Textile Mill

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Textile Mill
For History of Textile engineering from 1750 to 1850, see Textile manufacture during the
Industrial Revolution. For Hand processing techniques today and before 1750, see Textile
manufacturing by pre-industrial methods.
Textile manufacturing is a major industry. It is based on the conversion of three types of fibre
into yarn, then fabric, then textiles. These are then fabricated into clothes or other artefacts.
Cotton remains the most important natural fibre, so is treated in depth. There are many variable
processes available at the spinning and fabric-forming stages coupled with the complexities of
the finishing and colouration processes to the production of a wide ranges of products. There
remains a large industry that uses hand techniques to achieve the same results.

Contents

1 Processing of cotton
o 1.1 Cultivating and harvesting

1.1.1 Issues

o 1.2 Preparatory processes - preparation of yarn

o 1.3 Spinning - yarn manufacture

1.3.1 Measurements

o 1.4 Weaving-fabric manufacture

1.4.1 Measurements

1.4.2 Associated job titles

1.4.3 Issues

o 1.5 Knitting- fabric manufacture

o 1.6 Finishing- processing of textiles
o 1.7 Economic, environmental and political consequences of cotton manufacture

2 Processing of other vegetable fibres

o 2.1 Flax
o 2.2 Jute
o 2.3 Hemp
o 2.4 Other bast fibres
o 2.5 Other leaf fibres

3 Processing of protein fibres

o 3.1 Wool
o 3.2 Silk

4 Processing of synthetic fibres

o 4.1 Discussion of types of synthetic fibers

5 See also

6 References

7 Bibliography

8 External links

Processing of cotton
Cotton Manufacturing Processes (after Murray 1911)
Bale Breaker

Blowing Room

Willowing

Breaker Scutcher

Batting

Finishing Scutcher

Lapping

Carding

Carding Room

Silver Lap

Combing

Drawing

Slubbing

Intermediate

Roving

Mule Spinning

Winding

Fine Roving

Ring Spinning

Spinning

Reeling

Doubling

Bundling

Bleaching

Winding

Warping

Cabling

Sizing/Slashing/Dressing

Gassing

Weaving

Spooling
Cloth

Yarn (Cheese)- - Bundle

Sewing Thread

Cotton is the world's most important natural fibre. In the year 2007, the global yield was 25
million tons from 35 million hectares cultivated in more than 50 countries.[1]
There are six stages[2]

Cultivating and Harvesting

Preparatory Processes

Spinning

Weaving

Finishing

Marketing

Cultivating and harvesting

Cotton is grown anywhere with long, hot dry summers with plenty of sunshine and low humidity.
Indian cotton, gossypium arboreum, is finer but the staple is only suitable for hand processing.
American cotton, gossypium hirsutum, produces the longer staple needed for machine
production.[3] Planting is from September to mid November and the crop is harvested between
March and June. The cotton bolls are harvested by stripper harvesters and spindle pickers, that
remove the entire boll from the plant. The cotton boll is the seed pod of the cotton plant, attached
to each of the thousands of seeds are fibres about 2.5 cm long.[4]

Ginning
The seed cotton goes in to a Cotton gin. The cotton gin separates seeds and removes the
"trash" (dirt, stems and leaves) from the fibre. In a saw gin, circular saws grab the fibre
and pull it through a grating that is too narrow for the seeds to pass. A roller gin is used
with longer staple cotton. Here a leather roller captures the cotton. A knife blade, set close
to the roller, detaches the seeds by drawing them through teeth in circular saws and
revolving brushes which clean them away.[5]
The ginned cotton fibre, known as lint, is then compressed into bales which are about 1.5
m tall and weigh almost 220 kg. Only 33% of the crop is usable lint. Commercial cotton
is priced by quality, and that broadly relates to the average length of the staple, and the
variety of the plant. Longer staple cotton (2 in to 1 in) is called Egyptian, medium

staple (1 in to in) is called American upland and short staple (less than in) is called
Indian.[6]
The cotton seed is pressed into a cooking oil. The husks and meal are processed into
animal feed, and the stems into paper.
Issues
Cotton is farmed intensively and uses large amounts of fertilizer and 25% of the world's
insecticides. Native Indian varieties of cotton were rainwater fed, but modern hybrids used for
the mills need irrigation, which spreads pests. The 5% of cotton-bearing land in India uses 55%
of all pesticides used in India.[3] Before mechanisation, cotton was harvested manually by
farmers in India and by African slaves in America. In 2012 Uzbekistan was a major exporter of
cotton and uses manual labour during the harvest. Human rights groups claim that health care
professionals and children are forced to pick cotton.[7]

Preparatory processes - preparation of yarn

Ginning, bale-making and transportation is done in the country of origin.

Opening and cleaning

Cotton mills get the cotton shipped to them in large, 500 pound bales. When the cotton
comes out of a bale, it is all packed together and still contains vegetable matter. The bale
is broken open using a machine with large spikes. It is called an Opener.In order to fluff
up the cotton and remove the vegetable matter, the cotton is sent through a picker, or
similar machines. A picker looks similar to the carding machine and the cotton gin, but is
slightly different. The cotton is fed into the machine and gets beaten with a beater bar, to
loosen it up. It is fed through various rollers, which serve to remove the vegetable matter.
The cotton, aided by fans, then collects on a screen and gets fed through more rollers till
it emerges as a continuous soft fleecy sheet, known as a lap.[6][8]

Blending,
Mixing & Scutching

Scutching refers to the process of cleaning cotton of its seeds and other impurities. A scutching
machine for cotton was first invented in 1797, but didn't get much attention until it was
introduced in Manchester in 1808 or 1809. By 1816 it had been generally adopted.[5] The
scutching machine worked by passing the cotton through a pair of rollers, and then striking it
with iron or steel bars called beaters. The beaters, which turn very quickly, strike the cotton hard
and knock the seeds out. This process is done over a series of parallel bars so as to allow the
seeds to fall through. At the same time a breeze is blown across the bars, which carries the cotton
into a cotton chamber.

Carding

Main article: Carding

Carding: the fibres are separated and then assembled into a loose strand (sliver or tow) at
the conclusion of this stage.
The cotton comes off of the picking machine in laps, and is then taken to carding
machines. The carders line up the fibres nicely to make them easier to spin. The carding
machine consists mainly of one big roller with smaller ones surrounding it. All of the
rollers are covered in small teeth, and as the cotton progresses further on the teeth get
finer (i.e. closer together). The cotton leaves the carding machine in the form of a sliver; a
large rope of fibres.[9]
Note: In a wider sense Carding can refer to these four processes: Willowing- loosening
the fibres; Lapping- removing the dust to create a flat sheet or lap of cotton; Cardingcombing the tangled lap into a thick rope of 1/2 in in diameter, a sliver; and Drawingwhere a drawing frame combines 4 slivers into one- repeated for increased quality.

Combing is optional, but is used to remove the shorter fibres, creating a stronger yarn.[10]

Drawing the fibres are straightened

Several slivers are combined. Each sliver will have thin and thick spots, and by
combining several slivers together a more consistent size can be reached. Since
combining several slivers produces a very thick rope of cotton fibres, directly after being
combined the slivers are separated into rovings. These rovings (or slubbings) are then
what are used in the spinning process.[11]
Generally speaking, for machine processing, a roving is about the width of a pencil.

Drawing frame: Draws the strand out

Slubbing Frame: adds twist, and winds onto bobbins

Intermediate Frames: are used to repeat the slubbing process to produce a finer
yarn.

Roving frames: reduces to a finer thread, gives more twist, makes more regular
and even in thickness, and winds onto a smaller tube.[12]

Spinning - yarn manufacture

Main article: Cotton-spinning machinery

Spinning
Most spinning today is done using Break or Open-end spinning, this is a technique where
the staples are blown by air into a rotating drum, where they attach themselves to the tail

of formed yarn that is continually being drawn out of the chamber. Other methods of
break spinning use needles and electrostatic forces.[13] This method has replace the older
methods of ring and mule spinning. It is also is easily adapted for artificial fibres.
The spinning machines takes the roving, thins it and twists it, creating yarn which it
winds onto a bobbin.[14]
In mule spinning the roving is pulled off a bobbin and fed through some rollers, which
are feeding at several different speeds.This thins the roving at a consistent rate. If the
roving was not a consistent size, then this step could cause a break in the yarn, or could
jam the machine. The yarn is twisted through the spinning of the bobbin as the carriage
moves out, and is rolled onto a cop as the carriage returns. Mule spinning produces a
finer thread than the less skilled ring spinning.[15]

The mule was an intermittent process, as the frame advanced and returned a
distance of 5ft.It was the descendant of 1779 Crompton device. It produces a
softer less twisted thread that was favoured for fines and for weft.

The ring was a descendant of the Arkwright water Frame 1769. It was a
continuous process, the yarn was coarser, had a greater twist and was stronger so
was suited to be warp. Ring spinning is slow due to the distance the thread must
pass around the ring, other methods have been introduced.

Sewing thread, was made of several threads twisted together, or doubled.

Checking
This is the process where each of the bobbins is rewound to give a tighter bobbin.

Folding and twisting

Plying is done by pulling yarn from two or more bobbins and twisting it together, in the
opposite direction that in which it was spun. Depending on the weight desired, the cotton
may or may not be plied, and the number of strands twisted together varies.[16]

Gassing

Main articles: Singe Textiles and Gassing (textile process)

Gassing is the process of passing yarn, as distinct from fabric very rapidly through a
series of Bunsen gas flames in a gassing frame, in order to burn off the projecting fibres
and make the thread round and smooth and also brighter. Only the better qualities of yarn
are gassed, such as that used for voiles, poplins, venetians, gabardines, many Egyptian
qualities, etc. There is a loss of weight in gassing, which varies' about 5 to 8 per cent., so
that if a 2/60's yarn is required 2/56's would be used. The gassed yarn is darker in shade
afterwards, but should not be scorched.[17]


Mule spinning

Mule spinning

Ring spinning

Ring spinning

Measurements
Main article: Units of textile measurement

Cotton Counts: The number of pieces of thread, 840 yards long needed to make up 1 lb
weight. 10 count cotton means that 10x840 yd weighs 1 lb. This is coarser than 40 count
cotton where 40x840 yards are needed. In the United Kingdom, Counts to 40s are coarse
(Oldham Counts), 40 to 80s are medium counts and above 80 is a fine count. In the
United States ones to 20s are coarse counts.

Hank: A length of 7 leas or 840 yards

Thread: A length of 54 in (the circumference of a warp beam)

Bundle: Usually 10 lb

Lea: A length of 80 threads or 120 yards[18]

Denier: this is an alternative method. It is defined as a number that is equivalent to the

weight in grams of 9000m of a single yarn. 15 denier is finer than 30 denier.

Tex: is the weight in grams of 1 km of yarn.[19]

The worsted hank is only 560 yd[20]

Weaving-fabric manufacture
The weaving process uses a loom. The lengthway threads are known as the warp, and the cross
way threads are known as the weft. The warp which must be strong needs to be presented to
loom on a warp beam. The weft passes across the loom in a shuttle, that carries the yarn on a
pirn. These pirns are automatically changed by the loom. Thus, the yarn needs to be wrapped
onto a beam, and onto pirns before weaving can commence.[21]

Winding
After being spun and plied, the cotton thread is taken to a warping room where the
winding machine takes the required length of yarn and winds it onto warpers bobbins

Warping or beaming
Racks of bobbins are set up to hold the thread while it is rolled onto the warp bar of a
loom. Because the thread is fine, often three of these would be combined to get the
desired thread count.

Sizing
Slasher sizing machine needed for strengthening the warp by adding starch to reduce
breakage of the yarns.

Drawing in, Looming

The process of drawing each end of the warp separately through the dents of the reed and
the eyes of the healds, in the order indicated by the draft.

Pirning (Processing the weft)

Pirn winding frame was used to transfer the weft from cheeses of yarn onto the pirns that
would fit into the shuttle

Weaving

Main article: Power loom

At this point, the thread is woven. Depending on the era, one person could manage
anywhere from 3 to 100 machines. In the mid nineteenth century, four was the standard
number. A skilled weaver in 1925 would run 6 Lancashire Looms. As time progressed
new mechanisms were added that stopped the loom any time something went wrong. The
mechanisms checked for such things as a broken warp thread, broken weft thread, the
shuttle going straight across, and if the shuttle was empty. Forty of these Northrop Looms
or automatic looms could be operated by one skilled worker.[22]
The three primary movements of a loom are shedding, picking, and beating-up.

Shedding: The operation of dividing the warp into two lines, so that the shuttle
can pass between these lines. There are two general kinds of sheds-"open" and
"closed." Open Shed-The warp threads are moved when the pattern requires itfrom one line to the other. Closed Shed-The warp threads are all placed level in
one line after each pick.

Picking:The operation of projecting the shuttle from side to side of the loom
through the division in the warp threads. This is done by the overpick or
underpick motions. The overpick is suitable for quick-running looms, whereas the
underpick is best for heavy or slow looms.

Beating-up: The third primary movement of the loom when making cloth, and is
the action of the reed as it drives each pick of weft to the fell of the cloth.[23]

The Lancashire Loom was the first semi-automatic loom. Jacquard looms and Dobby
looms are looms that have sophisticated methods of shedding. They may be separate
looms, or mechanisms added to a plain loom. A Northrop Loom was fully automatic and
was mass produced between 1909 and the mid-1960s. Modern looms run faster and do
not use a shuttle: there are air jet looms, water jet looms and rapier looms.

Measurements

Ends and Picks: Picks refer to the weft, ends refer to the warp. The coarseness of the
cloth can be expressed as the number of picks and ends per quarter inch square, or per
inch square. Ends is always written first. For example: Heavy domestics are made from
coarse yarns, such as 10's to 14's warp and weft, and about 48 ends and 52 picks.[24]

Associated job titles

Piecer

Scavenger

Weaver

Tackler

Draw boy

Pirner

Issues
When a hand loom was located in the home, children helped with the weaving process from an
early age. Piecing needs dexterity, and a child can be as productive as an adult. When weaving
moves from the home to the mill, children are often allowed to help their older sisters, and laws
have to be made to prevent child labour becoming established.

Knitting- fabric manufacture

Knitting by machine is done in two different ways; warp and weft. Weft knitting (as seen in the
pictures) is similar in method to hand knitting with stitches all connected to each other
horizontally. Various weft machines can be configured to produce textiles from a single spool of
yarn or multiple spools depending on the size of the machine cylinder (where the needles are
bedded). In a warp knit there are many pieces of yarn and there are vertical chains, zigzagged
together by crossing the yarn. Cotton
Warp knits do not stretch as much as a weft knit, and it is run-resistant. A weft knit is not runresistant, but stretches more. This is especially true if spools of spandex are processed from
separate spool containers and interwoven through the cylinder with cotton yarn, giving the
finished product more flexibility and making it less prone to having a 'baggy' appearance. The
average t-shirt is a weft knit.[25]

Finishing- processing of textiles

The woven cotton fabric in its loom-state, not only contains impurities, including warp size, but
requires further treatment in order to develop its full textile potential. Furthermore, it may
receive considerable added value by applying one or more finishing processes.[26][27]

Desizing

Desizing
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Desizing
Desizing is the process of removing the size material from the warp yarns in woven fabrics.

Contents

1 Sizing agents
o 1.1 Natural sizing agents
o 1.2 Synthetic sizing agents

2 Desizing processes
o 2.1 Enzymatic desizing
o 2.2 Oxidative desizing
o 2.3 Acid desizing
o 2.4 Removal of water-soluble sizes

3 See also

Sizing agents
Sizing agents are selected on the basis of type of fabric, environmental friendliness, ease of
removal, cost considerations, effluent treatment, etc.

Natural sizing agents

Natural sizing agents are based on natural substances and their derivatives:

Starch and starch derivatives; native starch, degradation starch and chemically modified
starch products

Cellulosic derivatives; carboxymethylcellulose (CMC), methylcellulose and

oxyethylcellulose

Protein-based starches; glue, gelatin, albumen

Synthetic sizing agents

Polyacrylates,

Modified polyesters,

Polyvinyl alcohols (PVA),

Styrene/maleic acid copolymers.

these are the methods which is used to take the size paste from the material in order to make that
fabric a good absorbent of dyi's in the further process

Desizing processes
Desizing, irrespective of what the desizing agent is, involves impregnation of the fabric with the
desizing agent, allowing the desizing agent to degrade or solubilise the size material, and finally
to wash out the degradation products. The major desizing processes are:

Enzymatic desizing of starches on cotton fabrics

Oxidative desizing

Acid desizing

Removal of water-soluble sizes

Enzymatic desizing
Enzymatic desizing is the classical desizing process of degrading starch size on cotton fabrics
using enzymes. Enzymes are complex organic, soluble bio-catalysts, formed by living organisms,
that catalyze chemical reaction in biological processes. Enzymes are quite specific in their action
on a particular substance. A small quantity of enzyme is able to decompose a large quantity of
the substance it acts upon. Enzymes are usually named by the kind of substance degraded in the
reaction it catalyzes.
Amylases are the enzymes that hydrolyses and reduce the molecular weight of amylose and
amylopectin molecules in starch, rendering it water soluble enough to be washed off the fabric.

Effective enzymatic desizing require strict control of pH, temperature, water hardness,
electrolyte addition and choice of surfactant.

Oxidative desizing
In oxidative desizing, the risk of damage to the cellulose fiber is very high, and its use for
desizing is increasingly rare. Oxidative desizing uses potassium or sodium persulfate or sodium
bromite as an oxidizing agent.

Acid desizing
Cold solutions of dilute sulphuric or hydrochloric acids are used to hydrolyze the starch,
however, this has the disadvantage of also affecting the cellulose fiber in cotton fabrics.

Removal of water-soluble sizes

Fabrics containing water soluble sizes can be desized by washing using hot water, perhaps
containing wetting agents (surfactants) and a mild alkali. The water replaces the size on the outer
surface of the fiber, and absorbs within the fiber to remove any fabric residue.
Depending on the size that has been used, the cloth may be steeped in a dilute acid and
then rinsed, or enzymes may be used to break down the size.[28]

Scouring
Scouring, is a chemical washing process carried out on cotton fabric to remove natural
wax and non-fibrous impurities (e.g. the remains of seed fragments) from the fibres and
any added soiling or dirt. Scouring is usually carried in iron vessels called kiers. The
fabric is boiled in an alkali,

Alkali
In chemistry, an alkali (/lkla/; from Arabic: al-qaly , ) is a basic, ionic salt of an
alkali metal or alkaline earth metal chemical element. Some authors also define an alkali as a
base that dissolves in water. A solution of a soluble base has a pH greater than 7.0. The adjective
alkaline is commonly, and alkalescent less often, used in English as a synonym for basic,
especially for soluble bases. This broad use of the term is likely to have come about because
alkalis were the first bases known to obey the Arrhenius definition of a base, and they are still
among the most common bases.

Contents

1 Etymology

2 Common properties

3 Difference between alkali and base

4 Alkali salts

5 Alkaline soil

6 Alkali lakes

7 See also

8 References

Etymology
The word "alkali" is derived from Arabic al qaly (or alkali),[1] meaning the calcined ashes (see
calcination), referring to the original source of alkaline substances. A water-extract of burned
plant ashes, called potash and composed mostly of potassium carbonate, was mildly basic. After
heating this substance with calcium hydroxide (slaked lime), a far more strongly basic substance
known as caustic potash (potassium hydroxide) was produced. Caustic potash was traditionally
used in conjunction with animal fats to produce soft soaps, one of the caustic processes that
rendered soaps from fats in the process of saponification, one known since antiquity. Plant potash
lent the name to the element potassium, which was first derived from caustic potash, and also
gave potassium its chemical symbol K (from the German name Kalium), which ultimately
derived from alkali.

Common properties
Alkalis are all Arrhenius bases, ones which form hydroxide ions (OH-) when dissolved in water.
Common properties of alkaline aqueous solutions include:

Moderately concentrated solutions (over 103 M) have a pH of 7.1 or greater. This means
that they will turn phenolphthalein from colorless to pink.

Concentrated solutions are caustic (causing chemical burns).

Alkaline solutions are slippery or soapy to the touch, due to the saponification of the fatty
substances on the surface of the skin.

Alkalis are normally water soluble, although some like barium carbonate are only soluble
when reacting with an acidic aqueous solution.

Difference between alkali and base

The terms "base" and "alkali" are often used interchangeably, particularly outside of the context
of chemistry and chemical engineering.
There are various definitions for the concept of an alkali. Alkalis are sometimes defined as a
subset of the bases. However, two subsets are commonly chosen.

A basic salt of an alkali metal or alkaline earth metal[2] (This includes Mg(OH)2 but
excludes NH3.)

Any base that is soluble in water and forms hydroxide ions[3][4][5] or the solution of a base
in water.[6] (This excludes Mg(OH)2 but includes NH3.)

The second subset of bases is also called an "Arrhenius base".

Alkali salts
Alkali salts are soluble hydroxides of alkali metals and alkaline earth metals, of which common
examples are:

Sodium hydroxide (often called "caustic soda")

Potassium hydroxide (commonly called "caustic potash")

lye (generic term, for either of the previous two, or even for a mixture)

Calcium hydroxide (saturated solution known as "limewater")

Magnesium hydroxide is an example of an atypical alkali since it has low solubility in

water (although the dissolved portion is considered a strong base due to complete
dissociation of its ions).

Alkaline soil
Soils with pH values higher than 7.3 are usually defined as being alkaline. These soils can occur
naturally, due to the presence of alkali salts. Although some plants do prefer slightly basic soil
(including vegetables like cabbage and fodder like buffalograssTemplate:Dn), most plants prefer
a mildly acidic soil (with pHs between 6.0 and 6.8), and alkaline soils can cause problems.[7]

Alkali lakes

In alkali lakes (or soda lakes), evaporation concentrates the naturally occurring carbonate salts,
giving rise to an alkalic and often saline lake.
Examples of alkali lakes:

Alkali Lake, Lake County, Oregon

Baldwin Lake, San Bernardino County, California

Mono lake, near Owens Valley in California

Redberry Lake, Saskatchewan

Summer Lake, Lake County, Oregon

Tramping Lake, Saskatchewan

Lake Magadi in Kenya

Lake Turkana in Kenya (the largest alkali lake in the world)

There are also alkali lakes in the outback of Australia.

Sodium hydroxide, also known as caustic soda,[2][3] or lye, is an inorganic compound with the
chemical formula NaOH (also written as NaHO). It is a white solid, and is a highly caustic
metallic base and alkali salt. It is available in pellets, flakes, granules, and as a 50% saturated
solution.
Sodium hydroxide is soluble in water, ethanol and methanol. This alkali is deliquescent and
readily absorbs moisture and carbon dioxide in air.
Sodium hydroxide is used in many industries, mostly as a strong chemical base in the
manufacture of pulp and paper, textiles, drinking water, soaps and detergents and as a drain
cleaner. Worldwide production in 2004 was approximately 60 million tonnes, while demand was
51 million tonnes.[4]

Contents

1 Properties
o 1.1 Physical properties
o 1.2 Chemical properties

1.2.1 Reaction with acids

1.2.2 Reaction with acidic oxides

1.2.3 Reaction with amphoteric metals and oxides

1.2.4 Precipitant

1.2.5 Saponification

2 Production

3 Uses
o 3.1 Chemical pulping
o 3.2 Tissue digestion
o 3.3 Dissolving amphoteric metals and compounds
o 3.4 Esterification and transesterification reagent
o 3.5 Food preparation
o 3.6 Cleaning agent
o 3.7 Historical uses
o 3.8 Experimental

4 Safety

5 See also

6 References

7 Bibliography

8 External links

Properties
Physical properties

Pure sodium hydroxide is a whitish solid, sold in pellets, flakes, and granular form, as well as in
solution. It is highly soluble in water, with a lower solubility in ethanol and methanol, but is
insoluble in ether and other non-polar solvents.
Similar to the hydration of sulfuric acid, dissolution of solid sodium hydroxide in water is a
highly exothermic reaction in which a large amount of heat is liberated, posing a threat to safety
through the possibility of splashing. The resulting solution is usually colourless and odorless
with slippery feeling upon contact in common with other alkalis.

Chemical properties
Reaction with acids
Sodium hydroxide reacts with protic acids to produce water and the corresponding salts. For
example, when sodium hydroxide reacts with hydrochloric acid, sodium chloride is formed:
NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
In general, such neutralization reactions are represented by one simple net ionic equation:
OH(aq) + H+(aq) H2O(l)
This type of reaction with a strong acid releases heat, and hence is exothermic. Such acid-base
reactions can also be used for titrations. However, sodium hydroxide is not used as a primary
standard because it is hygroscopic and absorbs carbon dioxide from air.
Reaction with acidic oxides
Sodium hydroxide also reacts with acidic oxides, such as sulfur dioxide. Such reactions are often
used to "scrub" harmful acidic gases (like SO2 and H2S) produced in the burning of coal and thus
prevent their release into the atmosphere. For example,
2 NaOH + CO2 Na2CO3 + H2O
Reaction with amphoteric metals and oxides
Glass reacts slowly with aqueous sodium hydroxide solutions at ambient temperatures to form
soluble silicates. Because of this, glass joints and stopcocks exposed to sodium hydroxide have a
tendency to "freeze". Flasks and glass-lined chemical reactors are damaged by long exposure to
hot sodium hydroxide, which also frosts the glass. Sodium hydroxide does not attack iron since
iron does not have amphoteric properties (i.e., it only dissolves in acid, not base). A few
transition metals, however, may react vigorously with sodium hydroxide.
In 1986, an aluminium road tanker in the UK was mistakenly used to transport 25% sodium
hydroxide solution,[5] causing pressurization of the contents and damage to the tanker. The

pressurization was due to the hydrogen gas which is produced in the reaction between sodium
hydroxide and aluminium:
2 Al + 2 NaOH + 6 H2O 2 Na[Al(OH)4] + 3 H2
Precipitant
Unlike sodium hydroxide, the hydroxides of most transition metals are insoluble, and therefore
sodium hydroxide can be used to precipitate transition metal hydroxides. The following colours
are observed: Blue-copper, Green-Iron(II), Yellow/Brown-Iron(III). Zinc and Lead salts dissolve
in excess sodium hydroxide to give a clear solution of Na2ZnO2 or Na2PbO2.
Aluminium hydroxide is used as a gelatinous flocculant to filter out particulate matter in water
treatment. Aluminium hydroxide is prepared at the treatment plant from aluminium sulfate by
reacting it with sodium hydroxide.
Al2(SO4)3 + 6 NaOH 2 Al(OH)3 + 3 Na2SO4
Saponification
Sodium hydroxide can be used for the base-driven hydrolysis of esters (as in saponification),
amides and alkyl halides. However, the limited solubility of sodium hydroxide in organic
solvents means that the more soluble potassium hydroxide (KOH) is often preferred.

Production
Sodium hydroxide is industrially produced as a 50% solution by variations of the electrolytic
chloralkali process. Chlorine gas is also produced in this process. Solid sodium hydroxide is
obtained from this solution by the evaporation of water. Solid sodium hydroxide is most
commonly sold as flakes, prills, and cast blocks.[4]
In 2004, world production was estimated at 60 million dry metric tonnes of sodium hydroxide,
and demand was estimated at 51 million tonnes.[4] In 1998, total world production was around
45 million tonnes. North America and Asia collectively contributed around 14 million tonnes,
while Europe produced around 10 million tonnes. In the United States, the major producer of
sodium hydroxide is the Dow Chemical Company, which has annual production around
3.7 million tonnes from sites at Freeport, Texas, and Plaquemine, Louisiana. Other major US
producers include OxyChem, PPG, Olin, Pioneer Companies, Inc. (PIONA, which was
purchased by Olin), and Formosa. All of these companies use the chloralkali process.[6]
Historically sodium hydroxide is produced by treating sodium carbonate with calcium hydroxide
in a metathesis reaction. (Sodium hydroxide is soluble while calcium carbonate is not.) This
process was called causticizing.[7]
Ca(OH)2(aq) + Na2CO3(s) CaCO3 + 2 NaOH(aq)

This process was superseded by the Solvay process in the late 19th century, which was in turn
supplanted by the chloralkali process which we use today.
Sodium hydroxide is also produced by combining pure sodium metal with water. The byproducts
are hydrogen gas and heat, often resulting in a flame, making this a common demonstration of
the reactivity of alkali metals in academic environments; however, it is not commercially viable,
as the isolation of sodium metal is typically performed by reduction or electrolysis of sodium
compounds including sodium hydroxide.

Uses
Sodium hydroxide is the principal strong base used in the chemical industry. In bulk it is most
often handled as an aqueous solution, since solutions are cheaper and easier to handle. Sodium
hydroxide, a strong base, is responsible for most of these applications. Another strong base such
as potassium hydroxide is likely to yield positive results as well.
Overall 56% of sodium hydroxide produced is used by the chemical industry, with 25% of the
same total used by the paper industry. Sodium hydroxide is also used for the manufacture of
sodium salts and detergents, for pH regulation, and for organic synthesis. It is used in the Bayer
process of aluminium production.[4]
Sodium hydroxide is used in many scenarios where it is desirable to increase the alkalinity of a
mixture, or to neutralize acids.
For example, sodium hydroxide is used as an additive in drilling mud to increase alkalinity in
bentonite mud systems, to increase the mud viscosity, and to neutralise any acid gas (such as
hydrogen sulfide and carbon dioxide) which may be encountered in the geological formation as
drilling progresses.
In the same industry, poor quality crude oil can be treated with sodium hydroxide to remove
sulfurous impurities in a process known as caustic washing. As above, sodium hydroxide reacts
with weak acids such as hydrogen sulfide and mercaptans to give the non-volatile sodium salts
which can be removed. The waste which is formed is toxic and difficult to deal with, and the
process is banned in many countries because of this. In 2006, Trafigura used the process and then
dumped the waste in Africa.[8][9]

Chemical pulping
Sodium hydroxide is also widely used in pulping of wood for making paper or regenerated
fibers. Along with sodium sulfide, sodium hydroxide is a key component of the white liquor
solution used to separate lignin from cellulose fibers in the kraft process. It also plays a key role
in several later stages of the process of bleaching the brown pulp resulting from the pulping
process. These stages include oxygen delignification, oxidative extraction, and simple extraction,
all of which require a strong alkaline environment with a pH > 10.5 at the end of the stages.

Tissue digestion

In a similar fashion, sodium hydroxide is used to digest tissues, such as in a process that was
used with farm animals at one time. This process involved placing a carcass into a sealed
chamber, then adding a mixture of sodium hydroxide and water (which breaks the chemical
bonds that keep the flesh intact). This eventually turns the body into a liquid with coffee-like
appearance,[10][11] and the only solid that remains are bone hulls, which could be crushed between
one's fingertips.[12] Sodium hydroxide is frequently used in the process of decomposing roadkill
dumped in landfills by animal disposal contractors.[11] Due to its low cost and availability, it has
been used to dispose of corpses by criminals. In Mexico, a man who worked for drug cartels
admitted disposing over 300 bodies with it.[13]

Dissolving amphoteric metals and compounds

Strong bases attack aluminium. Sodium hydroxide reacts with aluminium and water to release
hydrogen gas. The aluminium takes the oxygen atom from sodium hydroxide, which in turn
takes the oxygen atom from the water, and releases the two hydrogen atoms, The reaction thus
produces hydrogen gas and sodium aluminate. In this reaction, sodium hydroxide acts as an
agent to make the solution alkaline, which aluminium can dissolve in. This reaction can be useful
in etching, removing anodizing, or converting a polished surface to a satin-like finish, but
without further passivation such as anodizing or alodining the surface may become degraded,
either under normal use or in severe atmospheric conditions.
In the Bayer process, sodium hydroxide is used in the refining of alumina containing ores
(bauxite) to produce alumina (aluminium oxide) which is the raw material used to produce
aluminium metal via the electrolytic Hall-Hroult process. Since the alumina is amphoteric, it
dissolves in the sodium hydroxide, leaving impurities less soluble at high pH such as iron oxides
behind in the form of a highly alkaline red mud.
Other amphoteric metals are zinc and lead which dissolve in concentrated sodium hydroxide
solutions to give sodium zincate and sodium plumbate respectively.

Esterification and transesterification reagent

Sodium hydroxide is traditionally used in soap making (cold process soap, saponification).[14] It
was made in the nineteenth century for a hard surface rather than liquid product because it was
easier to store and transport.
For the manufacture of biodiesel, sodium hydroxide is used as a catalyst for the
transesterification of methanol and triglycerides. This only works with anhydrous sodium
hydroxide, because combined with water the fat would turn into soap, which would be tainted
with methanol. It is used more often than potassium hydroxide because it is cheaper and a
smaller quantity is needed.
Sodium hydroxide is also being used experimentally in a new technology to create synthetic
gasoline.[15]

Food preparation

Food uses of sodium hydroxide include washing or chemical peeling of fruits and vegetables,
chocolate and cocoa processing, caramel coloring production, poultry scalding, soft drink
processing, and thickening ice cream. Olives are often soaked in sodium hydroxide for softening;
Pretzels and German lye rolls are glazed with a sodium hydroxide solution before baking to
make them crisp. Owing to the difficulty in obtaining food grade sodium hydroxide in small
quantities for home use, sodium carbonate is often used in place of sodium hydroxide.[16]
Specific foods processed with sodium hydroxide include:

The Pinoy or Filipino dessert (kakanin) called kutsinta uses a bit of lye water to help give
the rice flour batter a jelly like consistency.

A similar process is also used in the kakanin known as pitsi-pitsi or pichi-pichi (pit-chipit-chi) except that the mixture uses grated cassava instead of rice flour.

The Scandinavian delicacy known as lutefisk (from lutfisk, "lye fish").

Hominy is dried maize (corn) kernels reconstituted by soaking in lye-water. These expand
considerably in size and may be further processed by frying to make corn nuts or by
drying and grinding to make grits. Nixtamal is similar, but uses calcium hydroxide
instead of sodium hydroxide.

Sodium hydroxide is also the chemical that causes gelling of egg whites in the production
of Century eggs.

German pretzels are poached in a boiling sodium carbonate solution or cold sodium
hydroxide solution before baking, which contributes to their unique crust.

Lye-water is an essential ingredient in the crust of the traditional baked Chinese moon
cakes.

Most yellow coloured Chinese noodles are made with lye-water but are commonly
mistaken for containing egg.

Some methods of preparing olives involve subjecting them to a lye-based brine.[17]

Cleaning agent
Sodium hydroxide is frequently used as an industrial cleaning agent where it is often called
"caustic". It is added to water, heated, and then used to clean process equipment, storage tanks,
etc. It can dissolve grease, oils, fats and protein based deposits. It is also used for cleaning waste
discharge pipes under sinks and drains in domestic properties. Surfactants can be added to the
sodium hydroxide solution in order to stabilize dissolved substances and thus prevent
redeposition. A sodium hydroxide soak solution is used as a powerful degreaser on stainless steel
and glass bakeware. It is also a common ingredient in oven cleaners.

A common use of sodium hydroxide is in the production of parts washer detergents. Parts washer
detergents based on sodium hydroxide are some of the most aggressive parts washer cleaning
chemicals. The sodium hydroxide based detergent include surfactants, rust inhibitors and
defoamers. A parts washer heats water and the detergent in a closed cabinet and then sprays the
heated sodium hydroxide and hot water at pressure against dirty parts for degreasing
applications. Sodium hydroxide used in this manner replaced many solvent based systems in the
early 1990s when trichloroethane was outlawed by the Montreal Protocol. Water and sodium
hydroxide detergent based parts washers are considered to be an environmental improvement
over the solvent based cleaning methods.

Sodium hydroxide is used in the home as a type of drain opener to unblock clogged drains,
usually in the form of a dry crystal or as a thick liquid gel. The alkali dissolves greases to
produce water soluble products. It also hydrolyzes the proteins such as those found in hair which
may block water pipes. These reactions are sped by the heat generated when sodium hydroxide
and the other chemical components of the cleaner dissolve in water. Such alkaline drain cleaners
and their acidic versions are highly corrosive and should be handled with great caution.
Sodium hydroxide is used in some relaxers to straighten hair. However, because of the high
incidence and intensity of chemical burns, manufacturers of chemical relaxers use other alkaline
chemicals in preparations available to average consumers. Sodium hydroxide relaxers are still
available, but they are used mostly by professionals.
A solution of sodium hydroxide in water was traditionally used as the most common paint
stripper on wooden objects. Its use has become less common, because it can damage the wood
surface, raising the grain and staining the colour.

Historical uses
Sodium hydroxide has been used for detection of carbon monoxide poisoning, with blood
samples of such patients turning to a vermilion color upon the addition of a few drops of sodium
hydroxide.[18] Today, carbon monoxide poisoning can be detected by CO oximetry.

Experimental

Sodium hydroxide test for flavonoids

Safety
Like other corrosive acids and alkalis, drops of sodium hydroxide solutions can decompose
proteins and lipids in skin, eyes or other living tissues via amide hydrolysis and ester hydrolysis,
which consequently causes chemical burns and may induce permanent blindness if it contacts
eyes.[2][3] Solid alkali may also express its corrosive nature if there is water so protective

equipment such as rubber gloves, safety clothing and eye protection should always be used when
handling the material or its solutions.
Moreover, dissolution of sodium hydroxide is highly exothermic, and the resulting heat may
cause heat burns or ignite flammables. It also produces heat when reacted with acids.
The standard first aid measures for alkali spills on the skin is, as for other corrosives, irrigation
with large quantities of water. Washing is continued for at least ten to fifteen minutes.
Sodium hydroxide is corrosive to several metals, like aluminium which reacts with the alkali to
produce flammable hydrogen gas on contact:[19]
2 Al + 2 NaOH + 2 H2O 3 H2 + 2 NaAlO2
2 Al + 6 NaOH + x H2O 3 H2 + 2 Na3AlO3 + x H2O
2 Al + 2 NaOH + 6 H2O 3 H2 + 2 NaAl(OH)4
Sodium hydroxide is also mildly corrosive to glass, which can cause damage to glazing or
freezing of ground glass joints. Careful storage is needed.
Potassium hydroxide is an inorganic compound with the formula KOH, commonly called
caustic potash.
Along with sodium hydroxide (NaOH), this colorless solid is a prototypical strong base. It has
many industrial and niche applications; most applications exploit its reactivity toward acids and
its corrosive nature. In 2005, an estimated 700,000 to 800,000 tonnes were produced.
Approximately 100 times more NaOH than KOH is produced annually.[3] KOH is noteworthy as
the precursor to most soft and liquid soaps as well as numerous potassium-containing chemicals.

Saponification
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Saponification

Saponification is a process that produces soap, usually from fats and lye. In technical terms,
saponification involves base (usually caustic soda NaOH) hydrolysis of triglycerides, which are
esters of fatty acids, to form the sodium salt of a carboxylate. In addition to soap, such traditional
saponification processes produce glycerol. "Saponifiable substances" are those that can be
converted into soap.[1]

Contents

1 Saponification of triglyceride
o 1.1 Mechanism of base hydrolysis
o 1.2 Steam hydrolysis

2 Applications
o 2.1 Soft vs hard soap
o 2.2 Lithium soaps
o 2.3 Fire extinguishers

3 Saponification in art conservation

4 See also

5 References

Saponification of triglyceride
Vegetable oils and animal fats are the main materials that are saponified. These greasy materials,
triesters called triglycerides, are mixtures derived from diverse fatty acids. Triglycerides can be
converted to soap in either a one- or a two-step process. In the traditional one-step process, the
triglyceride is treated with a strong base (e.g., lye), which accelerates cleavage of the ester bond
and releases the fatty acid salt and glycerol. This process is the main industrial method for
producing glycerol. If necessary, soaps may be precipitated by salting it out with saturated
sodium chloride. The saponification value is the amount of base required to saponify a fat
sample. For soap making, the triglycerides are highly purified, but saponification includes other
base hydrolysis of unpurified triglycerides, for example, the conversion of the fat of a corpse into
adipocere, often called "grave wax." This process is more common where the amount of fatty
tissue is high, the agents of decomposition are absent or only minutely present.

Mechanism of base hydrolysis

The mechanism by which esters are cleaved by base involves a series of equilibria.[2] The
hydroxide anion adds to (or "attacks") the carbonyl group of the ester. The immediate product is
called an orthoester:
Expulsion of the alkoxide generates a carboxylic acid:
The alkoxide is more basic than the conjugate base of the carboxylic acid, and hence proton
transfer is rapid:
In a classic laboratory procedure, the triglyceride trimyristin is obtained by extracting it from
nutmeg with diethyl ether.[3] Saponification to the sodium salt of myristic acid takes place with
NaOH in water. The acid itself can be obtained by adding dilute hydrochloric acid.[4]

Steam hydrolysis
Triglycerides are also saponified in a two-step process that begins with steam hydrolysis of the
triglyceride. This process gives the carboxylic acid, not its salt, as well as glycerol. Subsequently,
the fatty acid is neutralized with alkali to give the soap. The advantage of the two-step process is
that the fatty acids can be purified, which leads to soaps of improved quality. Steam hydrolysis
proceeds via a mechanism similar to the base-catalysed route, involving the attack of water (not
hydroxide) at the carbonyl center. The process is slower, hence the requirement for steam.

Applications
Knowledge of saponification is relevant to many technologies and many aspects of everyday life.

Soft vs hard soap

Depending on the nature of the alkali used in their production, soaps have distinct properties.
Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) gives "hard soap", whereas, when potassium hydroxide (KOH) is
used, a soft soap is formed.

Lithium soaps
Lithium derivatives of 12-hydroxystearate and several other carboxylic acids are important
constituents of lubricating greases. In lithium-based greases, lithium carboxylates are thickeners.
"Complex soaps" are also common, these being combinations of metallic soaps, such as lithium
and calcium soaps.[5]

Fire extinguishers
Fires involving cooking fats and oils (classified as class K (US) or F (Australia/Europe/Asia))
burn hotter than flammable liquids, rendering a standard class B extinguisher ineffective.
Flammable liquids have flash points under 100 degrees Fahrenheit. Cooking oil is a combustible
liquid, since it has a flash point over 100 degrees. Such fires should be extinguished with a wet

chemical extinguisher. Extinguishers of this type are designed to extinguish cooking fats and oils
through saponification. The extinguishing agent rapidly converts the burning substance to a noncombustible soap. This process is endothermic, meaning that it absorbs thermal energy from its
surroundings, which decreases the temperature of the surroundings, further inhibiting the fire.

Saponification in art conservation

Saponification can occur in oil paintings over time, causing visible damage and deformation. The
ground layer or paint layers of oil paintings commonly contain heavy metals in pigments such as
lead white, red lead, or zinc white. If those heavy metals react with free fatty acids in the oil
medium that binds the pigments together, soaps may form in a paint layer that can then migrate
upward to the painting's surface.[6]
Saponification in oil paintings was first described in 1997.[7] It is believed to be widespread,
having been observed in many works dating from the fifteenth through the twentieth centuries,
works of different geographic origin, and works painted on various supports, such as canvas,
paper, wood, and copper. Chemical analysis may reveal saponification occurring in a paintings
deeper layers before any signs are visible on the surface, even in paintings centuries old.[8]
The saponified regions may deform the painting's surface through the formation of visible lumps
or protrusions that can scatter light. These soap lumps may be prominent only on certain regions
of the painting rather than throughout. In John Singer Sargents famous Portrait of Madame X,
for example, the lumps only appear on the blackest areas, which may be because of the artists
use of more medium in those areas to compensate for the tendency of black pigments to soak it
up.[9] The process can also form chalky white deposits on a paintings surface, a deformation
often described as "blooming" or "efflorescence," and may also contribute to the increased
transparency of certain paint layers within an oil painting over time.[10]
The process is still not fully understood. Saponification does not occur in all oil paintings
containing the right materials. It is not yet known what triggers the process, what makes it worse,
or whether it can be halted.[11] At present, retouching is the only known restoration method.

Contents

1 Properties and structure

o 1.1 Structure
o 1.2 Solubility and desiccating properties
o 1.3 Thermal stability

2 Reactions

o 2.1 As a base
o 2.2 As a nucleophile in organic chemistry
o 2.3 Reactions with inorganic compounds

3 Manufacture

4 Uses
o 4.1 Precursor to other potassium compounds
o 4.2 Manufacture of biodiesel
o 4.3 Manufacture of soft soaps
o 4.4 As an electrolyte
o 4.5 Niche applications
o 4.6 Petroleum refineries

5 See also

6 References

7 External links

Properties and structure

Potassium hydroxide can be found in pure form by reacting sodium hydroxide with impure
potassium. Potassium hydroxide is usually sold as translucent pellets, which will become tacky
in air because KOH is hygroscopic. Consequently, KOH typically contains varying amounts of
water (as well as carbonates, see below). Its dissolution in water is strongly exothermic, meaning
the process gives off significant heat. Concentrated aqueous solutions are sometimes called
potassium lyes. Even at high temperatures, solid KOH does not dehydrate readily.[4]
Potassium hydroxide solutions with concentrations of approximately 0.5 to 2.0 % are irritating
when coming in contact with the skin, while concentrations higher than 2% are corrosive.[5]

Structure
At higher temperatures, solid KOH crystallizes in the NaCl crystal structure. The OH group is
either rapidly or randomly disordered so that the group is effectively a spherical anion of radius

1.53 (between and in size). At room temperature, the groups are ordered and the environment
about the centers is distorted, with distances ranging from 2.69 to 3.15 , depending on the
orientation of the OH group. KOH forms a series of crystalline hydrates, namely the
monohydrate , the dihydrate , and the tetrahydrate .[6]

Solubility and desiccating properties

Approximately 121 g of KOH will dissolve in 100 mL of water at room temperature compared
with 100 g of NaOH in the same volume (on a molar basis, KOH is slightly less soluble than
NaOH). Lower molecular weight alcohols such as methanol, ethanol, and propanols are also
excellent solvents.
Because of its high affinity for water, KOH serves as a desiccant in the laboratory. It is often
used to dry basic solvents, especially amines and pyridines: distillation of these basic liquids
from a slurry of KOH yields the anhydrous reagent.

Thermal stability
Like NaOH, KOH exhibits high thermal stability. The gaseous species is dimeric. Because of its
high stability and relatively low melting point, it is often melt-cast as pellets or rods, forms that
have low surface area and convenient handling properties.

Reactions
As a base
KOH is highly basic, forming strongly alkaline solutions in water and other polar solvents. These
solutions are capable of deprotonating many acids, even weak ones. In analytical chemistry,
titrations using solutions of KOH are used to assay acids.

As a nucleophile in organic chemistry

KOH, like NaOH, serves as a source of , a highly nucleophilic anion that attacks polar bonds in
both inorganic and organic materials. In perhaps its most well-known reaction, aqueous KOH
saponifies esters:
KOH + RCO2R' RCO2K + R'OH
When R is a long chain, the product is called a potassium soap. This reaction is manifested by
the "greasy" feel that KOH gives when touched fats on the skin are rapidly converted to soap
and glycerol.
Molten KOH is used to displace halides and other leaving groups. The reaction is especially
useful for aromatic reagents to give the corresponding phenols.[7]

Reactions with inorganic compounds

Complementary to its reactivity toward acids, KOH attacks oxides. Thus, SiO2 is attacked by
KOH to give soluble potassium silicates. KOH reacts with carbon dioxide to give bicarbonate:
KOH + CO2 KHCO3

Manufacture
Historically KOH was made by adding potassium carbonate (potash) to a strong solution of
calcium hydroxide (slaked lime), leading to a metathesis reaction which caused calcium
carbonate to precipitate, leaving potassium hydroxide in solution:
Ca(OH)2 + K2CO3 CaCO3 + 2 KOH
Filtering off the precipitated calcium carbonate and boiling down the solution gives potassium
hydroxide ("calcinated or caustic potash"). It was the most important method of producing
potassium hydroxide until the late 19th century, when it was largely replaced by the current
method of electrolysis of potassium chloride solutions, analogous to the method of
manufacturing sodium hydroxide (see chloralkali process):
2 KCl + 2 H2O 2 KOH + Cl2 + H2
Hydrogen gas forms as a by-product on the cathode; concurrently, an anodic oxidation of the
chloride ion takes place, forming chlorine gas as a byproduct. Separation of the anodic and
cathodic spaces in the electrolysis cell is essential for this process.[8]

Uses
KOH and NaOH can be used interchangeably for a number of applications, although in industry,
NaOH is preferred because of its lower cost.

Precursor to other potassium compounds

Many potassium salts are prepared by neutralization reactions involving KOH. The potassium
salts of carbonate, cyanide, permanganate, phosphate, and various silicates are prepared by
treating either the oxides or the acids with KOH.[3] The high solubility of potassium phosphate is
desirable in fertilizers.

Manufacture of biodiesel
Although more expensive than using sodium hydroxide, KOH works well in the manufacture of
biodiesel by transesterification of the triglycerides in vegetable oil. Glycerin from potassium

hydroxide-processed biodiesel is useful as an inexpensive food supplement for livestock, once

the toxic methanol is removed.[9]

Manufacture of soft soaps

The saponification of fats with KOH is used to prepare the corresponding "potassium soaps",
which are softer than the more common sodium hydroxide-derived soaps. Because of their
softness and greater solubility, potassium soaps require less water to liquefy, and can thus contain
more cleaning agent than liquefied sodium soaps.[10]

As an electrolyte
Aqueous potassium hydroxide is employed as the electrolyte in alkaline batteries based on
nickel-cadmium and manganese dioxide-zinc. Potassium hydroxide is preferred over sodium
hydroxide because its solutions are more conductive.[11] The Nickel Metal Hydride batteries in
the Toyota Prius use a mixture of potassium hydroxide and sodium hydroxide.[12] Nickeliron
batteries also use potassium hydroxide electrolyte.

Niche applications
Like sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide attracts numerous specialized applications,
virtually all of which rely on its properties as a strong chemical base with its consequent ability
to degrade many materials. For example, in a process commonly referred to as "chemical
cremation" or "resomation", potassium hydroxide hastens the decomposition of soft tissues, both
animal and human, to leave behind only the bones and other hard tissues.[13] Entomologists
wishing to study the fine structure of insect anatomy may use a 10% aqueous solution of KOH to
apply this process.[14]
In chemical synthesis, the choice between the use of KOH and the use of sodium hydroxide,
NaOH, is guided by the solubility of the resulting salt.
The corrosive properties of potassium hydroxide make it a useful ingredient in agents and
preparations that clean and disinfect surfaces and materials that can themselves resist corrosion
by KOH.[15]
Potassium hydroxide is often the main active ingredient in chemical "cuticle removers" used in
manicure treatments.
Because aggressive bases like KOH damage the cuticle of the hair shaft, potassium hydroxide is
used to chemically assist the removal of hair from animal hides. The hides are soaked for several
hours in a solution of KOH and water to prepare them for the unhairing stage of the tanning
process. This same effect is also used to weaken human hair in preparation for shaving. Preshave products and some shave creams contain potassium hydroxide to force open the hair
cuticle and to act as a hygroscopic agent to attract and force water into the hair shaft, causing
further damage to the hair. In this weakened state, the hair is more easily cut by a razor blade.

Potassium hydroxide is used to identify certain kinds of mushrooms. A 35% aqueous solution of
KOH is applied to the flesh of a mushroom and the researcher notes whether or not the color of
the flesh changes. Certain species of boletes, polypores, and many gilled mushrooms are
identified based on this color-change reaction.[16]

Petroleum refineries
Potassium hydroxide is also used in petroleum and natural gas refining for removal of organic
acids and sulfur compounds.[17][18]
which forms a soap with free fatty acids (saponification). A kier is usually enclosed, so
the solution of sodium hydroxide can be boiled under pressure, excluding oxygen which
would degrade the cellulose in the fibre. If the appropriate reagents are used, scouring
will also remove size from the fabric although desizing often precedes scouring and is
considered to be a separate process known as fabric preparation. Preparation and scouring
are prerequisites to most of the other finishing processes. At this stage even the most
naturally white cotton fibres are yellowish, and bleaching, the next process, is required.[28]

Bleaching

Main article: Textile bleaching

Bleaching improves whiteness by removing natural coloration and remaining trace
impurities from the cotton; the degree of bleaching necessary is determined by the
required whiteness and absorbency. Cotton being a vegetable fibre will be bleached using
an oxidizing agent, such as dilute sodium hypochlorite or dilute hydrogen peroxide. If the
fabric is to be dyed a deep shade, then lower levels of bleaching are acceptable, for
example. However, for white bed sheetings and medical applications, the highest levels
of whiteness and absorbency are essential.[29]

Mercerising

Main article: Mercerized cotton

A further possibility is mercerizing during which the fabric is treated with caustic soda
solution to cause swelling of the fibres. This results in improved lustre, strength and dye
affinity. Cotton is mercerized under tension, and all alkali must be washed out before the
tension is released or shrinkage will take place. Mercerizing can take place directly on
grey cloth, or after bleaching.[30]
Many other chemical treatments may be applied to cotton fabrics to produce low
flammability, crease resist and other special effects but four important non-chemical
finishing treatments are:

Singeing

Main article: Singe Textiles

Singeing is designed to burn off the surface fibres from the fabric to produce smoothness.
The fabric passes over brushes to raise the fibres, then passes over a plate heated by gas
flames.

Raising
Another finishing process is raising. During raising, the fabric surface is treated with
sharp teeth to lift the surface fibres, thereby imparting hairiness, softness and warmth, as
in flannelette.

Calendering

Main article: Calender

Calendering is the third important mechanical process, in which the fabric is passed
between heated rollers to generate smooth, polished or embossed effects depending on
roller surface properties and relative speeds.

Shrinking (Sanforizing)

Main article: Sanforization

Finally, mechanical shrinking (sometimes referred to as sanforizing), whereby the fabric
is forced to shrink width and/or lengthwise, creates a fabric in which any residual
tendency to shrink after subsequent laundering is minimal.

Dyeing

Main article: Dyeing

Finally, cotton is an absorbent fibre which responds readily to colouration processes.
Dyeing, for instance, is commonly carried out with an anionic direct dye by completely
immersing the fabric (or yarn) in an aqueous dyebath according to a prescribed
procedure. For improved fastness to washing, rubbing and light, other dyes such as vats
and reactives are commonly used. These require more complex chemistry during
processing and are thus more expensive to apply.

Printing

Main article: Textile printing

Printing, on the other hand, is the application of colour in the form of a paste or ink to the
surface of a fabric, in a predetermined pattern. It may be considered as localised dyeing.
Printing designs onto already dyed fabric is also possible.

Economic, environmental and political consequences of cotton manufacture

The growth of cotton is divided into two segments i.e. organic and genetically modified.[1] Cotton
crop provides livelihood to millions of people but its production is becoming expensive because

of high water consumption, use of expensive pesticides, insecticides and fertiliser. Genetically
Modified products aim to increase disease resistance and reduce the water required. The organic
sector was worth $583 million. Genetically Modified cotton, in 2007, occupied 43% of cotton
growing areas.[3]
The consumption of energy in form of water and electricity is relatively high, especially in
processes like washing, de-sizing, bleaching, rinsing, dyeing, printing, coating and finishing.
Processing is time consuming. The major portion of water in textile industry is used for wet
processing of textile (70 per cent). Approximately 25 per cent of energy in the total textile
production like fibre production, spinning, twisting, weaving, knitting, clothing manufacturing
etc. is used in dyeing. About 34 per cent of energy is consumed in spinning, 23 per cent in
weaving, 38 per cent in chemical wet processing and five per cent in miscellaneous processes.
Power dominates consumption pattern in spinning and weaving, while thermal energy is the
major factor for chemical wet processing.[1][31]

Processing of other vegetable fibres

Flax
Main article: Flax
Flax is a bast fibre, which means it comes in bundles under the bark of the Linum usitatissimum
plant. The plant flowers and is harvested.

Retting

Breaking

Scutching

Hackling or combing

It is now treated like cotton.[32]

Jute
Main article: Jute
Jute is a bast fibre, which comes from the inner bark of the plants of the Corchorus genus. It is
retted like flax, sundried and baled. When spinning a small amount of oil must be added to the
fibre. It can be bleached and dyed. It was used for sacks and bags but is now used for the backing
for carpets.[33] Jute can be blended with other fibres to make composite fabrics and work
continues in Bangladesh to refine the processes and extend the range of usage possible. In the
1970s, jute-cotton composite fabrics were known as jutton fabrics.[34]

Hemp
Main article: Hemp
Hemp is a bast fibre from the inner bark of Cannabis sativa. It is difficult to bleach, it is used for
making cord and rope.

Retting

Separating

Pounding[35]

Other bast fibres

These bast fibres can also be used: kenaf, urena, ramie, nettle.

Other leaf fibres

Sisal is the main leaf fibre used; others are: abac and henequen.

Processing of protein fibres

Wool
Wool comes from domesticated sheep. It forms two products, woolens and worsteds. The sheep
has two sorts of wool and it is the inner coat that is used. This can be mixed with wool that has
been recovered from rags. Shoddy is the term for recovered wool that is not matted, while mungo
comes from felted wool. Extract is recovered chemically from mixed cotton/wool fabrics.
The fleece is cut in one piece from the sheep.This is then skirted to remove the soiled wool, and
baled. It is graded into long wool where the fibres can be up to 15 in, but anything over
2.5 inches is suitable for combing into worsteds. Fibres less than that form short wool and are
described as clothing or carding wool.
At the mill the wool is scoured in a detergent to remove grease (the yolk) and impurities. This is
done mechanically in the opening machine. Vegetable matter can be removed chemically using
sulphuric acid (carbonising). Washing uses a solution of soap and sodium carbonate. The wool is
oiled before carding or combing.

Woollens: Use noils from the worsted combs, mungo and shoddy and new short
wool

Worsteds

Combing: Oiled slivers are wound into laps, and placed in the circular comber. The
worsted yarn gathers together to form a top. The shorter fibres or noils remain behind and
are removed with a knife.

Angora

Silk
The processes in silk production are similar to those of cotton but take account that reeled silk is
a continuous fibre. The terms used are different.

Opening bales. Assorting skeins: where silk is sorted by colour, size and quality,
scouring: where the silk is washed in water of 40 degrees for 12 hours to remove the
natural gum, drying: either by steam heating or centrifuge, softening: by rubbing to
remove any remaining hard spots.

Silk throwing (winding). The skeins are placed on a reel in a frame with many others.
The silk is wound onto spools or bobbins.

Doubling and twisting. The silk is far too fine to be woven, so now it is doubled
and twisted to make the warp, known as organzine and the weft, known as tram.
In organzine each single is given a few twists per inch (tpi), and combine with
several other singles counter twisted hard at 10 to 14 tpi. In tram the two singles
are doubled with each other with a light twist, 3 to 6 tpi. Sewing thread is two
tram threads, hard twisted, and machine-twist is made of three hard-twisted tram
threads. Tram for the crepe process is twisted at up to 80 tpi to make it 'kick up'.

Stretching. The thread is tested for consistent size. Any uneven thickness is
stretched out. The resulting thread is reeled into containing 500 yd to 2500 yd.
The skeins are about 50 in in loop length.

Dyeing: the skeins are scoured again, and discoloration removed with a sulphur
process. This weakens the silk. The skeins are now tinted or dyed. They are dried
and rewound onto bobbins, spools and skeins. Looming, and the weaving process
on power looms is the same as with cotton.

Weaving. The organzine is now warped. This is a similar process to in cotton. Firstly,
thirty threads or so are wound onto a warping reel, and then using the warping reels, the
threads are beamed. A thick layer of paper is laid between each layer on the beam to stop
entangling.[36]

Processing of synthetic fibres

Discussion of types of synthetic fibers

Main article: Synthetic fiber

Synthetic fibers are the result of extensive development by scientists to improve upon the
naturally occurring animal and plant fibers. In general, synthetic fibers are created by forcing, or
extruding, fiber forming materials through holes (called spinnerets) into the air, thus forming a
thread. Before synthetic fibers were developed, cellulose fibers were made from natural
cellulose, which comes from plants.
The first artificial fiber, known as art silk from 1799 onwards, became known as viscose around
1894, and finally rayon in 1924. A similar product known as cellulose acetate was discovered in
1865. Rayon and acetate are both artificial fibers, but not truly synthetic, being made from wood.
Although these artificial fibers were discovered in the mid-nineteenth century, successful modern
manufacture began much later in the 1930s. Nylon, the first synthetic fiber, made its debut in the
United States as a replacement for silk, and was used for parachutes and other military uses.
The techniques used to process these fibers in yarn are essentially the same as with natural fibers,
modifications have to be made as these fibers are of great length, and have no texture such as the
scales in cotton and wool that aid meshing.

See also

Carding

Clothing technology

Description of Bangladeshi Textile Engineering course

Cotton mill

Cotton-spinning machinery

Dref Friction Spinning

Glossary of textile manufacturing

Open end spinning

Spinning

Spinning wheel

Textile manufacture during the Industrial Revolution

Timeline of clothing and textiles technology

References
Bibliography

External links

Cotton Year Book 1910 (Textile Mercury) Descriptions and calculations for purchasing
all cotton processing machines.

1921 John Hetherington & Sons Catalogue Descriptions and illustrations of principal
machines.

Profile of the Textiles Industry: US EPA Guidebook

Fiber
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Fiber
Template:Fibre sidebar
Fiber or fibre (British spelling) (from the French fibre[1]) is a rope or string used as a component

of composite materials, or matted into sheets to make products such as paper or felt. Fibers are
often used in the manufacture of other materials. The strongest engineering materials are
generally made as fibers, for example carbon fiber and Ultra-high-molecular-weight
polyethylene.
Synthetic fibers can often be produced very cheaply and in large amounts compared to natural
fibers, but for clothing natural fibers can give some benefits, such as comfort, over their synthetic
counterparts.

Contents

1 Textile fiber

2 Natural fibers

3 Synthetic fibers
o 3.1 Metallic fibers
o 3.2 Carbon fiber
o 3.3 Silicon carbide fiber
o 3.4 Fiberglass
o 3.5 Mineral fibers
o 3.6 Cellulose fibers
o 3.7 Polymer fibers
o 3.8 Microfibers

4 See also

5 References

Textile fiber
A unit in which many complicated textile structures are built up is said to be textile fiber.

Natural fibers

Natural fibers include those produced by plants, animals, and geological processes. They are
biodegradable over time. They can be classified according to their origin:

Vegetable fibers are generally based on arrangements of cellulose, often with lignin:
examples include cotton, hemp, jute, flax, ramie, sisal and bagasse. Plant fibers are
employed in the manufacture of paper and textile (cloth), and dietary fiber is an important
component of human nutrition.

Wood fiber, distinguished from vegetable fiber, is from tree sources. Forms include
groundwood, thermomechanical pulp (TMP) and bleached or unbleached kraft or sulfite
pulps. Kraft and sulfite, also called sulphite, refer to the type of pulping process used to
remove the lignin bonding the original wood structure, thus freeing the fibers for use in
paper and engineered wood products such as fiberboard.

Animal fibers consist largely of particular proteins. Instances are silkworm silk, spider
silk, sinew, catgut, wool, sea silk and hair such as cashmere wool, mohair and angora, fur
such as sheepskin, rabbit, mink, fox, beaver, etc.

Mineral fibers include the asbestos group. Asbestos is the only naturally occurring long
mineral fiber. Six minerals have been classified as "asbestos" including chrysotile of the
serpentine class and those belonging to the amphibole class: amosite, crocidolite,
tremolite, anthophyllite and actinolite. Short, fiber-like minerals include wollastonite and
palygorskite.

Synthetic fibers
Synthetic generally come from synthetic materials such as petrochemicals but some types of
synthetic fibers are manufactured from natural cellulose, including rayon, modal, and Lyocell.
Cellulose-based fibers are of two types, regenerated or pure cellulose such as from the cuproammonium process and modified cellulose such as the cellulose acetates.[2]
Fiber classification in reinforced plastics falls into two classes: (i) short fibers, also known as
discontinuous fibers, with a general aspect ratio (defined as the ratio of fiber length to diameter)
between 20 to 60, and (ii) long fibers, also known as continuous fibers, the general aspect ratio is
between 200 to 500.[3]

Metallic fibers
Metallic fibers can be drawn from ductile metals such as copper, gold or silver and extruded or
deposited from more brittle ones, such as nickel, aluminum or iron. See also Stainless steel
fibers.

Carbon fiber

Carbon fibers are often based on oxydized and via pyrolysis carbonized polymers like PAN, but
the end product is almost pure carbon.

Silicon carbide fiber

Silicon carbide fibers, where the basic polymers are not hydrocarbons but polymers, where about
50% of the carbon atoms are replaced by silicon atoms, so-called poly-carbo-silanes. The
pyrolysis yields an amorphous silicon carbide, including mostly other elements like oxygen,
titanium, or aluminium, but with mechanical properties very similar to those of carbon fibers.

Fiberglass
Fiberglass, made from specific glass, and optical fiber, made from purified natural quartz, are
also man-made fibers that come from natural raw materials, silica fiber, made from sodium
silicate (water glass) and basalt fiber made from melted basalt.

Mineral fibers
Mineral fibers can be particularly strong because they are formed with a low number of surface
defects, asbestos is a common one.[4]

Cellulose fibers
Cellulose fibers are a subset of man-made fibers, regenerated from natural cellulose. The
cellulose comes from various sources. Modal is made from beech trees, bamboo fiber is a
cellulose fiber made from bamboo, seacell is made from seaweed, etc.

Polymer fibers

Polymer fibers are a subset of man-made fibers, which are based on synthetic chemicals
(often from petrochemical sources) rather than arising from natural materials by a purely
physical process. These fibers are made from:
o polyamide nylon
o PET or PBT polyester
o phenol-formaldehyde (PF)
o polyvinyl chloride fiber (PVC) vinyon
o polyolefins (PP and PE) olefin fiber
o acrylic polyesters, pure polyester PAN fibers are used to make carbon fiber by
roasting them in a low oxygen environment. Traditional acrylic fiber is used more

often as a synthetic replacement for wool. Carbon fibers and PF fibers are noted
as two resin-based fibers that are not thermoplastic, most others can be melted.
o aromatic polyamids (aramids) such as Twaron, Kevlar and Nomex thermally
degrade at high temperatures and do not melt. These fibers have strong bonding
between polymer chains
o polyethylene (PE), eventually with extremely long chains / HMPE (e.g. Dyneema
or Spectra).
o Elastomers can even be used, e.g. spandex although urethane fibers are starting to
replace spandex technology.
o polyurethane fiber
o Elastolefin

Coextruded fibers have two distinct polymers forming the fiber, usually as a core-sheath
or side-by-side. Coated fibers exist such as nickel-coated to provide static elimination,
silver-coated to provide anti-bacterial properties and aluminum-coated to provide RF
deflection for radar chaff. Radar chaff is actually a spool of continuous glass tow that has
been aluminum coated. An aircraft-mounted high speed cutter chops it up as it spews
from a moving aircraft to confuse radar signals.

Microfibers
Microfibers in textiles refer to sub-denier fiber (such as polyester drawn to 0.5 dn). Denier and
Detex are two measurements of fiber yield based on weight and length. If the fiber density is
known you also have a fiber diameter, otherwise it is simpler to measure diameters in
micrometers. Microfibers in technical fibers refer to ultra fine fibers (glass or meltblown
thermoplastics) often used in filtration. Newer fiber designs include extruding fiber that splits
into multiple finer fibers. Most synthetic fibers are round in cross-section, but special designs can
be hollow, oval, star-shaped or trilobal. The latter design provides more optically reflective
properties. Synthetic textile fibers are often crimped to provide bulk in a woven, non woven or
knitted structure. Fiber surfaces can also be dull or bright. Dull surfaces reflect more light while
bright tends to transmit light and make the fiber more transparent.
Very short and/or irregular fibers have been called fibrils. Natural cellulose, such as cotton or
bleached kraft, show smaller fibrils jutting out and away from the main fiber structure.[2]

See also

Optical fiber

Fiber crop

Molded pulp

Dietary fiber

Fibers in Differential Geometry

Ceramic matrix composite

References
Textile arts
Fundamental
s

Applique

Beadwork

Crochet

Dyeing

Embroidery

Fabric (textiles)

Felting

Fiber

Knitting

Lace

Macram

Nlebinding

Needlework

Patchwork

Passementerie

History of ...

Regional and
ethnic

Plying

Quilting

Rope

Rug making

Sewing

Stitch

Textile printing

Weaving

Yarn

Byzantine silk

Clothing and textiles

Silk

Quilting

Silk in the Indian subcontinent

Textile manufacturing by pre-industrial methods

Textiles in the Industrial Revolution

Modern Industrial Textile Production

Timeline of textile technology

African

Andean

Australian Aboriginal

Hmong

Indigenous peoples of the Americas

Korean

Mori

Mayan

Mexican

Navajo

Oaxacan

Blocking

Fiber art

Mathematics and fiber arts

Manufacturing

Preservation

Recycling

Textile industry

Textile Museums

Units of measurement

Wearable fiber art

Related

Reference

Dyeing terms

Sewing terms

Textile terms

Fibers
Animal

Alpaca

Angora

Byssus

Camel hair

Cashmere

Catgut

Chiengora

Guanaco

Human hair

Llama

Mohair

Pashmina

Qiviut

Rabbit

Natural

Silk

Sinew

Spider silk

Wool

Vicua

Yak

Abac

Bagasse

Bamboo

Coir

Cotton

Flax
o Linen

Vegetable

Hemp

Jute

Kapok

Kenaf

Pia

Raffia

Ramie

Mineral

Sisal

Wood

Asbestos

Natural Fiber
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3366562

Natural Fiber
Fibers or fibres (see spelling differences) are a class of hair-like materials that are continuous
filaments or are in discrete elongated pieces, similar to pieces of thread. They can be spun into
filaments, thread, or rope. They can be used as a component of composite materials. They can

also be matted into sheets to make products such as paper or felt. Fibers are of three types:
natural fiber which consists of animal and plant fibers, and man made fiber which consists of
synthetic fibers and regenerated fibers. The earliest evidence for humans using fibers is the
discovery of wool and dyed flax fibers found in a prehistoric cave in the Republic of Georgia
that date back to 36,000 BP.[1][2]

Contents

1 Sources
o 1.1 Animal fibers

2 Industrial usage

3 See also

4 References

5 External links
o 5.1 Classification of natural fibers and list of bast fibers

Sources
Natural fibers are made from plant, animal and mineral sources. Natural fibers can be classified
according to their origin.

Category
Description
Seed fiber Fibers collected from seeds or seed cases. e.g. cotton and kapok
Leaf fiber Fibers collected from leaves. e.g., sansevieria, fique, sisal, banana and agave.
Bast fiber Fibers are collected from the skin or bast surrounding the stem of their respective
plant. These fibers have higher tensile strength than other fibers. Therefore, these
Skin fiber fibers are used for durable yarn, fabric, packaging, and paper. Some examples are
flax, jute, kenaf, industrial hemp, ramie, rattan, and vine fibers.
Fruit fiber Fibers are collected from the fruit of the plant, e.g. coconut (coir) fiber.
Stalk
Fibers are actually the stalks of the plant. E.g. straws of wheat, rice, barley, and other
fiber
crops including bamboo and grass. Tree wood is also such a fiber.
The most used plant fibers are cotton, flax and hemp, although sisal, jute, kenaf, bamboo and
coconut are also widely used.

Hemp fibers are mainly used for ropes and aerofoils because of their high suppleness and
resistance within an aggressive environment. Hemp fibers are, for example, currently used as a
seal within the heating and sanitary industries.

Animal fibers
Animal fibers generally comprise proteins such as collagen, keratin and fibroin; examples
include silk, sinew, wool, catgut, angora, mohair and alpaca.

Animal hair (wool or hairs): Fiber or wool taken from animals or hairy mammals. e.g.
sheep's wool, goat hair (cashmere, mohair), alpaca hair, horse hair, etc.

Silk fiber: Fiber secreted by glands (often located near the mouth) of insects during the
preparation of cocoons.

Avian fiber: Fibers from birds, e.g. feathers and feather fiber.

Industrial usage
After World War II, the build-up of synthetic fibers significantly decreased the use of natural
fibers. Now, with the increase of oil prices and environmental considerations, there has been a
revival of natural fiber use within the textile, building, plastic and automotive industries. This
interest is reinforced by the developmental perspectives on the agro-industrial market and local
productions, allowing economic development and independence versus imported materials.
France remains the greatest European hemp fiber producer with 50,000 tons yearly (EU
100,000 tons). France also produces the largest range of industrial seeds worldwide. China and
Russia are also important producers, but the statistics in that field are not available.
In the industrial domain, the consortium DAIFA group SAS have reached a leading position in
Europe in the automotive plastics market. [1] They specialize in injection and thermopress
plastics reinforced with natural fibers.
The use of natural fibers at the industrial level improves the environmental sustainability of the
parts being constructed, especially within the automotive market. Within the building industry,
the interest in natural fibers is mostly economical and technical; natural fibers allow insulation
properties higher than current materials.

Syntheti
c

Cellulose

Mineral

Polymer

Synthetic fi
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Synthetic fiber

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Contents

Description

Synthetic fibers are ma

Advantages

Disadvantages

There are several metho

Synthetic fibers accoun

History

The first artificial fiber

Nylon, the first synthet

Common synthetic fibe

Specialty synthetic fibe

Other synthetic materia

Modern fibers that are

In the horticulture indu

Industry struc
During the last quarter

Textile arts
Fundamental
s

Applique

Beadwork

Crochet

Dyeing

Embroidery

Fabric (textiles)

Felting

Fiber

Knitting

Lace

Macram

Nlebinding

Needlework

Patchwork

Passementerie

Plying

Quilting

Rope

Rug making

Sewing

Stitch

Textile printing

Weaving

Yarn

Byzantine silk

Clothing and textiles

Silk

Quilting

Silk in the Indian subcontinent

Textile manufacturing by pre-industrial methods

Textiles in the Industrial Revolution

History of ...

Regional and
ethnic

Modern Industrial Textile Production

Timeline of textile technology

African

Andean

Australian Aboriginal

Hmong

Indigenous peoples of the Americas

Korean

Mori

Mayan

Mexican

Navajo

Oaxacan

Blocking

Fiber art

Mathematics and fiber arts

Manufacturing

Preservation

Recycling

Related

Reference

Textile industry

Textile Museums

Units of measurement

Wearable fiber art

Dyeing terms

Sewing terms

Textile terms

Spinning

Materials

Noil

Rolag

Roving

Sliver

Staple

Top

Tow

Woolen

Worsted

Carding

Techniques

Hand
spinning
tools

Industrial
spinning

Combing

Heckling

Long draw

Scutching

Short draw

Twist per inch

Hand spinning

Distaff

Niddy noddy

Nostepinne

Spindle

Spinning wheel

Spinners weasel

Cotton-spinning machinery

Ring spinning

Open end spinning

Dref Friction Spinning

Magnetic ring spinning

Mule spinners' cancer

Piece-rate list

Spinning frame

Spinning jenny

Spinning mule

Throstle frame

Water frame

Wool combing machine

Weaving
Weaves

Basketweave

Charvet

Coverlet

Dobby

Double weave

Even-weave

Lampas

Oxford

Pile weave

Piqu

Plain weave

Satin weave

Shot

Twill

Gabardine

Textiles

Warp

Weft

Yarn

Barber-Colman knotter

Beamer

Chilkat weaving

Fingerweaving

Flying shuttle

Heald (Heddle)

Ikat

Inkle weaving

Jacquard weaving

Kasuri

Loom

Navajo weaving

Components

Tools and
techniques

Pibiones

Reed

Salish weaving

Shed

Shuttle

Sizing
o Sizing machine

Types of
looms

Tablet weaving

Tniko

Tapestry

Temple

Air jet loom

Dobby loom

Jacquard loom

Hattersley loom

Lancashire loom

Northrop loom

Power loom

Rapier loom

Roberts Loom

Tapestry loom

Warp weighted loom

Water jet loom

Acesas

Anni Albers

Ada Dietz

Micheline Beauchemin

Thomas Ferguson & Co Ltd

Dorothy Liebes

Pamphile

John Rylands

Brigitta Scherzenfeldt

Clara Sherman

Gunta Stlzl

Judocus de Vos

More looms

Kissing the shuttle

Piece-rate list

Weavers

Employmen
t practices

Bancroft Mill

Queen Street Mill

Mills

Technology
Fields

Agricultural engineering

Aquaculture

Fisheries science

Food chemistry

Food engineering

Food microbiology

Food technology

GURT

ICT in agriculture

Nutrition

Bioinformatics

Biological engineering

Biomechatronics

Biomedical engineering

Biotechnology

Cheminformatics

Agriculture

Biomedical

Buildings and
Construction

Genetic engineering

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Medical research

Medical technology

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Reproductive technology

Tissue engineering

Acoustical engineering

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Construction engineering

Domestic technology

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Fire protection engineering

Safety engineering

Sanitary engineering

Educational

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Educational software

Digital technologies in education

ICT in education

Impact

Multimedia learning

Virtual campus

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Productivity improving technologies

Research and development

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Industrial

IT and
communication
s

Military

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Ontology engineering

RF engineering

Software engineering

Telecommunications engineering

Visual technology

Web engineering

Army engineering maintenance

Electronic warfare

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Military engineering

Stealth technology

Aerospace engineering

Automotive engineering

Naval architecture

Transport

Other applied
sciences

Other
engineering
fields

Affordable Spaceflight

Space technology

Traffic engineering

Transport engineering

Cryogenics

Electro-optics

Electronics

Engineering geology

Engineering physics

Hydraulics

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Nanoengineering

Audio

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Chemical

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Control

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Protein

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o Animatronics

Component
s

Infrastructure

Invention
o Timeline

Knowledge

Machine

Skill
o Craft

Systems

Tool
o Gadget

Femtotechnology

Picotechnology

Nanotechnology

Microtechnology

Macro-engineering

Megascale engineering

Prehistoric technology

Neolithic Revolution

Ancient technology

Medieval technology

Renaissance technology

Industrial Revolution

Scale

History

o Second

Theories
and
concepts

Jet Age

Digital Revolution

Information Age

Appropriate technology

Critique of technology

Diffusion of innovations

Disruptive innovation

Dual-use technology

Ephemeralization

Ethics of technology

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Hype cycle

Inevitability thesis

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Technological self-efficacy

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o Singularitarianism

Technological somnambulism

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o Technology acceptance model
o Technology adoption lifecycle

Technomancy

Technorealism

Technoromanticism

Technoscience

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Emerging technologies

Other

o List

Fictional technology

Technopaganism

High-technology business districts

Kardashev scale

List of technologies

Science, technology and society

o Technology dynamics

Science and technology

o Science and technology by country

STEM fields
o women

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o Technical universities and colleges

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Technophilia

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o List

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