Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
Eurocodes
The structural Eurocodes present both a major challenger and major opportunity for bridge engineers. Much has been written
about the Eurocodes and it is only intended to provide the briefest of summaries here. Links to useful sites are included; the
reader is cautioned that the Eurocodes are now being published and there is a considerable amount of information for the
uninitiated to digest before the Eurocodes may be used effectively.
The Eurocodes are gradually being introduced into the European member states. Many of the codes are being published as
final documents this year, with an on-going timetable for the publishing of all documents by 2009. A period of coexistence of
five years is permitted when either the British Standard or the Eurocode may be used. At the end of the period, the British
Standard will be withdrawn and designers will be obliged to use the Eurocodes.
Users of BS5400 will find the Eurocodes very different from the BS5400 provisions, primarily owing to the difficulty in
assembling the requisite documents needed to carry out a full design. British concrete bridge designs have been fortunate to
use a comprehensive, bridge specific code that provides all the design information required in one document. The Eurocodes
are not as readily amenable as BS5400 and the designer will need to arm himself with a number of documents to carry out a
design.
For example, the main code is BS EN 1992-1-1. The bridge designer will need to also obtain a copy of BS EN 1992-2, which
contains bridge specific details. The basis for design is given in BS EN 1990, while loading is provided in BS EN 1991-2.
This is simply a question of obtaining the appropriate documents, but there will be some frustration as designers start to get a
grip on the use of the Eurocodes. The designer will also need to obtain the National Annexes to see what Nationally Defined
International Design Practice
Page 1
Stress Models
One of the fundamental differences between concrete codes of practice is the calculation of the stress block in the concrete.
BS8110 and BS EN 1992-1-1 use similar models, but with slight difference in the parameters. The shape of the stress block in
the ACI model is arguably more realistic in that it takes into account the reduction in strength as the material approaches
compression failure. Perhaps a more significant effect is that BS5400 includes material factors within the stress/strain
relationship of both materials, whereas the ACI model applies a capacity reduction factor dependent on the aspect of the
section being considered. Thus, sections in bending (which for an under reinforced section is predominantly dependent on steel
strength) a higher factor is used, reflecting the greater consistency of the steel material strengths. Lower factors are used for
columns and for sections in shear, in keeping with the greater variation in concrete strengths.
One other significant area of difference is the design limits for shear. BS5400 is more penal on shear forces that other codes.
Paradoxically, the longitudinal shear requirements are higher in BS5400 than ACI.
Limit States
The UK has used limit state design for over twenty years and designers are very familiar with these requirements. The same is
not true internationally and limit state codes have only recently been introduced in some countries. The Indian bridge codes are
available in both limit state and working stress forms, as are AASHTOs (AASHTO is the American Association of State
Highway Transportation Officials). It is work checking closely which standard has been adopted by the client for projects in
such countries, although experience shows that the limit state approach is generally used for major international projects.
Load Factors
Another area of fundamental difference is the approach taken in the determination of load factors and load combinations.
National design requirements are implicit in the choice of factors and it is as well for users to acquaint themselves with the
differences. Cases which may be governing for some bridge types under BS 5400 are not necessarily governing in the
AASHTO codes.
Page 2
India
UK
www.bsi-global.com/index.xalter
www.archive2.official-documents.co.uk/document/deps/ha/dmrb/index.htm
Eurocodes
www.eurocodes.co.uk
www.cenorm.be/cenorm/index.htm
USA (AASHTO)
bridges.transportation.org
USA (ACI)
www.aci-int.org/general/home.asp
Canada
www.csa.ca
Japan
www.jsa.or.jp/default_english.asp
Australia
www.standards.com.au
Page 3