Journal of Stored Products Research 59 (2014) 152e157

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Journal of Stored Products Research

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jspr

Properties of walnut inuenced by short time microwave treatment

for disinfestation of insect infestation
Ipsita Das a, *, Narendra G. Shah b, Girish Kumar a
a
b

Department of Electrical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay, Powai, Mumbai 400076, India
Centre for Technology Alternatives for Rural Areas, Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay, Powai, Mumbai 400076, India

a r t i c l e i n f o

a b s t r a c t

Article history:
Accepted 12 July 2014
Available online 13 August 2014

Insect infestation is the major cause of losses in many stored products such as grains, seeds, cereals and
nuts. The use of chemicals to control insect infestation has widely been adopted but now is a cause of
concern because of hazardous side effects. Alternative quarantine methods such as ionizing radiation,
controlled atmosphere, conventional hot air treatment and dielectric heating have been suggested.
Recent studies have indicated that microwave treatment is a potential means of replacing other techniques because of selective heating, absence of pollution in the environment, the achieving of equivalent
or better quality retention and energy minimization. However improper application of microwaves can
cause irreversible changes in the quality of the nal product. The main objective of this research is to
evaluate the effect of microwave power level and exposure time on the quality of walnuts. The quality
parameters studied were water activity, colour change, temperature rise, peroxide value (PV) and free
fatty acid levels (FFA). It was found that microwave power level and exposure time signicantly affected
colour change and temperature rise. Untreated walnut kernels exhibited signicantly higher (p < 0.05)
peroxide and FFA values than treated walnut kernels. Microwave treatment to target temperatures of 50
e55
C (which is unfavourable for insect survival) made the PV of walnut drop down to between 1.35 and
1.42 meqO2/Kg (from the initial value of 2.89 0.048) and FFA value to 0.63e0.69% (from 1.08 0.037).
2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords:
Disinfestation
Free fatty acid
Microwave treatment
Peroxide value
Walnut

1. Introduction
The walnut is a highly appreciated nut because of its unique
organoleptic characteristics (Lopez et al., 1995) and good sources of
dietary bre, various vitamins and minerals USDA, (2011). Walnut
is being used as ingredient in a variety of bakery products such as
breads, mufns, cakes, biscuits and confectionery as well as avouring agents in beverages and ice-cream. Walnut kernels have a
lipid content of 65% (Vanhanen and Savage, 2006) of which 7% is
saturated, 20% is monounsaturated and 73% is polyunsaturated
fatty acids (Crews et al., 2005), although values do vary between
cultivars (Zwarts et al., 1999). Compared with most other nuts,
which contain mostly monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA), walnuts are highly enriched in omega-6 and omega-3 polyunsaturated
fatty acids (PUFA), which are essential dietary fatty acids (Amaral
et al., 2003).
India had an annual walnut production of approximately 285
thousand MT in 2011e12, and has exported 5300 MT of walnuts.

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: ipsita.das@iitb.ac.in, ipsitdas@gmail.com (I. Das).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jspr.2014.07.005
0022-474X/ 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Major export destinations (2012e13) of walnut from India are

United Kingdom, Netherlands, Germany, United States, China,
Australia and Taiwan.
(http://www.apeda.gov.in/apedawebsite/SubHead_Products/
Walnuts.htm). Almost all countries have imposed a zero tolerance
of insects on imported food products. One of the main problems in
production, storage, marketing and exporting of dried fruits/nuts is
the loss caused by insect infestation. It is estimated that more than
50% of the crop is lost annually due to pests and diseases in nuts
(Haribabu et al., 1983). Some estimates put the loss of food grains
because of infestation at 40% of world production valued at billions
of dollars. Nuts suffer serious damage and loss because of insect
infestation during long term storage. Also, Nagaraja, (1998) reported that any bruises in the nuts make the fats liable to become
rancid, and thereby integrity of the kernels is lost.
The nut industry relies heavily on fumigation with methyl bromide (MeBr) and hydrogen phosphine for postharvest insect control (Carpenter et al., 2000). Owing to the regulatory actions against
the continued use of MeBr, widespread resistance to hydrogen
phosphine and public concern over residues in treated products,
there has been great interest in developing technically effective and
environmentally sound quarantine methods, especially thermal

I. Das et al. / Journal of Stored Products Research 59 (2014) 152e157

ones. An important key to develop successful thermal treatments is

to balance needs for a complete kill of insects with a minimal
thermal impact on product quality. A common difculty in using
conventional hot air disinfestation methods is the slow heating
rate, non uniform temperature distribution, and possible heat
damage to heatesensitive commodities (Hansen, 1992; Tang et al.,
2000; Wang et al., 2001). The irradiation process is an efcient
method of disinfestation but users are reluctant to accept the
process due to safety aspects associated with the irradiation and
also it is not available everywhere. Controlled atmospheres require
longer treatment times and are not suitable for dealing rapidly with
high levels of infestation. Recent studies have indicated that microwave (MW) treatment is a potential means of replacing other
techniques as it provides several advantages, namely shortening of
treatment time, equivalent or better quality retention, energy
minimization, saving in oor space and killing of micro-organisms.
Microwave radiation with good penetrability can kill pests existing
inside or outside grain kernels. However, in India there is currently
little emphasis on use of microwave heating technology for disinfestation applications.
Improper application of microwave energy can cause irreversible changes in the quality of dried products. Microwave heat
treatment of whole-kernels needs to be properly controlled
because it does not only contribute to change in avour and aroma
but also to the colour of the nuts. Colour is an important quality
indicator of the heating process. The effect of heating conditions on
changes in colour were reported by several workers in their studies

on peanuts (Cammerer and Kroh, 2009), hazelnuts (Ozdemir

et al.,

2001; Ozdemir
and Devres, 2000), sesame seeds (Kahyaoglu and
Kaya, 2006) and macadamias (Wall and Gentry, 2007). Other
studies have reported the effect of heating on nutritional composition (Kashani and Valadon, 1983, 1984; Buranasompob et al.,
2007; Kita and Figiel, 2007) and storage stability of pistachios
nuts (Raei et al., 2009; Nikzadeh and Sedaghat, 2008). The high
levels of polyunsaturated fatty acids make walnuts prone to
oxidative and hydrolytic rancidity which is linked to the appearance of unpleasant odours and avours (Watkins, 2005). Peroxides
are the product of oxidation of unsaturated fatty acids. Oxidative
rancidity is enhanced by the presence of oxygen, increased temperatures and storage times. Hydrolytic rancidity, on the other
hand, results from enzymatic hydrolysis of triacylglycerols and the
release of free fatty acids (FFA). Free fatty acids contribute off-avours in walnuts. Therefore, the peroxide value (PV) and free fatty
acid content (FFA) of walnuts has also been selected as an indicator
of walnut quality.
In this paper, the effect of microwave (MW) power levels and
exposure time on moisture content, surface temperature rise, water
activity, colour change, and composition (PV and FFA) of walnut
kernel were studied and analysed using response surface
methodology.
2. Methods
2.1. Materials and experimental set up
A domestic microwave oven (LG, Intellowave 3850w2G031A)
with maximum output of 900 W at 2450 MHz was used for the
experiments. An outlet was provided on the left upper side of the
microwave oven to allow the removal of water vapour. The oven
was tted with a glass turntable (30 cm diameter) and had a facility
to adjust the microwave output power by 20% decrements and the
time of processing.
The shelled walnut kernels (Variety: Kashmir budded, Grade
designation: Light half) procured from a local market were used
for experimentation and graded by size to eliminate the variations

153

with respect to exposed surface area. About 200 g of fresh samples

were taken for each experiment. A container made of polycarbonate with provision to spread the samples uniformly was
placed inside the microwave oven cavity for an even absorption of
microwave energy. The experiments followed a factorial design.
Table 1 shows the experimental design parameters. The ranges of
experimental parameters were selected based on preliminary trials. The independent variables considered were: microwave power
level (240, 360 and 480 W) and exposure time (30, 60, 90, 120,
180, 240 s). The response functions (dependent variables) were
temperature rise (Tr), colour change (Cch), water activity (aw),
peroxide value (PV), and free fatty acid content (FFA). Each treatment (power and exposure time combination) was replicated 3
times.

2.2. Quality attributes

A standard hot air oven method (AOAC, 2002) was used to
determine the initial moisture content of walnut kernels. Nuts
were rst ground and then 2e3 g our samples were placed in
Petri-dishes and kept in a hot air oven at 80
C for 24 h. There
were three replicates for each measurement. The experiments
were conducted at microwave power level 3 and six levels of
exposure time respectively. For moisture loss analysis, fresh walnuts were exposed to different power levels and exposure times.
The weight loss of sample with time for each run was recorded.
The moisture content (% wb) was estimated using standard
techniques.
The water activity of samples was determined as a measure of
storage stability using a water activity meter (Decagon Devices, Inc.,
USA, Model No: CX-3TE) which had a dielectric humidity sensor to
measure the water activity of a sample. Two replicates were made
for each sample and the mean of 3 readings taken for each replicate
was used for analysis.
The colour of the samples was measured with a Hunter Lab
Colour meter (USA, Model No: Colour ex 45/0) and calculated in
terms of colour difference (Cch) (see Eq. (1)) which indicates the
degree of overall colour change of a sample in comparison to a fresh
sample, examining colour values of L*, a*, and b*. The less the Cch
value, the closer it was to the untreated sample.

Cch

h
2 
2 
2 i0:5
L  L* a  a* b  b*

(1)

Untreated walnuts were taken as the optimal sample having L*,

a*, and b* values of 42.64, 6.55 and 14.20 respectively.
Surface temperatures of nuts were measured using a noncontact
infrared thermometer (DIT 130, range 32 to 380
C, Germany). A
microwavable rectangular box was made to hold 100 g of sample.
The nut samples were immediately kept in the box after the
treatment and surface temperature was measured. Ambient room
temperature (29
C) was used as the initial sample temperature for
each test.
Peroxide value (PV) and free fatty acid content (FFA) of treated
samples was carried according to AOAC standards, 1998 [965.33,
940.28].

Table 1
Experimental details (process parameters and their levels).
Factors

Levels

Variables

Microwave power (W)

Exposure time (sec)

240, 360, 480

30, 60, 90, 120, 180, 240

Temperature rise
Colour change
Peroxide value
Free fatty acid value

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I. Das et al. / Journal of Stored Products Research 59 (2014) 152e157

2.3. Storability study

Table 2
Values of different quality parameters of microwave (MW) pretreated walnut.

At the end of each microwave treatment, samples were left on

the sample tray for 2e3 min to allow the heat to redistribute by
conduction in nuts, a means of imparting added lethality, before
being transferred into air tight containers for the storability study.
The treated nuts were analysed after 6 months of storage for the
appearance of any infestation or change in composition. The storability of fresh walnut kernels under ambient conditions was also
studied.
2.4. Response surface methodology
Response surface method (RSM) was used to determine the
relative contributions of independent variables (power level and
exposure time) on various responses (temperature rise, colour
change and compositional analysis) under study. Since the functional relationship between the responses and factors was unknown, the second order polynomial expression (Eq. (2)) was used
to estimate the actual response surfaces. Design expert software
(version 9, STAT-EASE, Inc., USA.15.1.1.0) was used for running the
RSM and 3-D plot. The coefcients of the polynomial were represented by b0 (constant term), b1 and b2 (linear effects), b11 and b22
(quadratic effects), and b12 (interaction effects). The analysis of
variance (ANOVA) tables were generated and the effect and
regression coefcients of individual linear, quadratic and interaction terms were determined. The signicance of all the terms in the
polynomial was judged statistically by computing the P value at 5%
level of signicance.

Y b0 b1 P b2 T b12 P T b11 P2 b22 T2

(2)

3. Results and discussion

S. MW power Exposure Moisture Water

Colour
Temperature
no. level, (W)
time, (sec) content, activity, aw change, Cch rise,
C Tr
(% wb)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18

240

360

480

30
60
90
120
180
240
30
60
90
120
180
240
30
60
90
120
180
240

3.24
3.21
3.16
3.12
3.03
3.01
3.22
3.16
3.10
2.96
2.74
2.61
3.09
2.79
2.46
2.36
1.46
1.18

0.405
0.406
0.418
0.357
0.350
0.347
0.420
0.452
0.410
0.423
0.390
0.400
0.384
0.370
0.353
0.358
0.324
0.321

5.39
7.06
8.43
8.37
9.70
11.05
7.70
8.18
9.16
9.60
12.51
12.11
11.07
11.19
12.08
11.09
12.69
12.91

37.6
47.2
50.3
58.2
68.3
80.2
41.8
51.9
66.5
69.3
80.5
92.8
51.4
64.2
68.0
85.5
96.5
107.3

Cch 0:936 0:0118 P 0:0528 T  0:000063P  T

(3)

Where Cch is the colour change; P is the microwave power level

(W); T is the exposure time (sec).
The positive coefcients of the rst-order terms of microwave
power level and exposure time (Eq. (3)) indicate that colour change
increases with increase of these variables. The variation of colour
change with microwave power level and exposure time has
graphically been presented in the 3-D plot (Fig. 2a). Coefcient of
determination R2 for this equation was 0.91 (a value > 0.75 indicates a good t). Several other researchers (Sharma and Prasad,
2006, Kumar et al., 2011) have also observed that other food
products darken when higher air temperatures and microwave
power levels are being used during microwave drying.

3.1. Moisture loss and water activity

The initial moisture content (IMC) of untreated walnut kernels
was found to be 3.7 0.2%. The samples were subjected to different
microwave power levels and exposure times as mentioned in
Table 1. It was observed that, with increase in exposure time (i.e.
from 30 to 240 s), there was a decrease in moisture content from
3.70% to 3.01%, 2.61% and 1.18% (wet basis) at 240, 360 and 480 W
respectively (see Table 2). Figure 1 shows the moisture loss curve
for walnut. As expected, there was a decrease in moisture content
in nuts with increase in power level and treatment time. The water
activity of fresh and treated walnut for different test conditions is
also listed in Table 2. The water activity was 0.32e0.45 and no
signicant difference was noted among the different treatments.
Foods having a water activity between 0.3 and 0.5 are considered to
be shelf-stable dried foods (Raoult-Wack et al., 1991).

3.3. Temperature rise (Tr)

The measured values of temperature rise for different combination of process parameters are presented in Table 2. The temperature varied between 37.6 and 107.3
C within the combination
of the variables studied. It has been reported previously (White,
1995) that temperatures between 50 and 55
C are lethal for insects. The heating time was found to be 30e90 s for walnuts
depending upon the power level. The heating time is dened as the
time taken by nuts to reach the target temperature i.e. 50e55
C. A
second order polynomial equation (Eq. (4)) was tted to the
experimental data and tested for adequacy through ANOVA.

Tr 20:167 0:018 P 0:25T 0:00029P  T

 0:00048T2

3.2. Colour change (Cch)

The values of colour change of treated walnut for different
operating conditions ranged from 5.39 to 12.91 (Table 2). ANOVA
(Tables 3 and 4) indicated linear terms of microwave power level
and exposure time and interaction of power and exposure time
signicantly affected the colour change, the overall effect being to
darken the nuts (p  0.05). The effect of quadratic terms were found
to be non-signicant. By neglecting the non signicant terms the
following equation (Eq. (3)) describes the effect of power level and
exposure time on colour change.

(4)

Where Tr is the temperature rise (
C).

The temperature of nuts was found to increase linearly with
increase in power level and exposure time. The experimental data
t the second order polynomial equation well as indicated by a high
R2 (coefcient of determination) value of 0.99 and COV value of
4.15% (considered best t if the value is less than 10%) (Kumar et al.,
2011). The ANOVA result of the above quadratic regression equation
for temperature rise is described in Tables 3 and 4 The effect of both
the independent variables (linear terms, interaction term and
quadratic terms of exposure time) was found to be signicant at

I. Das et al. / Journal of Stored Products Research 59 (2014) 152e157

155

Fig. 1. Moisture content with exposure time for various power levels.

p  0.05. Figure 2b shows the effect of process parameters on

temperature rise.
3.4. Compositional analysis of walnut
Walnut contains substantial quantities of polyunsaturated fatty
acids, and thus is susceptible to oxidative and hydrolytic rancidity
which in turn, produces undesirable volatile compounds and offavours and limits the shelf life. Chemical analyses for assessing
oxidative rancidity and hydrolytic rancidity include PV and FFA. It
has been reported that when PV and FFA of walnut kernels are less
than 3.0 meqO2/Kg of oil and 1.0% respectively, it indicates
acceptable quality for walnuts (Buranasompob et al., 2003).
The values of PV and FFA for untreated (Fresh) walnut were
relatively high at the start of our experiment (PV of
2.89 0.048 meqO2/Kg of oil, FFA of 1.08 0.037%). After the microwave exposure, the value of PV and FFA varied from 1.13 to 1.51
and from 0.3 to 0.81 for the range of conditions studied. Both PV
and FFA decreased with increase in power level and exposure time.
The effect of microwave power level and exposure time on PV and
FFA are illustrated in Fig. 2c, d. ANOVA analyses (Tables 3 and 4)
indicated that both microwave power level and exposure time
(linear terms) had a signicant effect on PV and FFA values
(p  0.05). Microwave treatment to target temperatures of
50e55
C gave a PV of 1.35e1.42 meqO2/Kg of oil and FFA value
Table 3
Regression coefcients of polynomial equations developed for different quality
attributes of microwave treated walnut.
Variables/
factor

Colour
change, Cch

Temperature
rise, Tr

Peroxide
value, PO

Free fatty
acid, FFA

Constant
MW Power
level, P
Exposure
time, T
PT
P2
T2
COD, R2
COV, %

0.936
0.0118a

20.167
0.018a

1.07
9.30Ee004a

1.07
7.43 E004a

0.0528a

0.248a

3.26Ee003a

3.55 E007a

6.35 E005a
1.46 E005
3.90 E005
0.91
6.31

2.92 E004a
5.266 E005
4.48 E004a
0.969
4.15

1.38Ee006
4.62Ee007
5.04Ee006a
0.926
2.43

1.22 E007
5.2 E007
7.3 E007a
0.97
3.48

Signicant at p < 0.05.

0.63e0.69%. The peroxide values and FFA values of microwave

treated walnut kernels increased after 6 months of storage at 25
C
(see Table 5) though the values are within the limits for acceptable
quality. However, an increase in PV indicates formation of hydro
peroxides and the onset of oxidative rancidity (Van der Merwe,
2003). Inactivation of lipase and also removal of moisture at
higher exposure time and power levels are responsible for the
lower degree of FFA and PV development in walnuts which
increased shelf life. We could store treated walnuts for 6 months at
room temperature without any infestation and adverse effect on
quality. In contrast, fresh walnut samples were found to be heavily
infested at the end of 1.5 months of storage, with a rancid smell.

Table 4
ANOVA for different quality attributes of microwave treated walnut.
Source of variation
a) Colour change
Model
Power (P)
Exposure time (T)
PT
P2
T2
b) Temperature rise
Model
Power (P)
Exposure time (T)
PT
P2
T2
c) Peroxide value
Model
Power (P)
Exposure time (T)
PT
P2
T2
d) Free fatty acid
Model
Power (P)
Exposure time (T)
PT
P2
T2

F-value

p-value

36.78
75.39
83.99
8.68
0.43
1.26

<0.0001*
<0.0001*
<0.0001*
0.012*
0.524
0.284

164.57
191.07
626.54
9.54
0.29
8.63

<0.0001*
<0.0001*
<0.0001*
0.0094*
0.5990
0.0124*

43.79
27.7
178.66
1.69
0.18
8.59

<0.0001*
0.0002*
<0.0001*
0.2174
0.6812
0.0126*

113.45
46.26
485.05
0.030
0.57
40.58

<0.0001*
<0.0001*
<0.0001*
0.866
0.490
<0.0001*

*p-value less than 0.050 indicates model terms are signicant.

156

I. Das et al. / Journal of Stored Products Research 59 (2014) 152e157

Fig. 2. 3-D Plots of effect of microwave power and exposure time on (a) colour change, (b) temperature rise, (c) peroxide value and (d) free fatty acid.

Table 5
Compositional analysis of walnut after treatment and 6 months of storage.
S. no.

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18

Power
level (W)

Exposure
time, (sec)

Peroxide value
After
treatment

After 6 months
of storage

After
treatment

After 6 months
of storage

240

30
60
90
120
180
240
30
60
90
120
180
240
30
60
90
120
180
240

1.51
1.50
1.42
1.27
1.24
1.21
1.43
1.42
1.30
1.27
1.21
1.17
1.35
1.37
1.30
1.23
1.15
1.13

1.61
1.56
1.45
1.37
1.28
1.25
1.54
1.49
1.39
1.34
1.26
1.22
1.43
1.40
1.35
1.27
1.17
1.14

0.77
0.69
0.61
0.53
0.53
0.78
0.64
0.54
0.47
0.41
0.42
0.63
0.5
0.46
0.39
0.36
0.3

0.91
0.84
0.73
0.66
0.59
0.57
0.86
0.79
0.66
0.54
0.48
0.44
0.70
0.58
0.51
0.46
0.39
0.33

360

480

FFA value

I. Das et al. / Journal of Stored Products Research 59 (2014) 152e157

4. Conclusion
The effect of short time microwave heat treatment with power
levels of 240e480 W and exposure times of 30e240 s on the
moisture content, water activity, colour change, temperature rise,
and compositional analysis (PV and FFA values) of walnut kernels
was presented using response surface methodology (RSM). Increases in microwave power level and exposure time caused an
increase in temperature and colour change and decrease in PV and
FFA levels. The water activity ranged from 0.32 to 0.45 under
different combinations of variables and no signicant statistical
difference was noted among the treatments. Untreated walnut
kernels exhibited signicantly higher peroxide values and FFA
values than the treated walnut kernels. The peroxide values and
FFA values of microwave-treated walnut kernels increased after 6
months of storage at 25
C though the values were within the limits
for acceptable quality. Our experiments have shown that heating
walnuts with microwave energy to temperatures previously
reported to be lethal to insects has no signicant effect on the
development of rancidity and also increases shelf life.
Acknowledgement
The authors acknowledge the Department of Science and
Technology (DST), India (SR/WOS-A/ET-111/2011), for providing
nancial support for this study.
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