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Axial Stress & Strain

Stress and strain are conceptual tools engineers use to predict the behavior of components.
Example: An engineer can use the yield stress of say Grade 60 steel reinforcing bars (rebars)
to predict the force at which rebar will yield. If Grade 60 rebar has a yield stress = 60ksi,
predict the force at which each rebar will yield (Py) below.
#4 rebar
A = 0.20 in

#7 rebar
A = 0.60 in

#9 rebar

Py = 12

Py = 36

Py = 60

A = 1.00 in2

Yield stress depends only on the type of material and not on the dimensions of a component.
Yield stress is therefore called a material property. Other examples of material properties in
include: modulus of elasticity (E) and yield strain (y). Students are normally more familiar
with the concept of stress than with the concept of strain. A good understanding of stress,
strain and how they are related is essential for competent design of reinforced concrete
components.
Figure 1 below shows how axial stress and strain are conceptual tools based on observable
physical phenomena such as force and deformation.
Figure 1: Axial Stress and Strain
Force (P)

Deflection ( )

Deformation

Force

Compatibility

Equilibrium

Stress

Stress () = Force per unit area

=P/A

Strain
/ =
Strain () = Deflection per unit length
=/L

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Stress is related to force by the condition of equilibrium: the sum of the stresses on a crosssection must add up to the net force.
And strain is related to deformation by the condition of compatibility: the pattern of strains
on a cross-section must "fit" the net deformation.
The axial force and deformation shown in Figure 1 produce normal stresses and strains.
Bending forces and deformations (which are of more interest in reinforced concrete design)
also produce normal stresses and strains.
Bending Stress & Strain
Bending deformation in a beam creates compression on one side and tension on the other, as
shown in Figure 2.
Figure 2. Bending deformation
Concrete is compressed

Concrete is stretched

Concrete is neither compressed nor stretched

(Neutral Axis)

The normal stresses and strains due to bending are not distributed uniformly across the
section like the normal stresses due to axial deformation. As shown in Figure 3, the stresses
and strains vary from a maximum compression on one side of the beam to a maximum
tension on the other side of the beam. The location of no stress or strain is called the neutral
axis.

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Figure 3. Bending Stress and Strain

Bending
Moment (M)

Curvature (K)

Force

Deformation
Curvature = change of slope per unit length

Neutral
Axis

(y) Stress

Strain

(y)

/ =

Stress ((y)) = Force per unit area

(y) = M y / I (linear elastic material only)

Strain ((y)) = deflection per unit length

(y) = K y

Stress vs. Strain Behavior of Concrete and Steel

The relation between normal stress and normal strain for concrete and steel is shown in
Figure 4. In both materials, the stress-strain curve is linear for small strains and stresses.
Typically, stresses and strains due to unfactored loads (also called service loads) occur in the
My
linear portion of the stress-strain curves. The classic beam theory equations (e.g. =
)
I
apply under these conditions. The slope of the linear portion of the stress strain curve is
equal to the modulus of elasticity, E. The modulus of elasticity of concrete is a function of
the concrete compressive strength, fc. The tensile strength of concrete is represented by the
modulus of rupture, fr, and is also a function of concrete compressive strength.
E c = 57,000 psi
f r = 7.5 psi

f c' in psi

f c' in psi

Stresses and strains due to factored loads occur in the non-linear portion of the stress-strain
curves. The ultimate strength of a structural member is evaluated at a concrete compressive
strain of 0.003.

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Figure 4. Stress-strain behavior of concrete and steel

Concrete Stress-Strain

fc

+'ve = tension

fs
yield stress, fy

modulus
of rupter
failure strain
-0.003

Steel Stress-Strain

slope = Es = 29,000 ksi

fr *

Ec =slope

f'c, compressive
strength

Limit of Service Load Conditions

Limit of Ultimate Strength Conditions