Jerusalem (Hebrew: ‫לים‬ ַ ‫ש‬

ׁ ‫ְירו‬, Yerushaláyim (for the meaning, see below); Arabic: ‫)الُقدس‬, al-Quds, lit. "The
Holy"; Yiddish: ‫ ירושלים‬Yərusholáyəm) [ii] is the capital[iii] of Israel and, if including the area and population of
East Jerusalem, its largest city[2] in both population and area,[3] with a population of 763,800 residents over
an area of 125.1 km2 (48.3 sq mi).[1][4][iv] Located in the Judean Mountains, between the Mediterranean Sea
and the northern edge of the Dead Sea, modern Jerusalem has grown far beyond the boundaries of the Old
City.

The city has a history that goes back to the 4th millennium BCE, making it one of the oldest cities in the
world.[5] Jerusalem is the holiest city in Judaism and has been the spiritual center of the Jewish people since
c. 1000 BCE, when David the King of Israel first established it as the capital of the Jewish Nation, and his
son Solomon commissioned the building of the First Temple in the city.[6] Jerusalem is also considered a
holy city in Christianity and contains a number of significant Christian sites, and due to the mentioning of
the Al-Aqsa-Mosque (Solomon's Temple) and the area around it in the Qur'an (Sura al-Isra), Islam regards
Jerusalem as its third-holiest city.[7] Despite having an area of only 0.9 square kilometer (0.35 square mile),
[8]
the Old City is home to sites of key religious importance, among them the Temple Mount, the Western
Wall, the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, the Dome of the Rock and al-Aqsa Mosque. The old walled city, a
World Heritage site, has been traditionally divided into four quarters, although the names used today—the
Armenian, Christian, Jewish, and Muslim Quarters—were introduced in the early 19th century.[9] The Old
City was nominated for inclusion on the List of World Heritage Sites in danger by Jordan in 1982.[10] In the
course of its history, Jerusalem has been destroyed twice, besieged 23 times, attacked 52 times, and
captured and recaptured 44 times.[11]

Today, the status of Jerusalem remains one of the core issues in the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. Israel's
annexation of East Jerusalem has been repeatedly criticized by the United Nations and related bodies.[12][13]
Palestinians want East Jerusalem to be the capital of a future Palestinian state.[14][15] Because of the
disputed status of Jerusalem, the embassies of most countries have been kept in Tel Aviv.[16] In the wake of
United Nations Security Council Resolution 478 (passed in 1980), most of the remainder were relocated.

In Jerusalem reside all the branches of the Israeli government, including Israel's parliament, the Knesset,
and Israel's Supreme Court. Jerusalem is also home to the Hebrew University and to the Israel Museum
with its Shrine of the Book. The Jerusalem Biblical Zoo has ranked consistently as Israel's top tourist
attraction for Israelis.[17][18] The popular Teddy Stadium is considered one of the top football stadiums in the
country.

History
Old Jerusalem

Ceramic evidence indicates the occupation of Ophel, within present-day Jerusalem, as far back as the
Copper Age, c. 4th millennium BCE,[5][29] with evidence of a permanent settlement during the early Bronze
Age, c. 3000–2800 BCE.[29][30] The Execration Texts (c. 19th century BCE), which refer to a city called
Roshlamem or Rosh-ramen[29] and the Amarna letters (c. 14th century BCE) may be the earliest mention of
the city.[31][32] Some archaeologists, including Kathleen Kenyon, believe Jerusalem[33] as a city was founded
by West Semitic people with organized settlements from around 2600 BCE. According to Jewish tradition
the city was founded by Shem and Eber, ancestors of Abraham. In the biblical account, when first
mentioned, Jerusalem (known as "Salem") is ruled by Melchizedek, an ally of Abraham (identified with
Shem in legend). Later, in the time of Joshua, Jerusalem was in territory allocated to the tribe of Benjamin
(Joshua 18:28) but it continued to be under the independent control of the Jebusites until it was conquered
by David and made into the capital of the united Kingdom of Israel (c. 1000s BCE).[34][35][v] Recent
excavations of a large stone structure are interpreted by some archaeologists as lending credence to the
biblical narrative.[36]

Temple periods

According to Hebrew scripture, King David reigned until 970 BCE. He was succeeded by his son Solomon,
[37]
who built the Holy Temple on Mount Moriah. Solomon's Temple (later known as the First Temple), went
on to play a pivotal role in Jewish history as the repository of the Ark of the Covenant.[38] For over 450
years, until the Babylonian conquest in 587 BCE, Jerusalem was the political capital of firstly the united
Kingdom of Israel and then the Kingdom of Judah and the Temple was the religious center of the Israelites.
[39]
This period is known in history as the First Temple Period.[40] Upon Solomon's death (c. 930 BCE), the
ten northern tribes split off to form the Kingdom of Israel. Under the leadership of the House of David and
Solomon, Jerusalem remained the capital of the Kingdom of Judah.[41]

Religious significance

The al-Aqsa Mosque, The Western Wall, known as the Kotel Church of the Holy
Sepulchre
the third holiest place in Islam

Jerusalem plays an important role in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. The 2000 Statistical Yearbook of
Jerusalem lists 1204 synagogues, 158 churches, and 73 mosques within the city.[156] Despite efforts to
maintain peaceful religious coexistence, some sites, such as the Temple Mount, have been a continuous
source of friction and controversy.

Jerusalem has been sacred to the Jews since King David proclaimed it his capital in the 10th century BCE.
Jerusalem was the site of Solomon's Temple and the Second Temple.[6] It is mentioned in the Bible 632
times. Today, the Western Wall, a remnant of the wall surrounding the Second Temple, is a Jewish holy site
second only to the Holy of Holies on the Temple Mount itself.[157] Synagogues around the world are
traditionally built with the Holy Ark facing Jerusalem, [158] and Arks within Jerusalem face the "Holy of
Holies".[159] As prescribed in the Mishna and codified in the Shulchan Aruch, daily prayers are recited while
facing towards Jerusalem and the Temple Mount. Many Jews have "Mizrach" plaques hung on a wall of their
homes to indicate the direction of prayer.[159][160]

Christianity reveres Jerusalem not only for its Old Testament history but also for its significance in the life
of Jesus. According to the New Testament, Jesus was brought to Jerusalem soon after his birth [161] and later
in his life cleansed the Second Temple.[162] The Cenacle, believed to be the site of Jesus' Last Supper, is
located on Mount Zion in the same building that houses the Tomb of King David.[163][164] Another prominent
Christian site in Jerusalem is Golgotha, the site of the crucifixion. The Gospel of John describes it as being
located outside Jerusalem,[165] but recent archaeological evidence suggests Golgotha is a short distance
from the Old City walls, within the present-day confines of the city.[166] The land currently occupied by the
Church of the Holy Sepulchre is considered one of the top candidates for Golgotha and thus has been a
Christian pilgrimage site for the past two thousand years.[166][167][168]

Jerusalem is considered the third-holiest city in Islam.[7] For approximately a year, before it was
permanently switched to the Kabaa in Mecca, the qibla (direction of prayer) for Muslims was Jerusalem.[169]
The city's lasting place in Islam, however, is primarily due to Muhammad's Night of Ascension (c. 620 CE).
Muslims believe Muhammad was miraculously transported one night from Mecca to the Temple Mount in
Jerusalem, whereupon he ascended to Heaven to meet previous prophets of Islam.[170][171] The first verse in
the Qur'an's Surat al-Isra notes the destination of Muhammad's journey as al-Aqsa (the farthest) mosque,
[172]
in reference to the location in Jerusalem. Today, the Temple Mount is topped by two Islamic landmarks
intended to commemorate the event—al-Aqsa Mosque, derived from the name mentioned in the Qur'an,
and the Dome of the Rock, which stands over the Foundation Stone, from which Muslims believe
Muhammad ascended to Heaven.[173]
Culture

The Shrine of the Book, housing the Dead The Jerusalem Theater at night International Convention
Center.
Sea Scrolls, at the Israel Museum

Although Jerusalem is known primarily for its religious significance, the city is also home to many artistic
and cultural venues. The Israel Museum attracts nearly one million visitors a year, approximately one-third
of them tourists.[174] The 20 acre museum complex comprises several buildings featuring special exhibits
and extensive collections of Judaica, archaeological findings, and Israeli and European art. The Dead Sea
scrolls, discovered in the mid-twentieth century in the Qumran caves near the Dead Sea, are housed in the
Museum's Shrine of the Book.[175] The Youth Wing, which mounts changing exhibits and runs an extensive
art education program, is visited by 100,000 children a year. The museum has a large outdoor sculpture
garden, and a scale-model of the Second Temple was recently moved from the Holyland Hotel to a new
location on the museum grounds.[174] The Rockefeller Museum, located in East Jerusalem, was the first
archaeological museum in the Middle East. It was built in 1938 during the British Mandate.[176][177]

Yad Vashem, Israel's national memorial to the victims of the Holocaust, houses the world's largest library
of Holocaust-related information,[178] with an estimated 100,000 books and articles. The complex contains a
state-of-the-art museum that explores the genocide of the Jews through exhibits that focus on the personal
stories of individuals and families killed in the Holocaust and an art gallery featuring the work of artists
who perished. Yad Vashem also commemorates the 1.5 million Jewish children murdered by the Nazis, and
honors the Righteous among the Nations.[179] The Museum on the Seam, which explores issues of
coexistence through art is situated on the road dividing eastern and western Jerusalem.[180]

The Jerusalem Symphony Orchestra, established in the 1940s,[181] has appeared around the world.[181] Other
arts facilities include the International Convention Center (Binyanei HaUma) near the entrance to city,
where the Israel Philharmonic Orchestra plays, the Jerusalem Cinemateque, the Gerard Behar Center
(formerly Beit Ha'am) in downtown Jerusalem, the Jerusalem Music Center in Yemin Moshe,[182] and the
Targ Music Center in Ein Kerem. The Israel Festival, featuring indoor and outdoor performances by local
and international singers, concerts, plays and street theater, has been held annually since 1961; for the
past 25 years, Jerusalem has been the major organizer of this event. The Jerusalem Theater in the Talbiya
neighborhood hosts over 150 concerts a year, as well as theater and dance companies and performing
artists from overseas.[183] The Khan Theater, located in a caravansarai opposite the old Jerusalem train
station, is the city's only repertoire theater.[184] The station itself has become a venue for cultural events in
recent years, as the site of Shav'ua Hasefer, an annual week-long book fair, and outdoor music
performances.[185] The Jerusalem Film Festival is held annually, screening Israeli and international films.[186]

The Ticho House, in downtown Jerusalem, houses the paintings of Anna Ticho and the Judaica collections of
her husband, an ophthalmologist who opened Jerusalem's first eye clinic in this building in 1912. [187] Al-
Hoash, established in 2004, is a gallery for the preservation of Palestinian art.[188]

Besides being a center for Jewish Israeli culture, Jerusalem is a capital of Arab culture. Jerusalem was
selected by UNESCO as the 2009 Capital of Arab Culture.[189] Jerusalem is home to the Palestinian National
Theatre, which engages in cultural preservation as well as innovation, working to upgrade and rekindle
interest in the arts at the national level.[190] The The Edward Said National Conservatory of Music is
headquartered in Jerusalem. The conservatory sponsors the Palestine Youth Orchestra, which has achieved
acclaim throughout the Arab world – in 2009, the orchestra, which includes Arab musicians from Jerusalem,
the West Bank and the Gaza Strip, Israel, and Arabs living in the Palestinian diaspora – toured the Gulf
states and other Middle East countries.[191]

The Islamic Museum on the Temple Mount, established in 1923, houses many Islamic artifacts, from tiny
kohl flasks and rare manuscripts to giant marble columns.[192]
While Israeli authorities approve and even support some Arab cultural activities, restrictions often make
expansion of Jerusalem Arab culture difficult. Israeli authorities forbade festivities marking the selection of
Jerusalem as the Arab Capital of Culture, because they were sponsored by the Palestine National Authority,
which Israel claims has no jurisdiction in Jerusalem.[189] Israeli border restrictions make it difficult for music
teachers and artists to move freely between Jerusalem and cultural centers in the West Bank.[193]
Nevertheless, a four-day culture fest did take place in the Beit Anan suburb of Jerusalem in 2009, attended
by more than 15,000 people[194]

Jerusalem is also a center for Israeli-Palestinian cultural cooperation. Several organizations, including the
Abraham Fund and the Jerusalem Intercultural Center (JICC) actively promote joint Jewish-Palestinian
cultural projects. The Jerusalem Center for Middle Eastern Music and Dance offers courses and
performances by Arab and Jewish students and artists. The JICC offers workshops on Jewish-Arab dialogue
through the arts.[195] The Jewish-Arab Youth Orchestra meets in Jerusalem, and performs both European
classical and Middle Eastern music.[196]

A Tolerance Monument sculpted by Czesław Dźwigaj in collaboration with Michal Kubiak is situated on a hill
marking the divide between Jewish Armon Hanatziv and Arab Jebl Mukaber, standing opposite the United
Nations headquarters in Jerusalem in a park near Goldman Promenade. Unveiled in Jerusalem in 2008, it
was funded by Polish businessman Aleksander Gudzowaty as a symbol to promote peace in the Israeli-
Palestinian conflict.[197]

Statue of Our Lady of Lourdes

Our Lady of Lourdes is the name used to refer to the Marian apparition that appeared before various
individuals in separate occasions around Lourdes, France.

History

The apparitions of Our Lady of Lourdes began on 11 February 1858, when Bernadette Soubirous, a 14-
year-old peasant girl from Lourdes admitted, when questioned by her mother, that she had seen a "lady"
in the cave of Massabielle, about a mile from the town, while she was gathering firewood with her sister
and a friend.[1] Similar appearances of the "lady" took place on seventeen further occasions that year.

Bernadette Soubirous was canonized as a saint, and many Christians believe her apparitions to have been
of the Blessed Virgin Mary. The first appearance of the "Lady" reported by Bernadette was on 11 February.
Pope Pius IX authorized the local bishop to permit the veneration of the Virgin Mary in Lourdes in 1862.
On 11 February 1858, Bernadette Soubirous went with her sisters Toinette and Jeanne Abadie to collect
some firewood and bones in order to be able to buy some bread. When she took off her shoes and
stockings to wade through the water near the Grotto of Massabielle, she heard the sound of two gusts of
wind (coups de vent) but the trees and bushes nearby did not move. She saw a light in the grotto and a
girl, as small as she was, dressed all in white, apart from the blue belt fastened around her waist and the
golden yellow roses, one on each foot, the colour of her rosary. Bernadette tried to keep this a secret, but
Toinette told her mother. After parental cross-examination, she and her sisters received corporal
punishment for their story.[2][3] Three days later, Bernadette returned to the Grotto with the two other girls.
She had brought holy water as a test that the apparition was not of evil provenance, however the vision
only inclined her head gratefully when the water was thrown. [4] Bernadette's companions reportedly
became afraid when they saw her in ecstasy. Bernadette remained ecstatic when they returned to the
village. On 18 February, she was told by the Lady to return to the Grotto over a period of two weeks. The
Lady allegedly said: I promise to make you happy not in this world but in the next. [5] After the news
spread, the police and city authorities began to take an interest. Bernadette was prohibited by her parents
and police commissioner Jacomet to ever go there again, but she went anyway. On the 24th of February
the apparition asked for prayer and penitence for the conversion of sinners. On the 25th Bernadette was
asked to dig in the ground and drink the water of the spring she found there. This made her dishevelled
and caused dismay among her supporters, but revealed the stream that soon became a focal point of
pilgrimage.[6] At first muddy, the stream became increasingly clean. As word spread, this water was given
to medical patients of all kinds, and numerous miracle cures were reported. Seven of these cures were
confirmed as lacking any medical explanations by Professor Verges in 1860. The first person with a
“certified miracle” was a woman, whose right hand had been deformed as a consequence of an accident.
Several miracles turned out to be short term improvement or even hoaxes, and Church and government
officials became increasingly concerned.[7] The government fenced-off the Grotto and issued stiff penalties
for anybody trying to get near the off-limits area. In the process, Lourdes became a national issue in
France, resulting in the intervention of emperor Napoleon III with an order to reopen the grotto on 4
October 1858. The Church had decided to stay away from the controversy altogether.

Bernadette, knowing the localities rather well, managed to visit the barricaded grotto under the protection
of darkness. There, on March 25, she was told: " I am the Immaculate Conception" ("que soy era
immaculada concepciou"). On Easter Sunday, the 7th of April, her examining doctor stated that
Bernadette, in ecstasy, was observed to have held her hands over a lit candle without receiving any burns.
[8]
On 16 July, Bernadette went for the last time to the Grotto. I have never seen her so beautiful before. [7]
The Church, faced with nation-wide questions, decided to institute an investigative commission on 17
November 1858. On 18 January 1860, the local bishop finally declared that: The Virgin Mary did appear
indeed to Bernadette Soubirous. [7] These events established the Marian veneration in Lourdes, which
together with Fátima, is one of the most frequented Marian shrines in the world, and to which between 4
and 6 million pilgrims travel annually.

The verity of the apparitions of Lourdes is not an article of faith for Catholics. Nevertheless all recent Popes
visited the Marian shine. Benedict XV, Pius XI, and John XXIII went there as bishops, Pius XII as papal
delegate. He also issued with Le Pelerinage de Lourdes a Lourdes encyclical on the 100th anniversary of
the apparitions in 1958. John Paul II visited Lourdes three times and Pope Benedict XVI completed a visit
there on 15 September 2008 to commemorate the 150th anniversary of the apparitions in 1858.

Lourdes water

The location of the spring was described to Bernadette Soubirous by an apparition of Our Lady of Lourdes
on 25 February 1858. Since that time many thousands of pilgrims to Lourdes have followed the instruction
of Our Lady of Lourdes to "drink at the spring and wash in it".

Although never formally encouraged by the Church, Lourdes water has become a focus of devotion to the
Virgin Mary at Lourdes. Since the apparitions, many people have claimed to have been cured by drinking
or bathing in it[24], and the Lourdes authorities provide it free of charge to any who ask for it.[25] [2]

An analysis of the water was commissioned by Mayor Anselme Lacadé of Lourdes in 1858. It was
conducted by a professor in Toulouse, who determined that the water was potable and that it contained
the following: oxygen, nitrogen, carbonic acid, carbonates of lime and magnesia, a trace of carbonate of
iron, an alkaline carbonate or silicate, chlorides of potassium and sodium, traces of sulphates of potassium
and soda, traces of ammonia, and traces of iodine.[26] Essentially, the water is quite pure and inert. Lacadé
had hoped that Lourdes water might have special mineral properties which would allow him to develop
Lourdes into a spa town, to compete with neighbouring Cauterets and Bagnères-de-Bigorre.[24]

The Lourdes Medical Bureau

To ensure claims of cures were examined properly and to protect the town from fraudulent claims of
miracles, the Lourdes Medical Bureau (Bureau Medical) was established at the request of Pope Pius X. It is
completely under medical and not ecclesiastical supervision. Approximately 7000 people have sought to
have their case confirmed as a miracle, of which only 68 have been declared a scientifically inexplicable
miracle by both the Bureau and the Catholic Church.[34]

The officially recognized miracle cures in Lourdes are among the least controversial in the Catholic world,
because Lourdes from the very beginning was subject to intense medical investigation from sceptical
doctors around the world. All medical doctors with the appropriate specialization in the area of the cure
have unlimited access to the files and documents of the Lourdes Medical Bureau (Bureau Medical),[35]
which also contains all approved and disapproved miracles. Most officially recognized cures in Lourdes
were openly discussed and reported on in the media at the time. Nevertheless, there were a few instances,
where medically ascertained incomprehension turned out not to be miracles, because the illness
reappeared in later years. In the vast number of cases however, the judgement of the medical and
ecclesiastical authorities was holding water as beyond medical explanation in later on critical
investigations.[36]

In his documentary The Root of All Evil, evolutionary biologist Richard Dawkins visits Lourdes and
expresses doubts as to the "miraculous" nature of the cures, remarking on the lack of statistical evidence
of any supernatural activity (despite receiving over eighty thousand pilgrims a year, less than 70 "declared
miracles" have occurred) and the fact that all the declared miracles are for diseases that may have healed
themselves anyway; nobody has reported the regrowing of a severed limb, for example.

Pilgrimages

The pilgrimage site is visited by millions of Catholics each year, and Lourdes has become one of the
greatest pilgrimage sites of the world. Various unusual occurrences are reported to take place, not only
subsequent to bathing in or drinking the water of the Lourdes Spring, but also during the daily Eucharistic
procession. Miraculous healings have been claimed, and a number of these have been documented by the
Lourdes Medical Commission. Large numbers of sick pilgrims travel to Lourdes each year in the hope of
physical healing or

Paray-le-Monial is a commune in the Saône-et-Loire department in the region of Bourgogne in eastern

France.

Sights

The town is mainly known for its Romanesque church "Sacré-Coeur" and as a place of pilgrimage.

The Hôtel de Ville, in Renaissance style, the façade of which is adorned with a large statue of the Blessed
Virgin, is also one of the historical monuments.

History

Paray (Paredum; Parodium) existed before the monks who gave it its surname of Le Monial, for when Count
Lambert of Chalon, together with his wife Adelaide and his friend Mayeul de Cluny, founded there in 973
the celebrated Benedictine priory, the borough had already been constituted, with its ædiles and
communal privileges. At that time an ancient temple was dedicated to the Mother of God (Charter of
Paray). The Cluny monks were, 999-1789, lords of the town.

Religious history
Protestantism made many proselytes here, but in 1618 the Jesuits were summoned, and after a century
there remained only a few Protestant families, who have long since disappeared. In order to complete the
work, Père Paul de Barry, the author of Pensez-y-bien, in 1678 brought the Order of the Visitation of Holy
Mary (the Visitandines) here.

Paray-le-Monial has become a much-frequented place of pilgrimage since 1873, as many as 100,000
pilgrims arriving yearly from all parts of Europe and America. The most venerated spot is the Chapel of the
Visitation, where most of the apparitions to Saint Margaret Mary Alacoque took place. Next comes the
Basilica of the Sacred Heart, in charge of secular chaplains, formerly the church of the monks, which is one
of the most beautiful monuments of Cluniac architecture (10th or 11th century).

Pilgrimage is also made to the Hieron or temple-palace, erected by a layman in honour of the Eucharistic
King, where there is a very curious collection of pictures and objects of art bearing on the Holy Eucharist.
Despite the difficulties of the present religious situation in France [as of 1911], Paray still possesses a
number of communities or monasteries which justify its surname. Moreover, with this town are connected
the associations the object of which is the cult of the Sacred Heart, such as the Apostleship of Prayer, the
Archconfraternity of the Holy Hour (established at Paray itself in 1829 by Père Robert Debrosse), and the
Communion of Reparation, organized in 1854 by Père Victor Drevon. The latter maintains its headquarters
at Paray.

Pope Leo XIII said in his Brief of Coronation of Notre Dame de Romay (25 July 1896), "Cœ;lo gratissimum
oppidum", "a town very dear to heaven".

The Sacred Heart (also known as Sacred Heart of Jesus) is one of the most famous religious devotions
to Jesus' physical heart as the representation of His divine love for Humanity.

This devotion is predominantly used in the Roman Catholic, Anglo Catholic, and Lutheran Churches. It
stresses the central Christian concept of loving and adoring Jesus. The origin of this devotion in its modern
form is derived from a French Roman Catholic nun, Marguerite Marie Alacoque, who said she learned the
devotion from Jesus in visions. Predecessors to the modern devotion arose unmistakably in the Middle
Ages in various facets of Christian mysticism.[1]

In the Roman Catholic tradition, the Sacred Heart has been closely associated with Acts of Reparation to
Jesus Christ. In his encyclical Miserentissimus Redemptor, Pope Pius XI stated: "the spirit of expiation or
reparation has always had the first and foremost place in the worship given to the Most Sacred Heart of
Jesus".[2]

Devotion to the Sacred Heart is sometimes seen in the Eastern Catholic Churches, where it remains a point
of controversy and is seen as an example of Liturgical Latinisation.

The Sacred Heart is often depicted in Christian art as a flaming heart shining with divine light, pierced by
the lance-wound, surrounded by a crown of thorns, surmounted by a cross and bleeding. Sometimes the
image is over Jesus' body with his wounded hands pointing at the heart. The wounds and crown of thorns
allude to the manner of Jesus' death, while the fire represents the transformative power of love.

The Feast of the Sacred Heart has been a Solemnity in the Roman Catholic liturgical calendar since 1856,
and is celebrated 19 days after Pentecost. As Pentecost is always celebrated on Sunday, the Feast of the
Sacred Heart always falls on a Friday.

St. Margaret Mary Alacoque

Religious of the Visitation Order. Apostle of the Devotion to the Sacred Heart of Jesus, born at Lhautecour,
France, 22 July, 1647; died at Paray-le-Monial, 17 October, 1690.

Her parents, Claude Alacoque and Philiberte Lamyn, were distinguished less for temporal possessions than
for their virtue, which gave them an honourable position. From early childhood Margaret showed intense
love for the Blessed Sacrament, and preferred silence and prayer to childish amusements. After her first
communion at the age of nine, she practised in secret severe corporal mortifications, until paralysis
confined her to bed for four years. At the end of this period, having made a vow to the Blessed Virgin to
consecrate herself to religious life, she was instantly restored to perfect health. The death of her father
and the injustice of a relative plunged the family in poverty and humiliation, after which more than ever
Margaret found consolation in the Blessed Sacrament, and Christ made her sensible of His presence and
protection. He usually appeared to her as the Crucified or the Ecce Homo, and this did not surprise her, as
she thought others had the same Divine assistance. When Margaret was seventeen, the family property
was recovered, and her mother besought her to establish herself in the world. Her filial tenderness made
her believe that the vow of childhood was not binding, and that she could serve God at home by penance
and charity to the poor. Then, still bleeding from her self-imposed austerities, she began to take part in the
pleasures of the world. One night upon her return from a ball, she had a vision of Christ as He was during
the scourging, reproaching her for infidelity after He had given her so many proofs of His love. During her
entire life Margaret mourned over two faults committed at this time--the wearing of some superfluous
ornaments and a mask at the carnival to please her brothers.

On 25 May, 1671, she entered the Visitation Convent at Paray, where she was subjected to many trials to
prove her vocation, and in November, 1672, pronounced her final vows. She had a delicate constitution,
but was gifted with intelligence and good judgement, and in the cloister she chose for herself what was
most repugnant to her nature, making her life one of inconceivable sufferings, which were often relieved or
instantly cured by our Lord, Who acted as her Director, appeared to her frequently and conversed with her,
confiding to her the mission to establish the devotion to His Sacred Heart. These extraordinary
occurrences drew upon her the adverse criticism of the community, who treated her as a visionary, and
her superior commanded her to live the common life. But her obedience, her humility, and invariable
charity towards those who persecuted her, finally prevailed, and her mission, accomplished in the crucible
of suffering, was recognized even by those who had shown her the most bitter opposition.

Margaret Mary was inspired by Christ to establish the Holy Hour and to pray lying prostrate with her face
to the ground from eleven till midnight on the eve of the first Friday of each month, to share in the mortal
sadness He endured when abandoned by His Apostles in His Agony, and to receive holy Communion on the
first Friday of every month. In the first great revelation, He made known to her His ardent desire to be
loved by men and His design of manifesting His Heart with all Its treasures of love and mercy, of
sanctification and salvation. He appointed the Friday after the octave of the feast of Corpus Christi as the
feast of the Sacred Heart; He called her "the Beloved Disciple of the Sacred Heart", and the heiress of all
Its treasures. The love of the Sacred Heart was the fire which consumed her, and devotion to the Sacred
Heart is the refrain of all her writings. In her last illness she refused all alleviation, repeating frequently:
"What have I in heaven and what do I desire on earth, but Thee alone, O my God", and died pronouncing
the Holy Name of Jesus.

The discussion of the mission and virtues of Margaret Mary continued for years. All her actions, her
revelations, her spiritual maxims, her teachings regarding the devotion to the Sacred Heart, of which she
was the chief exponent as well as the apostle, were subjected to the most severe and minute examination,
and finally the Sacred Congregation of rites passed a favourable vote on the heroic virtues of this servant
of God. In March, 1824, Leo XII pronounced her Venerable, and on 18 September, 1864, Pius IX declared
her Blessed. When her tomb was canonically opened in July, 1830, two instantaneous cures took place. Her
body rests under the altar in the chapel at Paray, and many striking favours have been obtained by
pilgrims attracted thither from all parts of the world. Her feast is celebrated on 17 October. [Editor's Note:
St. Margaret Mary was canonized by Benedict XV in 1920.]

Tiberias (pronounced /taɪˈbɪəri.əs/; Hebrew: ‫טבֶר ְׁיה‬ ְ , T'veriyah (audio) (help·info); Arabic: ‫طبريييية‬,
Ṭabariyyah) is a city on the western shore of the Sea of Galilee, Lower Galilee, Israel. Established in 20 CE,
it was named in honour of the emperor Tiberius.[2] Since the sixteenth century, Tiberias has been
considered one of Judaism's Four Holy Cities, along with Jerusalem, Hebron and Safed.[3] In the 2nd-10th
centuries, Tiberias was the largest Jewish city in the Galilee, and the political and religious hub of the Jews
of Palestine. According to Christian tradition, Jesus performed several miracles in the Tiberias district,
making it an important pilgrimage site for devout Christians. [4] Tiberias has historically been known for its
hot springs, believed to cure skin and other ailments, for thousands of years (This southern part of today's
Tiberias was probably the site of the Bilbical village of Chammath (Joshua 19:35)).[4]

History

Antiquity
Tiberias was founded as a Jewish city sometime around 20 CE by Herod Antipas, son of Herod the Great,
who made it the capital of his realm in Galilee. It was named in honor of the Roman Emperor Tiberius.
There is a legend that Tiberias was built on the site of the biblical village of Rakkat, mentioned in the Book
of Joshua (Joshua 19:35).[5] A discussion of Tiberias as Rakkat appears in the Talmud.[6] In The Antiquities of
the Jews, the Roman Jewish historian Josephus states that Tiberias was near Emmaus.[2] This location is
repeated in The Wars of the Jews.[7]

Under the Roman Empire, the city was known by its Greek name Τιβεριάς (Tiberiás, Modern Greek
Τιβεριάδα Tiveriáda), an adaptation of the taw-suffixed Semitic form that preserved its feminine
grammatical gender.

In the days of Antipas, the Jews refused to settle there; the presence of a cemetery rendered the site
ritually unclean. Antipas settled predominantly non-Jews there from rural Galilee and other parts of his
domains in order to populate his new capital, and Antipas furthermore built a palace on the acropolis. [8]
The prestige of Tiberias was so great that the sea of Galilee soon came to be called the sea of Tiberias. [8]
The city was governed by a city council of 600 with a committee of 10 until 44 CE when a Roman
Procurator was set over the city after the death of Agrippa I.[8] In 61 CE Agrippa II annexed the city to his
kingdom whose capital was Caesarea Phillippi.[9] During the First Jewish–Roman War Josephus Flavius took
control of the city and destroyed Herod's palace but was able to stop the city being pillaged by his Jewish
army.[8][10] Where most other cities in Palestine were razed, Tiberias was spared because its inhabitants
remained loyal to Rome after Josephus Flavius had surrendered the city to the Roman emperor Vespasian.
[8][11]
It became a mixed city after the fall of Jerusalem; with Judea subdued, the southern Jewish population
migrated to Galilee.[12][13]

In 145 CE, Rabbi Shimon bar Yochai "cleansed the city of ritual impurity allowing Jews to settle in the city
in numbers."[9] The Sanhedrin, the Jewish court, also fled from Jerusalem during the Great Jewish Revolt
against the Roman Empire, and after several moves eventually settled in Tiberias in about 150 CE.[8][13] It
was to be its final meeting place before disbanding in the early Byzantine period. Following the expulsion
of all Jews from Jerusalem after 135, Tiberias and its neighbor Sepphoris became the major Jewish centres.
From the time when Yochanan bar Nafcha (d. 279) settled in Tiberias, the city became the focus of Jewish
religious scholarship in the land. The Mishnah along with the Jerusalem Talmud, (the written discussions of
generations of rabbis in the Land of Israel – primarily in the academies of Tiberias and Caesarea), was
probably compiled in Tiberias by Rabbi Judah haNasi in around 200 CE.[13] The 13 synagogues served the
spiritual needs of a growing Jewish population.[8]

In the sixth century Tiberias was still the seat of Jewish religious learning. In light of this, Bishop Simeon of
Beth Arsham urged the Christians of Palestine to seize the leaders of Judaism in Tiberias, to put them to
the rack, and to compel them to command the Jewish king, Dhu Nuwas, to desist from persecuting the
Christians in Najran.[14]

In 614, Tiberias was the site where during the final Jewish revolt against the Byzantine Empire, the Jewish
population supported the Persian invaders; the Christians were massacred and the churches destroyed. In
628 the Byzantium army retook Tiberias and the slaughter of the Christians was reciprocated with a
slaughter of the Jews.[citation needed]

The Sea of Galilee, also Lake of Gennesaret, Lake Kinneret, Sea of Tiberias or Tiberias Lake
(Hebrew: ‫ים כנרת‬, Arabic: ‫)بحيرة طبرييا‬, located near the Golan Heights, is the largest freshwater lake in Israel,
and it is approximately 53 km (33 miles) in circumference, about 21 km (13 miles) long, and 13 km (8
miles) wide. The lake has a total area of 166 km², and a maximum depth of approximately 43 m (141 feet).
[3]
At 209 metres below sea level, it is the lowest freshwater lake on Earth and the second-lowest lake in
the world (after the Dead Sea, a saltwater lake).[4]

The Kinneret is situated deep in the Jordan Great Rift Valley, the valley caused by the separation of the
African and Arabian Plates and is fed partly by underground springs although its main source is the Jordan
River which flows through it from north to south. Consequently the area is subject to earthquakes and, in
the past, volcanic activity. This is evident by the abundant basalt and other igneous rocks that define the
geology of the Galilee region.
Antiquity

The Sea of Galilee, which is land locked lies on the ancient Via Maris which linked Egypt with the northern
empires. The Greeks, Hasmoneans, and Romans founded flourishing towns and settlements on the lake
including Gadara, Hippos and Tiberias. The first-century historian Flavius Josephus was so impressed by
the area that he wrote, "One may call this place the ambition of Nature." Josephus also reported a thriving
fishing industry at this time, with 230 boats regularly working in the lake.

Much of the ministry of Jesus occurred on the shores of Lake Galilee. In those days, there was a continuous
ribbon development of settlements and villages around the lake and plenty of trade and ferrying by boat.
The Synoptic gospels of Mark (1:14-20), Matthew (4:18-22), and Luke (5:1-11) describe how Jesus recruited
four of his apostles from the shores of Lake Galilee: the fishermen Simon and his brother Andrew and the
brothers John and James. One of Jesus' famous teaching episodes, the Sermon on the Mount, is supposed
to have been given on a hill overlooking the lake. Many of his miracles are also said to have occurred here
including his walking on water, calming a storm, and his feeding five thousand people (in Tabgha).

The Sea of Galilee.

In 135 CE the second Jewish revolt against the Romans was put down. The Romans responded by banning
all Jews from Jerusalem. The center of Jewish culture and learning shifted to the region of the Kinneret,
particularly the city of Tiberias. It was in this region that the so-called "Jerusalem Talmud" is thought to
have been compiled.

In the time of the Byzantine Empire, the lake's significance in Jesus' life made it a major destination for
Christian pilgrims. This led to the growth of a full-fledged tourist industry, complete with package tours and
plenty of comfortable inns.

Porto

Oporto" redirects here. For other uses of Porto and Oporto, see Porto (disambiguation).
Porto / Oporto

Seal
Flag

Porto's Ribeira
in English, is Portugal's second city and the capital of Norte region. It is, along with Lisbon, one of
Portugal's two global cities. The city is located in the estuary of the Douro river, in northern Portugal. Being
the largest city in the region, it is considered its economic and cultural heart. With an estimated population
of about 220,000 (est.2008), it lies at the centre of the political Greater Metropolitan Area of Porto, with a
population of slightly more than 1.7 million (est. 2008),[1] and is the main agglomeration of northern
Portugal.[2]

The city of Porto comprises 15 civil parishes. The historic centre of Porto was declared a World Heritage
Site by UNESCO in 1996. One of Portugal's most internationally famous products, Port wine, is named after
the city because it is produced in, and shipped from the area [3] or, more precisely, from Vila Nova de Gaia,
a city just across the river which belongs to the same conurbation.

The Latin name of Porto, Portus Cale,[4] is the origin of the name "Portugal" for the whole country. In
Portuguese, the city is usually referred to with the definite article as "o Porto" (the port), hence the English
name "Oporto".

Early history

Historic references to the city go back to the 4th century and to Roman times, although Celtic and Proto-
Celtic remnants of ancient Citadels were found in the heart of where Porto now lies. In the Roman period
the city developed its importance as a commercial port, primarily in the trade between Olissipona (Lisbon)
and Bracara Augusta (nowadays Braga), but would fall under the Moorish invasion of the Iberian Peninsula
in 711. In 868, Vímara Peres, a Christian warlord from Gallaecia and a vassal of the King of Asturias, Léon
and Galicia, Alfonso III, was sent to reconquer and secure from the Moors the area from the Minho River to
the Douro River, including the city of Portus Cale, later Porto and Gaia, from where the name and political
entity of Portugal emerged (see Portucale). In 868 Count Vímara Peres established the First County of
Portugal (Portuguese: Condado de Portucale), after the reconquest of the region north of the Douro river.

In 1387, this city was the scene for the marriage of João I and Philippa of Lancaster, daughter of John of
Gaunt, symbolising the long-standing military alliance between Portugal and England, the world's oldest
military alliance, which still holds via NATO.

In the 14th and the 15th centuries, the shipyards of Porto contributed to the development of the
Portuguese fleet. In 1415, Henry the Navigator, son of João I, left from Porto to conquest the Muslim port of
Ceuta in northern Morocco. This expedition led to the exploratory voyages that he later sent down the
coast of Africa. Portuenses are referred to this day as "tripeiros", in reference to the fact that higher quality
meat would be loaded onto ships to feed sailors, while off-cuts and by-products such as tripe would be left
behind and eaten by the citizens of Porto. Tripe remains a culturally important dish in modern day Porto.

Culture

Porto city centre A typical street in Porto Casa da Música a

Rem Koolhaas's concert hall

The first Portuguese moving pictures were taken in Porto by Aurélio da Paz dos Reis and shown there on 12
November 1896 in Teatro do Príncipe Real do Porto, less than a year after the first public presentation by
Auguste and Louis Lumière. The country's first movie studios Invicta Filmes was also erected in Porto in
1917 and was open from 1918 to 1927 in the area of Carvalhido. Manoel de Oliveira, a Portuguese film
director and the oldest director in the world who is still active, is from Porto. Fantasporto is an international
film festival organized in Porto every year. Many renowned Portuguese music artists and cult bands such
as GNR, Rui Veloso, Sérgio Godinho, Clã, Pluto and Ornatos Violeta are from the city or its metropolitan
area. Porto has several museums, concert halls, theaters, cinemas, art galleries, libraries and book shops.
The best-known museums of Oporto are the National Museum Soares dos Reis (Museu Nacional de Soares
dos Reis), which is dedicated especially to the Portuguese artistic movements from the 16th to the 20th
century, and the Museum of Contemporary Art of the Serralves Foundation (Museu de Arte
Contemporânea). The city has concert halls of a rare beauty and elegance such as the Coliseu do Porto by
the Portuguese architect Cassiano Branco; an exquisite example of the Portuguese decorative arts. Other
notable venues include the historical São João National Theatre, the Rivoli theatre, the Batalha cinema and
the recent Casa da Música. The city has a magnificent, and beautiful bookshop, "Lello", that was featured
in third place in The Guardian's list of world's top bookshops.[8] From the three top bookshops, Lello was
the only one that was originally built to be a bookshop, as the other ones were, repectively, a church and a
theatre.