnetic
Pattern offield
magnetic
field lines
a bar
magnet.
Like poles of different magnets repel while unlike poles attract
Attraction and repulsion exists with electric charge, but magnetic poles must exist in pairs (no magnetic monopoles)
The magnetic field lines represent the magnetic flux density B
Inducing a B Field Using a Steady Current
Electricity and magnetism are related as Oersted showed in
1819 that a magnetic field surrounds a wire carrying an electric
current
1-13
y
r
B
x
B
B
B
B
FigureFigure
1.5: The1-9
B field
by afield
steady
current by
in the
z direction.
Theinduced
magnetic
induced
a steady
current flowing in the z direction.
Formally, the Biot-Savart law (more in text Chapter 5) says
that
0 I
B D O
(T)
2 r
where r is the radial distance in the current in the .x; y/ plane,
O is the azimuthal unit vector circling the z-axis in the .x; y/
plane, and 0 is magnetic permeability of free space (0 D
4 10 7 H/m, H = henry)
The units for the flux density is tesla (T)
Note that 0 is the magnetic equivalent of 0 for electric fields
1-14
1
D 3 108
00
(m/s)
(H/m)
1.3.4
(A/m)
1-16
EM Branches
The study of static and dynamic fields breaks out into three branches:
Figure 1.6: The three branches of EM.
Table 1-3 The three branches of electromagnetics.
Branch
Condition
Electrostatics
Stationary charges
( q/ t = 0)
Magnetostatics
Steady currents
( I/ t = 0)
Dynamics
(time-varying fields)
Time-varying currents
( I/ t = 0)
E, D, B, and H
(E, D) coupled to (B, H)
More On Materials
Beyond dielectric and magnetic properties of materials we also
need to consider conductivity
1-17
Table
Material constitutive
Table
1-41.3:
Constitutive
parametersproperties.
of materials.
1.4
Parameter
Units
Free-Space Value
Electrical
permittivity
F/m
0 = 8.854 1012
1
109
36
Magnetic
permeability
H/m
0 = 4 107
Conductivity
S/m
Traveling Waves
Fundamental to dynamic fields and the upcoming study of transmissions line in Chapter 2, is the concept of a traveling wave. Both
wired, think the internet backbone of fiber optics, and wireless, think
WiFi, communications totally rely on propagating waves.
Traveling waves occur in a variety or physical scenarios
Waves are found:
In water
In air as sound pressure
As vibrations (earth quake)
Electric and magnetic fields traveling through free space
or media (this includes radio, microwaves, X-rays, light,
...)
Common properties:
1-18
Carry energy
Have velocity; EM waves in free space travel at 3108m/s
Frequently are linear in the sense that superposition applies; sound pressure waves from multiple people talking
simultaneously or the many electromagmnetic waves we
are immersed in all the time
Waves may be transient when a sudden disturbance occurs periodic, or perhaps random
In this class the focus is on periodic sinusoidal waves with
few exceptions (superposition is of course possible)
The one dimensional wave is the easiest to understand, e.g.,
waves on a string or rope
Figure
1-101.7:
A one-dimensional wave traveling on a
Figure
Waves in 1D on a string.
string.
1-19
Spherical wavefront
Plane wavefront
1-20
1.4.1
2 t
y.x; t / D A cos
T
2x
C 0
(m)
2 t
T
2x
C 0
(rad)
y(x, 0)
At t = 0
A
0
3
2
A
0
A
T
2
3T
2
T
(b) y(x, t) versus t at x = 0
!
"
2 t
20x D 0)
Figure 1.9:
t / versus
x then
(assume
Figure
1-12y.x;
Plots
of y(x,t)
= Atcos
as a
T
y(x, 0)
P
3
2
(a) t = 0
up
y(x, T/4)
P
3
2
(b) t = T/4
y(x, T/2)
P
3
2
(c) t = T/2
!
"
2 x
1-13 time
Plotssnapshots
of y(x,t) = showing
A cos 2T t wave
aspropagation
a
Figure 1.10:Figure
1D wave
in
the Cx
2x
By defining
1-24
2
x
x Direction
By changing the sign on the x we can make the wave propagation in the opposite direction (why?), i.e.,
2
x
y .x; t / D A cos 2f t C
D A cos !t C x
If the sign in front of the t term is opposite the sign in front of
the x term the propagation is Cx
If the sign of both terms is identical, plus or minus, the proagation is x
What About 0?
A while back we dropped 0 by setting it to zero
Bringing it back onto the scene, we see that with 0 present
y .x; t / D A cos !t x C 0
The wave either leads (0 > 0) or lags (0 < 0) the reference
(0 D 0 case)
1-25
Superimposing Cx and
x Waves
In practical applications coming up in Chapter 2 we will routinely deal with a superposition of Cx and x waves
Text problem 1.8 begins this exploration by considering
ys .x; t / D yC.x; t / C y .x; t /
When the waves superimpose a standing wave pattern is created
The magnitude of the wave ys .x; t / will contain peaks
and valleys where there is constructive and destructive interference occurring
Chapter 2 will do a lot more with this topic
There are plenty of practical applications of this happing in our
lives, both for acoustical waves, radio waves, and if you are out
on the water too
1.4.2
x C 0/
cos.!t
10 m
Wave envelope
10e0.2x
5m
0
x (m)
5 m
10 m
0.2x
Figure 1-15Figure
Plot of y(x)
= (10eDisplacement
cos x) meters.wave
Note that
the envelope is for
bounded
the curve given by 10e0.2x
1.11:
attenuation
Dbetween
0:2 Np/m.
Notice that Ae
soidal wave
(m/s);
0:003200
D 0:37
(V/m)
1-29
1.5
The EM Spectrum
Optical window
Infrared windows
Radio window
Atmosphere opaque
100%
Ionosphere opaque
Atmospheric opacity
0
X-rays
Visible
Medical diagnosis
Ultraviolet
Gamma rays
Infrared
Cancer therapy
Heating,
Sterilization
night vision
1 fm
1 pm
-15
-12
10
23
10
10
21
10
1 nm
-10
10
10
1 EHz
10
18
-9
1 mm
10
1 PHz
10
15
-6
Radio spectrum
Communication, radar, radio and TV broadcasting,
radio astronomy
1 mm
1m
-3
10
1 THz
10
12
1
1 GHz
10
1 km
10
1 MHz
10
1 Mm
10
1 kHz
10
Wavelength (m)
8
10
1 Hz
Frequency (Hz)
FigureThe
1-16 The
electromagnetic spectrum.
Figure 1.12:
electromagnetic
spectrum.
1.5.1
usage
The allocation chart is available as wall chart1
https://www.ntia.doc.gov/files/ntia/publications/spectrum_wall_chart_aug2011.pdf
1-31
1.6
1.6.1
A Few Basics
To the EE we define j D
with imaginary numbers
p
where jzj D r D x 2 C y 2 and is the angle formed by the
point .x; y/ in the complex plane relative to the positive real
axis
Note: Finding via tan 1.y=x/ has issues that requires
you pay attention to the quadrant where z lies
In Python (numpy) angle(3 + 1j*5) is better
On a the TI-89 angle(3+5i) is also available
(z)
z
x = |z| cos
y = |z| sin
|z| = + x2 + y2
= tan1 (y/x)
|z|
(z)
j
and
sin D
e j
e
2j
j
Consider z1 D 6
1.7
1.7.1
+
vs t
it
vo t
1<t <1
Vs .s/
Vs .s/
sC
D
D
V
.s/
s
1
z.s/
1 C sRC
R C sC
Vo.s/ D Vs .s/
1
sC
1
R C sC
D Vs .s/
1
1 C sRC
Continue to solve for the current and voltage waveforms assuming that V0 D 5 V, 0 D =4, R D 1000 ohms, C D 10
nF, and f D 2 kHz (! D 2f )
We will use Python (PyLab) to obtain the numerical values for
IQ and VQs
46.13dB 10
46.13
---------------20
2.09dB 10
2.09
---------20
= 4.94 10
= 7.86 10
The hand calculation (using Python) and the LTspice AC analysis are in agreement (no surprise)
1-39
1.7.2
x C 0/
cos.!t
VQ C.x/ D Ae
j.x 0 /
x
up
0
!
(s)
C
So, given that L v .x; t /g D VC.x; s/, we have
V C.x; s/ D VC.0; s/ e
D V C.0; s/ e
st0
sx=up
s0 =!
e
1.7.3
Sinusoids and Their Corresponding CosineTable 1-5 Time-domain sinusoidal functions z(t) and
Reference Phasors
#
their cosine-reference phasor-domain counterparts Z,
Z#
z(t)
A cos t
A cos( t + 0 )
A cos( t + x + 0)
Ae x cos( t + x + 0)
A sin t
A sin( t + 0 )
A
Ae j0
Ae j( x+0)
Ae x e j( x+0 )
Ae j /2
Ae j(0 /2)
d
(z(t))
dt
j Z#
d
[A cos( t + 0 )]
dt
$
$
z(t) dt
A sin( t + 0 ) dt
j Ae j0
1 #
Z
j
1
Ae j(0 /2)
j
1-41