Management Science in the Long Run

Author(s): Michael D. Maltz

Source: Interfaces, Vol. 13, No. 1 (Feb., 1983), pp. 40-45
Published by: INFORMS
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/25060364
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Management Science in the Long Run

Michael D. Maltz

Departments of Criminal Justice and

Quantitative Methods

University of Illinois at Chicago

Box 4348

Chicago, Illinois 60680

Time and motion studies of yore are invoked to lend assis

tance to our present-day harriers, as management science is
applied to matters of race.
finishers.
Management science has solved
many problems in its 70 years as a

Mass road races may have upwards of

recognized discipline. Recently it seems to 10,000 runners running from 3 miles to 26

have lost its roots: the role of manage
miles, 385 yards (a marathon) and be
ment science in time and motion studies, yond. Running a race can be seen as a val
iant effort by each runner solely to pro
as pioneered by Taylor [1911], has been
vide
a single datum, finishing time. This
overlooked in the rush to solve problems
datum
is then linked with other as
that are technically more "interesting" but
of less importance. Here I reverse that un sociated data: the place (order) of finish
fortunate trend: I apply management sci (and place in sex-age group), the runner's
ence to a time and motion study of crucial number, and, eventually, the runner's
importance' in contemporary society: pro name. This procedure is straightforward
viding accurate timing results rapidly for

when there is a reasonable spread in

the thousands of runners who participate finish times, permitting finish order and
in road races. A computer-based graphical finish times to be recorded easily. Such is
technique for generating race results was the case when the number of runners is
small or the distance long, so that the
race, the Shamrock Shuffle, run along the runners' arrivals are spread out. Neither
Chicago lakefront in March 1982. The race of these conditions held for the Shamrock
had over 2,200 registrants and 1,871
Shuffle; peak arrival rates exceeded 120

successfully applied in a five-mile road

Copyright ? 1983, The Institute of Management Sciences

COMPUTERS; RECREATION/SPORTS

0092-2102/83/1301/0040$01.25

INTERFACES 13: 1 February 1983 (pp. 40-45)

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THE LONG RUN

finishers per minute, making it all but im

tion, for example, previous best times,

sex, or sex-age group.

possible to record every runner's time.
The printed numbers used in most large
Linking these data elements correctly
can pose problems. But if the arrival rates races have perforated tabs attached with
are moderate and if the appropriate plan the runner's number printed on them and
ning, personnel and computer power are space for the runner's name, age, and sex
to be written (using sweatproof ink, one
available, results can be generated very
quickly, For example, the 1981 New York hopes).
Upon completion of the race the run
City Marathon met these conditions: the
results for over 13,000 runners were

printed in the New York News the same

day. In contrast, the 1981 Chicago

Marathon had problems getting the re
sults out for about a third as many run

ners are funneled through a chute in their

finish order and a finish line official col

lects each tab and puts it on a spindle. In

this way, the finish order of the race is

physically preserved (unless the spindle is

ners; they were finally published over six dropped).
Although the information on the tab is
months after the race. (The promised free
redundant, it is used to produce some
computer services were delayed for five
immediate race results in time for the
months. Free services are often worth

every penny ? and no more.)

However, "minor" races of a few

awards ceremony. For most races this is

done manually, by officials going through

the spindled tabs to pick out the first few
usually organized by local clubs with lim finishers in each sex-age group.
But this describes only part of the race
ited access to large computer facilities. To
show what can be done in these cases, I results. More difficult is preparing results

thousand runners are common. They are

will first describe the most commonly

for the overwhelming majority of runners
used runner identification system and the who finish out of the money, whose only
ideal finish line situation. Then I will de reward is personal.

scribe the problems encountered in a less

than ideal reality. Finally I will describe
the graphical procedure I devised to com
pensate for these problems, using a
microcomputer-based system to link the
data elements.

The Ideal

Suppose that as every runner crosses

the finish line the time is recorded.

Further suppose that each runner stays in

the correct order of finish and proceeds

through the chute, at the end of which

each
number is recorded. We would then
Identifying Runners
have
N
ordered times and N ordered run
All runner identification systems assign
ner numbers and no problems: the results
a unique number (or combination of
numbers and letters) to each runner
would be produced by linking the ith time
which is printed on waterproof paper, to to the ith runner number, and then look
ing up the name, age, and sex of the run
be pinned to the runner's shirt or shorts.
Numbers may convey additional informa ner wearing that number.

February 1983 41
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MALTZ
Practical Considerations

four or five people would cross the finish

line almost simultaneously, with another

This ideal may actually be achieved in

some races, but it's never been the case in half-dozen right behind them. The New
any race in which I've participated or of York Road Runners Club solves this prob
ficiated. First, not everyone who runs reg
lem by increasing the number of finish
isters, so some finishers do not have
lines. "The three finish line system, to the
scorers, would then look like three races
numbers. But their times are recorded,
because they cannot be distinguished
from registered runners who have lost

simply require the merging of the three

backs or stuffed in their pockets. Most

races to determine the overall finishing

list" (Steinfeld 1981, p. 31). But not all

race finish lines have special exits to di

runners' organizations can afford the

their numbers or have them on their

taking place simultaneously. It would

vert unregistered runners (or "bandits")

equipment for three finish lines (nor can

they afford brownstones in Manhattan,
there were about 5,000 bandits mixed in either). Consequently, in most races some
times are missing ? in the Shamrock
with the 7,000 registered runners for the
1982 Boston Marathon. Bandits do not all Shuffle we recorded 1,817 times for 1,871
from the finish line. According to reports,

comply with the wishes of race officials;

some do cross the finish line.

finishers. The missing times are usually

added by hand.

Fourth, people do not stay in order.

Unregistered runners must be ac
counted for to preserve finish order, usu Some runners finish strongly, and con
tinue to run on well past the finish line
ally by keeping them in the chute and
(and past a number of runners who beat
putting a blank tab in the appropriate

place. Published results may show finish them). Other runners stop immediately
times for bandits; or they may eliminate
them so that only the registered runners'

times and (adjusted) places are shown.

after finishing, perhaps to talk to friends

or to throw up or to collapse, thus allow

ing later finishers to precede them in the
chute. Finish line workers still try to keep

Second, some runners do not stay in the

chute until their tabs are collected; then
the appropriate order; however, when
we can have a finish time without a corre over 120 exhausted finishers cross the line

sponding runner's tab or blank card. This within one minute a fastidious queue dis
will create an offset in the published
cipline is not always achieved.
finish order. To minimize this problem of
Fifth, records may be jumbled. For races
ficials try to keep all finishers in the chute, with high arrival rates multiple chutes are
or remember where disappearing runners used (Figure 1); as each one is filled, run
were in line and add a tab to the spindle ners are sent to the next. The number tabs
for them.
are collected on spindles, a separate spin
dle for each chute cycle. When a chute is
Third, the person pressing the timing
button may miss some runners. When
emptied the spindle is taken to the results
coordinator, and a new spindle used for
peak arrival rates were over 120/minute,

INTERFACES 13:1 42
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THE LONG RUN

SPINDLES

>

o.

2_/ /Q

Figure 1. Finish line configuration with multiple chutes.

the next batch of runners.

Microcomputerizing the Finish Line

To prevent spindles from getting out of
Finish line equipment normally used by
order they can be numbered, or the time the Chicago Area Runners Association
of use can be noted and attached to the
(CARA) includes: a large digital clock; a
spindle. However, confusion reigns
digital timer that prints elapsed time on a
around the chutes, so a third check inde tape whenever its button is pressed; and
ropes and stanchions for chutes. To pre
pendent of the chutes and spindles is
pare the results, then, the time data must
usually employed: a person standing at
the finish line picks out occasional ap
be manually transcribed into a computer
proaching runners and records their
or onto typewritten sheets. If times are
numbers and finish times. These provide stored directly into a computer the labor
benchmarks that associate times with
and the potential for errors are greatly
diminished.
runner numbers; they are then used to
reconcile the order of runner numbers. All

For the Shamrock Shuffle, I pro

three checking procedures were used (and grammed a microcomputer for use at the
needed) for the Shamrock Shuffle.
finish line. The computer, an Apple 11+

February 1983 43
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MALTZ
with 48K RAM, two disk drives, and a
We manually entered the runner num
Thunderclock Plus clock card, recorded all bers in the computer (in order of place).
finish times and recorded benchmarks
CARA did not have the technology to do
(numbers with times). Finish times were this automatically, but it has been used in
stored in memory whenever the button
races throughout the country: a bar code/
on the game paddle was pressed. For
benchmarks the number was entered

light pen system. (Then, should the light

pen fail, race officials can extend the chute

using the keys, and the associated time

to a local supermarket and roll each run

was subsequently entered by pressing the ner across the checkout counter.)
return key when that runner crossed the
To prepare the results, the ordered list
finish line. There is enough memory to
of times is merged with the benchmark
store over 10,000 times and 3,000 bench data, so that an augmented time list is

marks.

TIME TIME RUNNER

generated. This list is then compared with

the ordered list of place numbers (Figure
2). Even in large races, this is usually
done manually, but a simple graphical

PLACE RUNNER

r^V^^W/ll

KWVl

technique can be used to accomplish it.

3128
1291
1984
2102
1441
1033
1638
2192
3301
2761
2241
1044
1101
2664
3012
2311
3002
1990

1896
1524

2190
3107

2777
3933
1217
1643
2991

3636

ww^

Figure 3. Discrepancy between place order

and time order for benchmark runners (unad
justed data). Point A represents a runner who
moved about 15 places ahead; point B about
15 places behind. Area C is a group offset

KA/Wj

Figure 2. Matching runner numbers to times.

The left side is a list of finishing times; only

the benchmark runners are paired with their
times. The right side lists runners in recorded

(spindle out of order). The offset at the end of

the race indicates that there were 54 fewer re
corded times than runners,

Such a graph for the Shamrock Shuffle

order of completion. The predominant pattern
of correspondences (e.g., 2241, 2311) shows
(Figure 3) shows the difference between
that five runners' times were not recorded.

place order and time order for the approx

Runner 1984 passed about 20 runners who had

faster times, while runner 1643 allowed about imately 300 runners for whom we re
20 slower runners to pass him in the chute.

corded benchmark data. It shows three

INTERFACES 13:1 44
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THE LONG RUN

types of finish line discrepancies ? indi
vidual offsets, a group offset, and an

anees; most of the remaining discrepan

cies are runner-caused (Figure 4). At this
end-of-race offset. The graph shows how point we have 1,871 times for the 1,871
and when the end-of-race offset built up,
places, so the final race results can now be
which is important in determining how to produced.
Conclusion
adjust the raw data.
This simple graphical technique reduces
the work of preparing results for road
races and it assures runners that their
order and time of finish are as accurate as

W*Uv^

possible. Unfortunately, I have not been

able to develop a procedure to reduce the
work of training for and running a road
race.

Acknowledgements
I wish to acknowledge the help of

Figure 4. Discrepancy between place order

and time order for benchmark runners (ad
justed data). The group offset and overall
offset shown in Figure 3 have been removed.

Leonard Evens, Carol Garsee, Sharon

Mier and Bill Robinson of CARA in the
development of the computer techniques.

References

Steinfeld, Allan 1981-82, "Timing and scoring

of mega-races: innovation and the state of the

Preparing the Results

art." The New York Running News Vol. 25, No.
Computer programs correct the raw
2 (December/January), pp. 30-31.
Taylor, Frederick W. 1911, The Principles of Sci
data in a two-step process. First, runner
entific Management, Harper & Bros., New
numbers from the wayward spindle(s) are York.
relocated to their appropriate place. Then
the missing times are inserted in the list of

times, from the point in the graph where

the curve begins to rise to the point where

it levels off. The computer program

merely inserts additional times at equal
intervals between two points specified by
the user. This procedure is more likely to
insert times in neighborbhoods where the
arrival frequency is higher, which is just

what one would intuitively assume to be

appropriate: it is high arrival frequency
that causes the timer to miss recording a

finisher. These procedures reduce correc

tible discrepancies to acceptable toler

February 1983 45
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