AS1 Particles, Quantum Phenomena and Electricity

AS-1-1 What is Physics?

Objectives:
Understand what science is
Understand what physics is
Explain the scientific method
A very brief overview of all of physics
What is Science?
Label the following with S (science), R (not science), N (not sure)
Physics

Creation Science

Acupuncture

Biology

Astronomy

Engineering

Omega 3 increases IQ

Intelligent Design

Astrology

Modern Medicine

Chemistry

History

Homeopathy

MMR vaccines cause autism

Evolution

Theology

Geography

English

What separates science from non-sciences (the cartoons might help)?

AS1 Particles, Quantum Phenomena and Electricity

Experiments
Science is based on the experiments.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Scientists make observations

Come up with a hypothesis or theory
Make a prediction
Carry out an experiment to confirm or refute a theory
Other scientists attempt to repeat the experiment to validate it

A theory can never be proved, but if we get enough evidence we go with the
theory until something unexplained comes along.
Give 3 reasons why scientists do experiments?
To confirm a theory, to refute a theory, to validate (or invalidate) another
scientists experiment
What does it mean to validate an experiment?
Repeated by another scientist to check reliability and repeatability and that
they didnt make a mistake
Hypothesis is one prediction (can include an explanation or not)
Theory is wider in scope (doesnt just explain one thing) and must include an
explanation of why something is happening.
Mark each of these as hypothesis (H) or theory (T)
1. If you let go of an object it will fall (H)
2. Planets move in elliptical orbits (H)
3. All objects are attracted to other objects depending on mass and
distance between them (T)
When scientists get conflicting evidence
Check the experiments for mistakes in method
Repeat to check for mistakes when carrying it out
Come up with a new theory or hypothesis that explains both results.

AS1 Particles, Quantum Phenomena and Electricity

Which Science is this?

Label the following with P Physics, C Chemistry, B Biology, O other.
Everything is made of atoms
Atoms contain electrons
The Nucleus contains protons and neutrons
Neutrons and Protons are made of quarks
Building computer chips
Sending a rocket to the moon
Building a rocket
Writing a computer program
Building the LHC at CERN
Medical PET scan
Radiotherapy
Explaining electron shells
Explaining inter molecular forces
Temperature and pressure of gases
Stars are mostly hydrogen and helium
An asteroid killed the non-avian dinosaurs
What is Physics?
Physics is concerned with explaining everything by referring to the 4(?) forces.
Physics is all about reducing the number of just becauses (assumptions or
axioms) to as few as possible.
There are three views of the universe.
The Standard Model (Quantum Mechanics) the world of the very small
General Relativity the world of the very massive
Classical Physics everything in between
Both the standard model and general relativity approximate to Classical
physics in the middle size. But what happens when things are both very small
and massive. It doesnt work.
Most of A level physics is Classical Physics. This module dips its toes into the
Standard model, without the maths.

AS1 Particles, Quantum Phenomena and Electricity

AS-1-2 The Atom

Objectives:
Describe an atom and its components
Understand mass and atomic numbers
Do specific mass calculations
Specification
3.1.1 Constituents of the atom
Proton, neutron, electron. Their charge and mass in SI units and
relative units. Specific charge of nuclei and of ions. Atomic mass unit
is not required.
Proton number Z, nucleon number A, nuclide notation, isotopes
History of Atoms
All though it was proposed far earlier and used as a useful idea in Chemistry
Einstein proved that atoms (or molecules) were real in 1905 with his paper on
Brownian motion.
In 1896 the electron was discovered and if atoms existed an electron was part
of it.
In 1909 Rutherford at Manchester University explained Geiger and Marsdens
experiment of firing alpha particles at gold foil, as proving the existence of the
nucleus.
In 1918 Rutherford also discovered the nucleus contained protons.
In 1932 James Chadwick proved the existence of the neutron.
Numbers
Nucleon a particle found in the nucleus, a proton or neutron.
Elements can be written like this
A
Z X
A Mass Number = number of nucleons = number of protons + number of
neutrons
Z Atomic Number = number of protons = number of electrons in a neutral
atom
X Chemical symbol
Number of neutrons = A Z
14
e.g. carbon 14 is written as 6 C , it has 6 protons and 14 6 = 8 neutrons.
Isotopes are atoms which contain the same number of protons (and are
therefore the same element) but different numbers of neutrons.

AS1 Particles, Quantum Phenomena and Electricity

Complete the table

Isotope

Carbon

number
of
nucleons
14

Ra

Radium

226

88

138

209
81

Thallium

209

81

128

235
92

Uranium

235

92

143

14
6
226
88

Tl
U

element

number
of
protons
6

number of
neutrons
8

Mass and Charge

u atomic mass unit
Electron
Charge (e) = -1.60 10-19 C
Rest Mass (me) = 9.11 10-31 kg = 5.5 10-4 u
Proton
Charge (-e) = 1.60 10-19 C
Rest Mass (mp) = 1.67(3) 10-27 kg = 1.00728 u
Neutron
Charge = 0
Rest Mass (mn) = 1.67(5) 10-27 kg = 1.00867 u
Specific Charge = charge to mass ratio = charge mass
1) Calculate the specific charge of the proton, neutron and electron.
Electron = -1.76 1011 Ckg-1
Proton = 9.58 107 Ckg-1
Neutron = 0 Ckg-1
2) Calculate the specific charges
14
a) 6 C
4.11 107 Ckg-1

b)

235
92

3.75 107 Ckg-1

AS1 Particles, Quantum Phenomena and Electricity

AS-1-3 Light
Objectives:
Describe the photon model of light
Describe and explain the photoelectric effect
Calculate work functions
Specification
3.1.1 Particles, antiparticles and photons
Photon model of electromagnetic radiation, the Planck constant,
E = hf = hc
3.1.2 The photoelectric effect
Work function , threshold frequency fo, photoelectric equation hf =
+ Ek; the stopping potential experiment is not required.
What is light?
In the late 17th century there was big debate among scientists about whether
light was a wave or particle.
As of the 17th Century
Evidence for light as wave

Evidence for light as particle

Refraction

It didnt diffract
Reflection
A wave of what?

Newton favoured the particle model of light and won the day for the most part
through sheer force of reputation.
The wave theory of light gains popularity when it was shown light could
produce interference patterns.
In the 1840s Faraday showed that light could be polarized and suggested it
was wave of electromagnetism.
This was confirmed in 1873 by Maxwell when he published the mathematical
description of light waves.
In 1905 Einstein entered the fray with his explanation of the photoelectric
effect, which won him the Nobel prize.

AS1 Particles, Quantum Phenomena and Electricity

Photoelectric effect
Draw a diagram of the photoelectric effect.

Sometimes when light is shone on some metals electrons are given off,
causing a small current.
What are some of the variables in this experiment?
What factor(s) would you expect to change whether electrons are given off or
not?

What factor(s) would you expect to change the current?

What factor(s) would you expect to change the number of electrons given off?

What factor(s) would you expect to change the speed of the electrons given
off?

Do the experiment
What factor(s) changes whether electrons are given off or not?

What factor(s) changes the current?

What factor(s) changes the number of electrons given off?

What factor(s) changes the speed of the electrons given off?

7

AS1 Particles, Quantum Phenomena and Electricity

Whether electrons are given off or not depends only on the colour of
light (frequency) not the intensity.
The speed electrons travel at when leaving the metal depends only on
the colour of light (frequency) not the intensity
The number of electrons depends on the intensity of light

Einsteins explanation
Light is made of particles called photons. Each photon carries a definite
amount of energy depending on its frequency.
E hf

where h is Planks constant 6.63 10-34 Js.

The greater the frequency the greater the energy.
Using the wave equation ( c f ) we can get
E hf

hc

Each electron can only absorb one photon of energy.

Work Function ().: Minimum energy needed to remove an electron to just
outside the surface of the metal. NOT the ionisation energy since this applies
to a single atom not a block of metal.
If the energy of a photon is less than the work function no electrons
will be emitted.
If the energy of a photon is greater than the work function, the extra
energy (energy of the photon work function) becomes the kinetic
energy of the electron. hf = + Ek
hf EK

So is light a wave or a particle?

There is conclusive evidence that light is both a wave and particle so which is
it?
Light is both a wave and a particle. (This is known as wave-particle duality.)

AS1-4 Energy Levels

Objectives:
Define the electron volt
Describe electron excitation
Explain how a florescent tube works
Specification
3.1.2 Collisions of electrons with atoms
8

AS1 Particles, Quantum Phenomena and Electricity

The electron volt.

Ionisation and excitation; understanding of ionization and excitation in the
fluorescent tube.
Energy levels and photon emission
Line spectra (e.g. of atomic hydrogen) as evidence of transitions between
discrete energy levels in atoms.
hf = E1 E2
Electron Tube
A particle accelerator uses an electric field to accelerate particles to high
speeds.
An electron accelerated through 1V gains 1 electron volt (eV) in energy.
Using the equation E QV we can work this out in Joules
E QV e 1 e 1.06 10 19 J
where e is the electron charge in found in the formula booklet.
Convert these energies to J.
a) 1eV

b) 2.5 eV

c) 7 MeV

d) 1.6 TeV

Convert these energies to eV.

a) 1J

b) 4.5 10 15 J

c) 20 nJ

d) 100 MJ

Spectral Lines
Draw a diagram of what do you see when you look at a gas lamp with a
spectroscope.

Electron energy levels

Electrons in an atom can only have certain energies, called energy levels.
(These are the electron shells in Chemistry.)

AS1 Particles, Quantum Phenomena and Electricity

ground state

Energy levels in a hydrogen atom

A free electron is defined to have an energy level of 0.
Therefore all the energy levels are negative
An electron can get excited by gaining energy and moving up one or more
energy levels.
It can only do this by absorbing one photon.
If the photon energy does not precisely match the energy difference between
two levels then the photon cannot be absorbed.
An electron can loose energy by moving down energy levels if it emits one
photon with the energy difference between the two levels.
hf E1 E2

What is the frequency of light emitted by an electron jumping from

a) n=2 to n=1

b) n=3 to n=2

c) n=3 to n=1
What is the frequency of light will excite an electron from n=1 to n=3?

10

AS1 Particles, Quantum Phenomena and Electricity

Back to the line spectra

The gas lamp works by
electrons in the gas are accelerated by a high voltage
these electrons collide with electrons in atoms exciting them
the electrons then fall back down as they loose energy by emitting a
photon
these photons have discrete frequencies based on the energy levels of
the gas atoms
Ionisation
If the energy of a photon exceeds the ground state then the electron can
escape the atom. This is called ionisation.
Florescent Tubes
Florescent tubes work by
electrons in the gas are accelerated by a high voltage
these electrons collide with electrons in atoms exciting them
electrons loose energy by emitting a photon of UV
florescent paint on the tube absorbs UV and emits visible light

11

AS1 Particles, Quantum Phenomena and Electricity

AS-1-5 What is an Electron?

Objectives:
Describe the evidence for the wave nature of particles
Calculate the momentum of a particle
Calculate the de Broglie wavelengths of particles
Specification
3.1.2 Wave Particle Duality
Candidates should know that electron diffraction suggests the wave nature of
particles; details of particle diffraction are not expected.
De Broglie wavelength

h
, where
mv

mv is the momentum.

History
In 1924 De Broglie proposed the wave nature of electrons to extend Bhors
model of the atom beyond hydrogen.
In 1927 it was experimentally confirmed that electrons were not only guided
by waves but were waves when electron diffraction was observed.
Momentum
Momentum is defined as mass times velocity and is measured in kgms-1.

p mv
1. Calculate the momentum of these particles
a) Electron travelling at 1 107 ms-1
9.11 10-24 kgms-1
b) Proton travelling at 1 107 ms-1
1.67 10-20 kgms-1
c) Neutron travelling at 2.5 1 107 ms-1
4.19 10-20 kgms-1
d) Electron travelling at 8.4 cmh-1 in a metal

2.13 10-35 kgms-1

De Broglie Wavelength

12

AS1 Particles, Quantum Phenomena and Electricity

The wavelength of a particle is related to its momentum. So the wavelength of

an electron depends on its energy and therefore speed.

h
mv

This applies to all objects but the wavelength is too small to be experimentally
confirmed for macroscopic objects like people.
2. What is the wavelength of
a) Electron travelling at 1 107 ms-1
7.28 10-11 m
b) Proton travelling at 1 107 ms-1
3.97 10-14 m
c) Neutron travelling at 2.5 1 107 ms-1
1.58 10-14 m
d) Electron travelling at 8.4 cmh-1 in a metal
31.1 m

Wave Particle Duality

Sometimes the electron behaves like a wave, sometimes in behaves like a
particle. This is called wave-particle duality. This applies to all particles.

13

AS1 Particles, Quantum Phenomena and Electricity

AS-1-6 Antimatter
Objectives:
Know what an antiparticle is
Know the properties including mass, charge and rest energy of antiparticles when given the particle equivalents
Describe pair production and annihilation
Specification
3.1.1 Particles, antiparticles and photons
Candidates should know that for every type of particle, there is a
corresponding antiparticle. They should know that the positron, the antiproton,
the antineutron are the antiparticles of the electron, the proton, the neutron
respectively.
Comparison of particle and antiparticle masses, charge and rest energy in
MeV.
Knowledge of annihilation and pair production processes and the respective
energies involved. The use of E = mc2 is not required in calculations.
Antimatter

14

AS1 Particles, Quantum Phenomena and Electricity

Each particle has an antiparticle which is identical except that the charge and
the quantum numbers (well get to them later) are opposite.
The rest mass and rest energy of a particle and its antiparticle are identical.
Most antiparticles use the symbol for their particle counterparts with a bar
over the top.
Fill in the table
Mass (kg)

Rest Energy
(MeV)

Charge (C)

Proton

1.673 10-27

938.257

1.60 10-19

Antiproton

1.673 10-27

938.257

-1.60 10-19

Neutron

1.675 10-27

939.551

Antineutron

1.675 10-27

939.551

Electron

9.11 10-31

0.510999

-1.60 10-19

Positron

9.11 10-31

0.510999

1.60 10-19

Name

Symbol

The antiparticle of the photon is the photon.

What is the difference between a neutron and the antineutron?

Annihilation
When a particle meets its antiparticle they annihilate, converting their mass
and kinetic energy into pure energy.
This energy becomes a pair of photons, each with half the total energy.
The rest energy of a particle is the energy produced when the particle
annihilates from rest.
Pair Production
15

AS1 Particles, Quantum Phenomena and Electricity

A photon of sufficient energy can change into a particle and its antiparticle.
The photons energy needs to be greater than twice the rest energy of the
particle.
The excess energy becomes the kinetic energy of the particles.

16

AS1 Particles, Quantum Phenomena and Electricity

AS-1-7 Radiation and the case of the missing energy

Objectives:
Know the equation for alpha and beta decay
Do nuclear equations and calculations for alpha and beta decay
Know about the discovery of the neutrino and its antiparticle
Specification
3.1.1 Stable and unstable nuclei
Equations for alpha decay and - decay including the neutrino.
Particles, antiparticles and photons
They should know that the antineutrino (is) the antiparticle(s) of the
neutrino
Alpha and Beta particles
Fill in this table for the different types of radiation
Symbol

Mass number

Charge

What is it?

Alpha

He nucleus
(2p +2n)

Beta

-1

Fast moving
electron

Gamma

photon

Write alpha, beta and gamma with symbols showing their mass number and
atomic number

Nuclear equations
When a nucleus emits a particle of radiation the mass number and atomic
number can change. This is shown in a nuclear equation.
The total mass number and proton number must be the same on both sides of
the equation.

17

AS1 Particles, Quantum Phenomena and Electricity

Alpha decay
One example of alpha decay is Uranium 238.
look this up in the
periodic table

238 4 = 234
4
U 234
90Th 2

238
92

In alpha decay the nucleus looses 2 neutrons and922 protons.

2 = 90
Beta decay
Thorium 234 then undergoes beta decay.
look this up in the
periodic table

234 0 = 234
0
Th 234
91 Pa 1

234
90

Examples
Complete the following nuclear equations.
232
4
90Th
2

14
6

90 (-1) = 90 + 1 = 91

0
1

216
84

Po

241
94

Pu

+
+

212
82

Pb

0
1

212
87

241
95

Am

Fr

18

AS1 Particles, Quantum Phenomena and Electricity

Missing Energy and Momentum

In beta decay a neutron turns into a proton and an electron.
1
0

n11 p 10 e

However, if you add up all the rest energies and kinetic energies the neutron
has a little bit more energy than the proton and the electron.
Also the momentum doesnt add up either.
There must be another undetected particle that has the missing energy and
momentum.
This is called a neutrino (Italian for little neutral particle) or technically for
reasons well discover soon, an antineutrino.
The symbol for the neutrino is , the Greek letter nu.
Thus, the full equation for beta decay is
n p e

It can also be written

n p

19

AS1 Particles, Quantum Phenomena and Electricity

AS1-8 Particle Zoo

Objectives:
Know all the required particles
Classify particles into hadrons, baryons, mesons and leptons
Conservation numbers and decays
Specification
3.1.1 Classification of particles
Hadrons: baryons (proton, neutron) and antibaryons (antiproton and
antineutron) and mesons (pion, kaon).
Candidates should know that the proton is the only stable baryon into which
other baryons eventually decay; in particular, the decay of the neutron should
be known.
Leptons: electron, muon, neutrino (electron and muon types).
Candidates will be expected to know baryon numbers for the hadrons. Lepton
numbers for the leptons will be given in the data booklet.
New Particles
By looking at cosmic rays and particle accelerators scientists have discovered
lots of new particles.
Initially, Physicists didnt know what to do with them so they resorted to a kind
of particle biology, where particles were classified according to some of their
properties and behaviour. Hence, the particle zoo.
Physicists grouped the particles into 3 groups according to mass.
Leptons light particles from the Greek (leptos) meaning thin
Mesons medium particles from the Greek (mesos) meaning
intermediate
Baryons heavy particles from the Greek (barys) meaning heavy
Physicists also discovered that the particles obeyed certain rules about what
could decay into what and which particles could be produced together. This
led to conservation laws, each particle was assigned quantum numbers,
lepton number (L), baryon number (B) and strangeness (S), which had to be
conserved.
Charge (Q) is also conserved.
Some lepton and strangeness numbers are given in your formula booklet, the
others are 0, baryon numbers are not.

20

AS1 Particles, Quantum Phenomena and Electricity

Name

Symbol

Mass (kg)

Rest Energy
(MeV)

Charge (e)

Lepton

Baryon

Strangeness

Leptons

Electron

9.1110-31

0.511

-1

Positron

9.1110-31

0.511

-1

Electron
Neutrino

< 0.0000022*

Anti
electron
neutrino

< 0.0000022*

-1

Muon

1.8810-28

105.7

-1

Antimuon

1.8810-28

105.7

-1

Muon
Neutrino

< 0.17*

Antimuon
Neutrino

< 0.17*

-1

Tau
Particle*

3.1710-27

1777

-1

Antitau
Particle*

3.1710-27

1777

-1

Tau
Neutrino*

< 15.5

Antitau
Neutrino*

< 15.5

-1

* Knowledge of this is not required for A level.

Leptons have lepton number 1
Anti-leptons have lepton number 1
Non leptons have lepton number 0
Hadrons
Baryons and Mesons are both called Hadrons

21

AS1 Particles, Quantum Phenomena and Electricity

Name

Symbol

Mass (kg)

Rest Energy
(MeV)

Charge (e)

Lepton

Baryon

Strangeness

Mesons

Negative
Pion

2.4910-28

139.6

-1

Postive
Pion

2.4910-28

139.6

Neutral
Pion

2.4110-28

135

Negative
kaon

8.8010-28

493.7

-1

-1

Positive
kaon

8.8010-28

493.7

Neutral
kaon

K0

8.8710-28

497.7

-1

Anti
neutral
8.8710-28
497.7
K0
kaon
The neutral pion is its own antiparticle.

Name

Symbol

Mass (kg)

Rest Energy
(MeV)

Charge (e)

Lepton

Baryon

Strangeness

Baryons

Proton

1.67310-27

938.3

Antiproton

1.67310-27

938.3

-1

-1

Neutron

1.67510-27

939.6

Antineutron

1.67510-27

939.6

-1

Baryons have baryon number 1

Antibaryons have baryon number 1
Non baryons have baryon number 0

22

AS1 Particles, Quantum Phenomena and Electricity

Conservation Laws
Are these possible?
Example 1
p p

B = 1 + -1 = 0
L=0+0=0
S=0+0=0
Q = 1 + -1 = 0
So this possible.

B = 0 + 0 +0 = 0
L = 1 + -1 + 0 = 0
S=0+0+0=0
Q = -1 + 0 + 1 = 0

Example 2
p n

B=1
B=0+1+0=1
L=0
L = -1 + 0 + -1 = -2
S=0
S=0+0+0=0
Q=1
Q=1+0+0=1
So this is not possible, lepton number conservation is broken.

n e

K 0 K 0 p n e e

p 0 0

n e p e

23

AS1 Particles, Quantum Phenomena and Electricity

Extra Lepton Rule

Leptons are always balanced with the same neutrino. So if an electron is
involved it will be an electron neutrino.
Strangeness
Conservation of strangeness may be violated under some circumstances
which well look at in 2 topics time.
Decay
All but the lightest of each class is unstable, meaning it will decay.
Muons and Tau particles (and their antiparticles) decay into electrons (or
positrons).
All baryons decay into protons.
The only stable baryon is the proton.
A free neutron has a half life of 11 minutes.
Beta Decay Revisited
So the revised beta decay equation becomes
n p e e

Summary
Hadrons
Leptons
Mesons

, ,

, ,
( , , , )
e

,
,

Baryons

, ,
, K ,K ,K

,p
n ,n
p

24

AS1 Particles, Quantum Phenomena and Electricity

AS-1-9 Three Quarks for Muster Mark

Objectives:
Know the charge and quantum numbers of quarks
Know the combination of quarks for baryons and mesons
Beta decay for quarks
Conservation laws for quarks
Specification
3.1.1 Quarks and antiquarks
Up (u), down (d) and strange (s) quarks only.
Properties of quarks: charge, baryon number and strangeness.
Combinations of quarks and antiquarks required for baryons (proton and
neutron only), antibaryons (antiproton and antineutron only) and mesons (pion
and kaon) only.
Change of quark character in - and + decay.
Application of the conservation laws for charge, baryon number, lepton
number and strangeness to particle interactions. The necessary data will be
provided in questions for particles outside those specified.
Quarks
In 1964 Murray Gell-Mann proposed to sort of the particle zoo by stating that
all hadrons are not fundamental particles but are made up of quarks.
Fundamental particles: a particle that is not made up of anything else.
Proton sub structure was discovered in 1968 suggesting the existence of
quarks.
Quarks were finally accepted as real in 1974 with the discovery of the J/
meson which contained the predicted charm quark.
We now know that there are 6 quarks (and 6 anti-quarks), although you only
need to know about the original 3 that Gell-Mann proposed.
Quark Model of Hadrons
Baryons are made of 3 quarks ( qqq ) or 3 anti-quarks ( q q q )
Mesons are made of 1 quark and 1 anti-quark ( qq )
Interesting Details
Quarks do not exist on their own but only in hadrons. This means that quark
masses cannot be accurately measured yet.
Quarks have fractional charge and baryon number.
The name quark comes from Finnegans Wake by James Joyce.
Three quarks for Muster Mark!
Sure he has not got much of a bark
And sure any he has it's all beside the mark.

25

AS1 Particles, Quantum Phenomena and Electricity

Strangeness

Baryon

Charge (e)

(MeV)

Rest Energy

Name

Symbol

Quark Properties

Up

1.5 3.3

2
3

Antiup

1.5 3.3

2
3

Down

3.5 6.0

1
3

Antidown

3.5 6.0

13

Charm*

1160 1340

2
3

Anticharm*

1160 1340

2
3

Strange

70 130

1
3

Antistrange

70 130

13

Top*

169,100 173,300

2
3

Antitop*

169,100 173,300

2
3

Bottom*

4130 4370

1
3

Antibottom*

4130 4370

13

1
3

0
1
3

1
3

0
1
3

1
3

0
1
3

1
3

-1
1
3

1
3

0
1
3

1
3

0
1
3

Not required for A level

All quarks have a baryon number of 13
Charm and Top are like heavy Up.
Strange and Bottom are like heavy Down
Quark Composition
Using charge and strangeness you can work out the quark composition of the
hadrons you are required to know.
(You either need to be able to do this or memorise the results.)
Particle

Quarks

Particle

Quarks

uud

uud

ddu

ddu

26

AS1 Particles, Quantum Phenomena and Electricity

Particle

Quarks

Particle

Quarks

ud

ud

uu or dd

us

us

K0

ds

K0

ds

Why is the 0 its own antiparticle?

Summary
Thus we have three generations of 2 Quarks and 2 Leptons and their
antiparticles.
Generation

II

III

Quarks

Leptons

As far as we know this is it, except where does the photon fit? OK, so theres
a few others, but only 5 (or maybe 6 but we havent found the Higgs Boson),
but well get to that next lesson.
Beta decay, yet again.
In beta decay a neutron decays into a proton. So udd uud , so a d decays
into a u.
d u e e

You need to know both the baryon and the quark version.

27

AS1 Particles, Quantum Phenomena and Electricity

AS1-10 Forces
Objectives:
Describe the strong nuclear force
Know the fundamental forces
Explain the concept of exchange particles
Match exchange particles and forces
Specification
3.1.1 Stable and unstable nuclei
The strong nuclear force; its role in keeping the nucleus stable;
short-range attraction to about 3 fm, very-short range repulsion below about
0.5 fm;
Particle interactions
Concept of exchange particles to explain forces between elementary particles
The electromagnetic force; virtual photons as the exchange particle.
The weak interaction limited -, + decay, electron capture and electron-proton
collisions; W+ and W- as the exchange particles.
Hadrons are subject to the strong nuclear force.
Leptons are subject to the weak interaction.
Strong Nuclear Force
A nucleus contains positive protons and neutral neutrons. The laws of
electrodynamics would suggest the nucleus should fly apart. The fact that it
doesnt suggests there is an attractive force holding the nucleus together.
This is called the strong nuclear force (in AS Physics and more commonly the
nuclear force). It has a very short range around 3 fm. Below 2.5 fm it is
stronger than the electrostatic repulsion between 2 protons.
However, in neutron stars (objects the mass of stars but consisting entirely of
neutrons), there are no protons. So why doesnt the neutron star collapse into
a black hole?
The nuclear force is repulsive below around 0.5 fm, keeping the neutrons
apart.
Summary
very short range force (<3 fm)
0.5 3 fm attractive
< 0.5 fm repulsive
Forces
List all the forces you can think of

28

AS1 Particles, Quantum Phenomena and Electricity

Fundamental Forces
There are actually only 4 forces. All other forces are just examples of these 4.
They are called the fundamental forces.
They are electromagnetic, gravity, strong and weak.
All the forces we feel and encounter (except gravity) are caused by the
electromagnetic force of the electrons in atoms.
The strong nuclear force between nucleons is the left over or residual strong
force acting on the nucleons quarks (like van der Walls forces between
neutral atoms).
Gravity
Acts on all particles,
Described by general relativity
Smallest forces
Relative strength 10 38
Range: Infinite
Electromagnetic
Acts on charged particles
Described by QED (quantum electrodynamics)
Second largest forces

Relative strength

Range: Infinite

1
0.007299 10 2
137

Strong
Acts on quarks (and particles containing quarks)
Described by QCD (quantum chromodynamics)
Largest force
Relative strength 1
Range: < 10 15 m
Weak

Acts on quarks, hadrons and leptons

Described by electroweak theory
Second weakest force
Relative strength 10 13
Range: < 10 18 m
Only force responsible for flavour changing
Hence the only force where strangeness is not conserved
Responsible for beta decay

Flavour type of quark or lepton

29

AS1 Particles, Quantum Phenomena and Electricity

How forces work

How can forces act at a distance?
What carries the force between 2 particles that are not touching?
Forces work by exchanging virtual particles which carry energy and
momentum.
Virtual because the particles cannot be detected or intercepted since this
would stop them carrying the force.
Exchange particles are called gauge bosons
Force

Exchange Particles

Strong

g - gluon

Electromagnetic

- photon

Weak

w , w , z 0

Gravity

Graviton*

* not experimentally confirmed yet

Summary of Particle Exchange

Particle A emits a gauge boson

(gauge boson is created)

The gauge boson carries energy and momentum

Particle B absorbs the gauge boson

(gauge boson is destroyed)

30

AS1 Particles, Quantum Phenomena and Electricity

Gauge Bosons

Leptons

Quarks

Particle Summary
Table of all particles in existence (as far as we know)

z0
graviton

(Plus the antiparticles).

The standard model also proposes that there is one more particle, the Higgs
Boson which is responsible for giving the other particles mass. It has not yet
(as of 2009) been discovered.
Assuming no WIMPs

31

AS1 Particles, Quantum Phenomena and Electricity

AS1-11 Ooh Pretty Pictures

Objectives:
Know the required weak interactions
Explain the features of a Feynman diagram
Know the required Feynman diagrams and equations
Specification
3.1.1 Particle Interactions
The weak interaction limited -, + decay, electron capture and electron-proton
collisions; W+ and W- as the exchange particles.
Simple Feynman diagrams to represent the above reactions or interactions in
terms of particles going in and out and exchange particles.
Beta Decay Revisited (Again)
The interaction responsible for beta decay is the weak force.
So what really happens is

n decays into a p and a w

Why a w ?
To conserve charge

w decays into an e and a e

This is hard to show in an equation, so we continue to use n p e e

We show the greater level of detail using a feynman diagram

The diagram is supposed to be a simple picture to show us whats going on.

32

AS1 Particles, Quantum Phenomena and Electricity

Feynman Diagram dissected

Arrows show whether the particle is
going in or coming out

time

(reactant or product
in Chemistry speak)

Wavy line to show

gauge boson

Gauge boson line is moving up so

particle is emitted by neutron
(left side is lower so it is earlier)

Conservation of Q,L,B apply

w

Conservation of Q,L,B apply

n
Q
L
B

0
0
1

Q
L
B

-1
0
0

e e

-1 0 = -1
1 + -1 = 0
0+0=0

p w

11=0
0+0=0
1+0=1

The angle on a feynman diagram signifies absolutely nothing.

33

AS1 Particles, Quantum Phenomena and Electricity

Beta Plus Decay

Draw the feynman diagram for beta plus (positron) decay
p n e e

Electron capture
Sometimes a proton in a nucleus can grab or capture an electron from the
inner electron shell.
p e n e
Draw the feynman diagram.
(Hint: The electron is in the lowest energy level so it wont have the energy to
create a gauge boson.)

Electron Proton Collision

An high energy electron collides with a proton making a neutron and an
electron neutrino.

34

AS1 Particles, Quantum Phenomena and Electricity

p e n e

Draw the feynman diagram

(Hint: This time the electron has the extra energy to make the gauge boson.)

Neutron Neutrino Collision

Write the equation for the following feynman diagram.

n e p e

This is one method of detecting neutrinos. Although because the weak

interaction is very weak, it only happens very rarely.
Proton Antineutrino Collision
Write the equation for the following feynman diagram.

35

AS1 Particles, Quantum Phenomena and Electricity

p e n e

The Big Six

You need to memorise these 6 diagrams and equations.

36

AS1 Particles, Quantum Phenomena and Electricity

AS1-12 Summary
Objectives:
Summarise and Review Unit
Physics unanswered questions
Summary Sheet
Produce 1 A4 sheet to summarise this unit it should contain.
List of all fundamental particles you need to know with Q,L,B,S (e.g. see P29)
Quark compositions of baryons and mesons
Existence of antimatter
4 forces and their gauge bosons
6 Feynman diagrams
Wave/particle duality for electrons and photons (photoelectric effect, electron
diffraction)
The atom ( ZA X )
Electrons (energy levels and line spectra)
Nucleus Protons and neutrons Quarks

37

AS1 Particles, Quantum Phenomena and Electricity

Physics Unanswered Questions

Does the Higgs Boson exist?
How does Quantum Gravity work?
Does the graviton exist?
Why is gravity so weak?
Are quarks and leptons really fundamental?
Are protons really stable?
Why does the proton have exactly the opposite charge to the electron?
Is there a theory of everything?
Are all the forces really the same thing?
Can we explain the values of the fundamental constants?
Why do we have 3 dimensions?
What happened in the first 10 36 s of the universe?
What caused inflation 10 36 10 32 s into the big bang?
Why is there more matter than antimatter in the universe?
What is dark matter?
What is dark energy?

38