EXAMINATION HINTS

Before the examination

Obtain a copy of the formulae book and use it!
Write a list of and LEARN any formulae not in the formulae book
Learn basic definitions
Make sure you know how to use your calculator!
Practise all the past papers - TO TIME!

At the start of the examination

Read the instructions on the front of the question paper and/or answer booklet
Open your formulae book at the relevant page

During the examination

Read the WHOLE question before you start your answer
Start each question on a new page (traditionally marked papers) or
Make sure you write your answer within the space given for the question (on-line marked papers)
Draw clear well-labelled diagrams
Look for clues or key words given in the question
Show ALL your working - including intermediate stages
Write down formulae before substituting numbers
Make sure you finish a prove or a show question quote the end result
Dont fudge your answers (particularly if the answer is given)!
Dont round your answers prematurely
Make sure you give your final answers to the required/appropriate degree of accuracy
Check details at the end of every question (e.g. particular form, exact answer)
Take note of the part marks given in the question
If your solution is becoming very lengthy, check the original details given in the question
If the question says hence make sure you use the previous parts in your answer
Dont write in pencil (except for diagrams) or red ink
Write legibly!
Keep going through the paper go back over questions at the end if time

At the end of the examination

If you have used supplementary paper, fill in all the boxes at the top of every page

C4 KEY POINTS
C4 Algebra and functions
Partial fractions: Methods for dealing with degree of numerator degree of denominator, partial
fractions of the form
5 x
A
B
C
2x + 3
A
B
C
+
+
and

+
+
2
x + 2 x 3 ( x 3) 2
x( x 1)(2 x + 1) x x 1 2 x + 1
( x + 2)( x 3)

C4 Coordinate geometry
Changing equations of curves between Cartesian and parametric form
dx
Use of y
dt to find area under a curve
dt

C4 Sequences are series

Expansion of (ax + b)n for any rational n and for |x| <

b
a

, using
n(n 1) 2 n(n 1)(n 2)
x +
+ ... + x n
(1 + x)n = 1 + nx + n C 2 x 2 + ... + n C r x r + ... + x n = 1 + nx +
2!
3!
n!
where nCr =
r!(n r )!

C4 Differentiation
Implicit and parametric differentiation including applications to tangents and normals
Exponential growth and decay
d(a x )
= ax ln a
dx

Formation of differential equations

C4 Integration

ex dx = ex + c
1

x dx = ln | x | +c
cos kx dx =

Use of

ekx dx =
1

1 kx
e +c
k

1 1

ax dx = a . x dx = a ln | x | +c

1
sin kx + c
k

1
k

sin kx dx = cos kx + c

f ( x)
f ( x) dx = ln | f ( x) | +c and

n
f ( x)[f ( x)] dx =

Integration of other trig. functions: see formulae book

Volume: use of y2 dx when rotating about x-axis
Integration by substitution
Integration by parts

or

ax dx = a ln | ax | +c
sec2kx dx =

[f ( x)]n +1
+c
n +1

1
tan kx + c
k

Use of partial fractions in integration

Differential equations: first order separable variables
g( y )
h ( x)
dy
dy =
dx
e.g. f( x)g ( y )
= h ( x)k( y )
k( y)
f ( x)
dx
Trapezium rule applied to C3 and C4 functions
b

f ( x ) dx

1
2

h[y0 + yn + 2(y1 + ... + yn1)]

where yi = f(a + ih) and h =

ba
n

C4 Vectors
If a = xi + yj + zk, |a| = (x2 + y2 + z2)

If a = xi + yj + zk, the unit vector in the direction of a is [(xi + yj + zk) (x2 + y2 + z2)]
Scalar product:
If OP = p = xi + yj + zk and OQ = q = ai + bj + ck and POQ = , then
p.q = |p||q| cos

and p.q = (xi + yj + zk) . (ai + bj + ck) = xa + by + cz

If OP and OQ are perpendicular, p.q = 0

Vector equation of line where a is the position vector of a point on the line and m is a vector
parallel to the line:
r = a + m
Vector equation of line where a and b are the position vectors of points on the line:
r = a + ( b a)

Pure C4

Revision Notes

March 2013

ContentsCore4
1

Algebra ................................................................................................................. 3
Partial fractions ........................................................................................................................................................ 3

Coordinate Geometry .......................................................................................... 5

Parametric equations ................................................................................................................................................ 5
Conversion from parametric to Cartesian form ...................................................................................................................... 6
Area under curve given parametrically................................................................................................................................... 7

Sequences and series ......................................................................................... 8

Binomial series (1 + x)n for any n .......................................................................................................................... 8

Differentiation .................................................................................................... 10
Relationship between

and

......................................................................................................................... 10

Implicit differentiation ........................................................................................................................................... 10

Parametric differentiation ...................................................................................................................................... 11
Exponential functions, a x ...................................................................................................................................... 11
Related rates of change .......................................................................................................................................... 12
Forming differential equations ............................................................................................................................... 12

Integration .......................................................................................................... 13
Integrals of ex and ............................................................................................................................................ 13
Standard integrals ................................................................................................................................................... 13
Integration using trigonometric identities.............................................................................................................. 13
Integration by reverse chain rule ......................................................................................................................... 14
Integrals of tan x and cot x .................................................................................................................................................... 15
Integrals of sec x and cosec x ................................................................................................................................................ 15

Integration using partial fractions .......................................................................................................................... 16

Integration by substitution, indefinite .................................................................................................................... 16
Integration by substitution, definite ....................................................................................................................... 18
Choosing the substitution ...................................................................................................................................................... 18

Integration by parts................................................................................................................................................. 19
Area under curve .................................................................................................................................................... 20
Volume of revolution ............................................................................................................................................. 20
Volume of revolution about the xaxis ................................................................................................................................. 21
Volume of revolution about the yaxis ................................................................................................................................. 21

Parametric integration ............................................................................................................................................ 21

Differential equations ............................................................................................................................................. 22
Separating the variables ........................................................................................................................................................ 22

Exponential growth and decay ............................................................................................................................... 23

C4 14/04/13

Vectors ................................................................................................................ 24
Notation .................................................................................................................................................................. 24
Definitions, adding and subtracting, etcetera ........................................................................................................ 24
Parallel and non - parallel vectors......................................................................................................................................... 25
Modulus of a vector and unit vectors ................................................................................................................................... 26
Position vectors ..................................................................................................................................................................... 27
Ratios ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 27
Proving geometrical theorems .............................................................................................................................................. 28

Three dimensional vectors ..................................................................................................................................... 29

Length, modulus or magnitude of a vector ........................................................................................................................... 29
Distance between two points ................................................................................................................................................ 29

Scalar product ........................................................................................................................................................ 29

Perpendicular vectors ............................................................................................................................................................ 30
Angle between vectors .......................................................................................................................................................... 31

Vector equation of a straight line .......................................................................................................................... 31

Intersection of two lines......................................................................................................................................... 32
2 Dimensions ......................................................................................................................................................................... 32
3 Dimensions ......................................................................................................................................................................... 33

Appendix ............................................................................................................. 34
Binomial series (1 + x)n for any n proof ........................................................................................................... 34
Derivative of xq for q rational ............................................................................................................................ 34

for negative limits ..................................................................................................................................... 35

Integration by substitution why it works ............................................................................................................ 36
Parametric integration ............................................................................................................................................ 36
Separating the variables why it works ................................................................................................................ 37

Index ............................................................................................................................. 38

C4 14/04/13 SDB

Algebra

Partial fractions
1) You must start with a proper fraction: i.e. the degree of the numerator must be less than
the degree of the denominator.
If this is not the case you must first do long division to find quotient and remainder.
2) (a)

Linear factors (not repeated)

......
A

+ ........
(ax b)(. . . . . . )
(ax b)
(b)

Linear repeated factors (squared)

......
A
B

+
+ ........
2
2
(ax b)
(ax b) (. . . . . . )
(ax b)
(c)

Quadratic factors)
......
Ax + B

+ ........
(ax + b)(. . . . . . )
(ax 2 + b)
2

or

......
Ax + B

+ ........
( ax 2 + bx + c )(. . . . . . )
( ax 2 + bx + c )

5 x + 2x 2
(1 x)(1 + x 2 )

Example:

Express

Solution:

The degree of the numerator, 2, is less than the degree of the denominator, 3, so

in partial fractions.

we do not need long division and can write

5 x + 2x 2
(1 x)(1 + x 2 )

A
Bx + C
+
1 x
1+ x2

multiply both sides by (1x)(1+x2)

5 x + 2x2 A(1 + x2) + (Bx + C)(1 x)

5 1 + 2 = 2A

A=3

clever value!, put x = 1

5=A+C

C=2

easy value, put x = 0

2=AB

B=1

equate coefficients of x2

5 x + 2x 2
(1 x)(1 + x 2 )

3
x+2
+
.
1 x
1+ x2

N.B. You can put in any value for x, so you can always find as many equations as you
need to solve for A, B, C, D . . . .

C4 14/04/13

Example:

x 2 7 x + 22
(2 x 1)( x 3) 2

Express

in partial fractions.

Solution:
The degree of the numerator, 2, is less than the degree of the denominator,
3, so we do not need long division and can write

x 2 7 x + 22
(2 x 1)( x 3) 2

A
B
+
2x 1
( x 3) 2

C
x3

multiply by denominator

x2 7x + 22 A(x 3)2 + B(2x 1) + C(2x 1)(x 3)

9 21 + 22 = 5B

B=2

clever value, put x = 3

7/2 + 22 = 2.52A

A=3

clever value, put x =

22 = 9A B + 3C

x 2 7 x + 22
(2 x 1)( x 3) 2

Example:

C = 1

3
2
+
2x 1
( x 3) 2

x3 + x 2 9x 3
x2 9

Express

easy value, put x = 0

1
x3

in partial fractions.

Solution:
Firstly the degree of the numerator is not less than the degree of the
denominator so we must divide top by bottom.
x2 9 ) x3
x3

+ x2
x2
x2

9x
9x

x 3 + x 2 9x 3
x2 9

3
9
6

= x+1 +

( x+1

6
x 9
2

Factorise to give x2 9 = (x 3)(x + 3) and write

6
x 9
2

6
A
B

+
( x 3)( x + 3)
x3
x+3

multiplying by denominator

6 A(x + 3) + B(x 3)

6 = 6A

A=1

clever value, put x = 3

6 = 6B

B = 1

clever value, put x = 3

x 3 + x 2 9x 3
= x+1 +
x2 9

1
1

x3
x+3

C4 14/04/13 SDB

Coordinate Geometry

Parametric equations
If we define x and y in terms of a single variable (the letters t or are often used) then this
variable is called a parameter: we then have the parametric equation of a curve.
Example: y = t 2 3, x = 2 + t is the parametric equation of a curve. Find
(i)

the points where the curve meets the x-axis,

(ii)

the points of intersection of the curve with the line y = 2x + 1.

Solution:
(i)

The curve meets the x-axis when y = 0 t 2 = 3 t = 3

curve meets the x-axis at (2 3, 0) and (2 + 3, 0).

(ii)

Substitute for x and y in the equation of the line

t 2 3 = 2(2 + t) + 1

t2 2t 8 = 0

t = 2 or 4

the points of intersection are (0, 1) and (6, 13).

(t 4)(t + 2) = 0

Example: Find whether the curves y = t2 2, x = 2t + 3 and y = t + 3, x = 3t 4 intersect.

If they do give the point of intersection, otherwise give reasons why they do not
intersect.
Solution:

If they intersect there must be a value of t which makes their x-coordinates

equal, so find this value of t
2t + 3 = 3t 4 t = 7

But for this value of t the y-coordinates are 47 and 10.

So we cannot find a value of t to give equal x- and equal y-coordinates and therefore
the curves do not intersect.

C4 14/04/13

Conversion from parametric to Cartesian form

Eliminate the parameter (t or or ) to form an equation between x and y only.

Example: Find the Cartesian equation of the curve given by y = t 2 3, x = t + 2.
Solution:

x=t+2

t = x 2, and y = t 2 3

y = (x 2)2 3,

which is the Cartesian equation of a parabola with vertex at (2, 3)

With trigonometric parametric equations the formulae

sin2 t + cos2 t = 1

sec2t tan2 t = 1

and

will often be useful.

Example: Find the Cartesian equation of the curve given by
y = 3sin t + 2, x = 3cos t 1.
Solution:

Re-arranging we have

sin t =

y2
, and
3
2

cos t =
2

y 2

(x + 1)2 + (y 2)2 = 9

x + 1
+

x +1
, which together with sin2 t + cos2 t = 1
3
= 1

which is the Cartesian equation of a circle with centre (1, 2) and radius 3.
Example: Find the Cartesian equation of the curve given by y = 3tan t, x = 4sec t.
Hence sketch the curve.

Re-arranging we have tan t =

Solution:

y
, and
3

sec t =

x
,
4

which together with sec2 t tan2 t = 1

x2
42

y2
32

= 1

4 y
2

which is the standard equation of a hyperbola

with centre (0, 0)
and x-intercepts (4, 0), (4, 0).

x
6

2
4

C4 14/04/13 SDB

Area under curve given parametrically

We know that the area between a curve and the x-axis is given by A = y dx

dA
= y.
dx
dA dA dx
=

dt dx dt

But, from the chain rule

dA
dx
=y
dt
dt

Integrating with respect to t

dx

y dt dt .

A =

Example: Find the area between the curve y = t 2 1, x = t 3 + t, the x-axis and the lines
x = 0 and x = 2.
Solution:

The area is A =

A =

we should write limits for t, not x

Firstly we need to find y and

y = t2 1 and

dx
in terms of t.
dt

dx
= 3t2 + 1.
dt

Secondly we are integrating with respect to t and so the limits of integration must be for
values of t.

x = 0 t = 0, and
x = 2 t3 + t = 2 t3 + t 2 = 0

(t 1)(t2 + t + 2) = 0

t = 1.

so the limits for t are from 0 to 1

A =
1

1
0

dx
dt =
dt

1
0

(t2 1) (3t2 + 1) dt

3t 5

2t 3

t = 1 151

3
5
0

3t4 2t2 1 dt
1

Note that in simple problems you may be able to eliminate t and find y dx in the usual
manner. However there will be some problems where this is difficult and the above technique
will be better.

C4 14/04/13

Sequences and series

Binomial series (1 + x)n for any n

n(n 1)
n(n 1)(n 2)
x2 +
x 3 + ....
2!
3!

(1 + x)n = 1 + nx +

This converges provided that |x| < 1.

Example: Expand (1 + 3x) 2, giving the first four terms, and state the values of x for
which the series is convergent.
Solution:
(1 + 3x) 2
= 1 + (2) 3x +
(2) (3)
(2) (3) (4)
(3x)2 +
(3x)3 + ...
2!
3!
= 1 6x + 27x2 108x3 + ...
This series is convergent when |3x| < 1 |x| < 1/3.
Example: Use the previous example to find an approximation for
Solution:

Notice that

1
.
0 9997 2

1
= 09997 2 = (1 + 3x)2 when x = 00001.
0 9997 2

So writing x = 00001 in the expansion 1 6x + 27x2 108x3

09997 2 1 + 00006 + 000000027 + 0000000000108 = 1000600270108
The correct answer to 13 decimal places is 10006002701080

not bad eh?

Example: Expand ( 4 x ) 2 , giving all terms up to and including the term in x3, and state
for what values of x the series is convergent.

Solution:

As the formula holds for (1 + x)n we first re-write

(4 x)

1
2

1 x
= 2 1 + +

2 4

1
2

x2
x2

= 4 1 = 2 1
4

4
1
2

12
2!

x

4

1
2

12 32
3!

and now we can use the formula

x

4

+ .....

x
x2
x3

.
= 2
4
64 512
This expansion converges for
8

x
4

<1

|x| < 4.
C4 14/04/13 SDB

Example: Find the expansion of

Solution:

First write in partial fractions

3 x 1
2
1
, which must now be written as
=
+
x
+
3
x

2
x x6
2

2
1

x
3(1 + 3 )
2(1 2x )

3 x 1
in ascending powers of x up to x2.
x x6
2

2
3

2
3

(1 + 3x ) 1

1
2

(1 2x ) 1

2
2

1 + (1) x + (1)(2) x 1 1+ (1) x + (1)(2) x

2! 3
2
2! 2
3
2

1
17 x
11x 2

.
6
36
216

C4 14/04/13

Differentiation

Relationship between

y = 3x2

So

and

dy
= 6x
dx

dx
1
=
.
dy
6x

Implicit differentiation
This is just the chain rule when we do not know explicitly what y is as a function of x.
Examples: The following examples use the chain rule (or implicit differentiation)

sin
5

sin

10

cos
usingtheproductrule

3
2
2
dy
d 2
d 2

(
(
x + 3 y ) = 3 (x 2 + 3 y )
x + 3 y ) = 3 (x 2 + 3 y ) 2 x + 3
dx
dx
dx

Example: Find the gradient of, and the equation of, the tangent to the curve
x2 + y2 3xy = 1 at the point (1, 2).
Solution:

Differentiating x2 + y2 3xy = 1 with respect to x gives

2x + 2y

dy
dy
3 y + 3x = 0
dx
dx

dy
3y 2x
=
dx
2 y 3x

dy
= 4
dx

when x = 1 and y = 2.

Equation of the tangent is y 2 = 4(x 1)

10

y = 4x 2.

C4 14/04/13 SDB

Parametric differentiation

Example: A curve has parametric equations x = t 2 + t, y = t 3 3t.

(i)

Find the equation of the normal at the point where t = 2.

(ii)

Find the points with zero gradient.

Solution:

(i)

When t = 2, x = 6 and y = 2.

dx
dy
= 3t 2 3 and
= 2t + 1
dt
dt

3
2

3
1

9
5

when t = 2

Thus the gradient of the normal at the point (6, 2) is

and its equation is y 2 =

/9 (x 6)

/9

5x + 9y = 48.

dy
3t 2 3
=
= 0
dx
2t + 1

(ii)

gradient = 0 when

3t2 3 = 0

t = 1

points with zero gradient are (0, 2) and (2, 2).

Exponential functions, ax
y = ax

ln y = ln ax = x ln a

1 dy
= ln a
y dx

d x
a
dx

C4 14/04/13

( )

dy
= y ln a
dx

= a x ln a

11

Related rates of change

We can use the chain rule to relate one rate of change to another.
Example:

A spherical snowball is melting at a rate of 96 cm3 s 1 when its radius is 12 cm.

Find the rate at which its surface area is decreasing at that moment.

Solution:

We know that V = 4/3 r3 and that A = 4 r2.

Using the chain rule we have

dr
dV
dV dr
=

= 4 r 2
,
dt
dr
dt
dt

dV
dt

96 = 4 122

dr
1
=
dt
6

since

dV
= 4 r 2
dr

since

dA
= 8 r
dr

dr
dt

= 4 r2

dr
dt

Using the chain rule again

dA
dA dr
dr
=

= 8 r
,
dt
dr dt
dt

dA
1
= 8 12
= 16 cm 2 s 1
dt
6

Forming differential equations

Example: The mass of a radio-active substance at time t is decaying at a rate which is
proportional to the mass present at time t. Find a differential equation connecting the
mass m and the time t.

dm
means the rate at which the mass is increasing so in this
dt
case we must consider the rate of decay as a negative increase

Solution:

Remember that

dm
m
dt

dm
= km, where k is the (positive) constant of proportionality.
dt
1

ln m =

kt 2 + ln A

12

C4 14/04/13 SDB

Integration

Integrals of ex and

dx = e x + c

1 dx = ln | x | + c

for a further treatment of this result, see the appendix

3
x + 3x
dx
Example: Find
x2
3
3
x + 3x
dx =
dx = x2 + 3 ln x + c.
x+

x
x

Solution:

Standard integrals
x must be in RADIANS when integrating trigonometric functions.

f ( x)

f (x)

f (x)

dx

f ( x)

dx

x n +1
n +1

sin x

cos x

1
x

ln x

cos x

sin x

ex

ex

sec x tan x

sec x

sec x

tan x

cosec x cot x

cosec x

cosec2 x

cot x

Integration using trigonometric identities

Example: Find

cot

x dx .

cot2 x = cosec2 x 1

Solution:

cot x x + c.

C4 14/04/13

cot 2 x dx =

cosec 2 x 1 dx

13

Example: Find

sin

x dx.

sin2 x = (1 cos 2x)

Solution:

sin

x sin 2x + c.

x dx =

(1 cos 2 x) dx

You cannot change x to 3x in the above result to find

Example: Find

3x dx .

see next example

3x dx .

sin2 3x = (1 cos 2 3x) = (1 cos 6x)

Solution:

sin

sin

sin

=
=

(1 cos 6 x) dx

x 1/12 sin 6x + c.

Example: Find
Solution:

3x dx =

sin 3x cos 5x

dx.

Using the formula 2 sin A cos B = sin(A + B) + sin(A B)

sin 3x cos 5x dx
1
/2 sin 8x + sin (2x)

dx =
1
/16 cos 8x + cos 2x + c.

/2 sin 8x sin 2x dx

Integration by reverse chain rule

Some integrals which are not standard functions can be integrated by thinking of the chain
rule for differentiation.

Example: Find
Solution:

sin

sin
4

3x cos 3x dx .

3x cos 3x dx

If we think of u = sin 3x, then the integrand looks like u 4

constants, which would integrate to give 1/5 u5

du
if we ignore the
dx

so we differentiate u5 = sin5 3x
to give

d
sin 5 3x
dx

= 5 sin 4 3x 3 cos 3x = 15 sin 4 3x cos 3x

which is 15 times what we want and so

14

C4 14/04/13 SDB

 sin

3x cos 3x dx =

Example: Find

Solution:

( 2 x 3)
2

x
( 2 x 3)
2

sin 5 3x + c

1
15

dx

dx

If we think of u = (2x2 3), then the integrand looks like

constants, which would integrate to ln u

1 du
if we ignore the
u dx

so we differentiate ln u = ln 2x2 3

d
ln 2 x 2 3
dx

to give

1
4x
4x =
2x 3
(2 x 2 3)
2

which is 4 times what we want and so

x
( 2 x 3)

In general

dx = ln 2x2 3 + c.

f ' ( x)
dx = ln f ( x) + c
f ( x)

Integrals of tan x and cot x

tan x dx =

sin x

cos x dx

and we now have

sin x
dx ,
cos x

f ' ( x)
dx = ln f ( x) + c
f ( x)

tan x dx = ln cos x + c

tan x dx = ln sec x + c

cot x can be integrated by a similar method to give

cot x dx = ln sin x + c

Integrals of sec x and cosec x

sec x dx =

sec x (sec x + tan x)

sec x + tan x dx =

sec2 x + sec x tan x

sec x + tan x dx

The top is now the derivative of the bottom

and we have

C4 14/04/13

f ' ( x)
dx = ln f ( x) + c
f ( x)

sec x dx = ln sec x + tan x + c

15

and similarly
cosec x dx = ln cosec x + cot x + c

Integration using partial fractions

For use with algebraic fractions where the denominator factorises.
6x
dx
x + x2
6x
in partial fractions.
Solution: First express
2
x +x2
6x
A
B
6x

+
2
( x 1)( x + 2)
x 1
x+2
x +x2

Example: Find

6x A(x + 2) + B(x 1).

put x = 1

A = 2,

put x = 2

B=4

6x
dx =
x +x2

2 ln |x 1| + 4 ln |x + 2| + c.

2
4
+
dx
x 1
x+2

Integration by substitution, indefinite

(i)
(ii)

Use the given substitution involving x and u, (or find a suitable substitution).

du
dx
or
, whichever is easier and re-arrange to find dx in terms
dx
du
of du, i.e dx = ... du
Find either

(iii)

Use the substitution in (i) to make the integrand a function of u, and use your
answer to (ii) to replace dx by ...... du.

(iv)

Simplify and integrate the function of u.

(v)

Use the substitution in (i) to write your answer in terms of x.

x 3 x 2 5 dx using the substitution u = 3x2 5.

Example:

Find

Solution:

(i)
u = 3x2 5
du
= 6x

dx

(ii)
(iii)

du
6x

dx =

We can see that there an x will cancel, and 3

x 3 x 2 5 dx =

x u

du
6x

u
6

du

3
1

(iv)

16

1
u 2 du
6

1 u2
3
6
2

+ c

C4 14/04/13 SDB

(3x 2 5) 2
(v) =
9
Example:

Find

Solution:

(i)

+ c

1
dx using the substitution x = tan u.
1+ x2

x = tan u.

(ii)

dx
= sec 2 u
du

(iii)

(iv)

sec 2 u
du
sec 2 u

du

tan 1 x + c.

(v)

1
dx =
1+ x2

Example: Find

Solution:
(ii)

(iii)

x 4
2

sec 2 u du

since 1 + tan2 u = sec2 u

u + c

dx using the substitution u2 = x2 4.

u2 = x2 4.

(i)

We know that

2u

1 + tan

3x

dx = sec2 u du.

( )

d 2
du
u = 2u
so differentiating gives
dx
dx

du
= 2x
dx

dx =

u
du .
x

We can see that an x will cancel and

3x
x 4
2

dx =

du

x 2 4 = u so

3x
u

du
u
x

(iv)

(v)

3 x2 4 + c

3u + c

A justification of this technique is given in the appendix.

C4 14/04/13

17

Integration by substitution, definite

If the integral has limits then proceed as before but remember to change the limits from
values of x to the corresponding values of u.
Add

(ii) (a) Change limits from x to u, and

new

(v)

Put in limits for u.

Example: Find
Solution:

(i)

6
2

x 3x 2 dx using the substitution u = 3x 2.

u = 3x 2.

du
= 3
dx

(ii)

du
3

dx =

(ii) (a) Change limits from x to u

x = 2 u = 3 2 2 = 4, and x = 6 u = 3 6 2 = 16
6

(iv)

1
9

3
52
u2
1 u
+ 2 3
9 5
2
2

(v)

x 3x 2 dx =

1
9

16
4

2
5

3
2

+ 2u

1024 +

u+2
u2
3

16

(iii)

4
3

1
2

du
3

du
16

64 ]

1
9

2
5

32 + 43 8] = 524 to 3 S.F.

Choosing the substitution

In general put u equal to the awkward bit but there are some special cases where this will
not help.
1

2
4

put u = x2 + 1
put u = x 2

put u = 2x + 5

u2 = 2x + 5

put u or u2 = 4 x2

only if n is ODD

put x = 2 sin u

only if n is EVEN (or zero)

this makes 4

18

or

= 4 cos

= 2 cos u

C4 14/04/13 SDB

There are many more possibilities use your imagination!!

Integration by parts
The product rule for differentiation is

To integrate by parts
(i)
(ii)
(iii)

dv
dx
du
find v and
dx
substitute in formula and integrate.

choose u and

Example: Find
Solution:

x sin x dx

(i)

Choose u = x, because it disappears when differentiated

dv
= sin x
and choose
dx
du
= 1 and
(ii)
u=x
dx
dv
= sin x v = sin x dx = cos x
dx
dv
du
(iii)
u dx dx = uv v dx dx

x cos x + sin x + c.

x sin x dx = x cos x

1 ( cos x)

Example: Find

ln x

Solution:

It does not look like a product, u

(i)

dx

dx

dv
, but if we take u = ln x and
dx

dv
dv
= 1 then u
= ln x 1 = ln x
dx
dx
(ii)

C4 14/04/13

u = ln x

du
1
=
and
dx
x

dv
= 1 v =x
dx
19

(iii)

ln x 1 dx = x ln x
=

1
dx
x

x ln x x + c.

Area under curve

We found in Core 2 that the area under the curve is written
.
as the integral
We can consider the area as approximately the sum of the
rectangles shown.
If each rectangle has width x and if the heights of the
rectangles are y1, y2, ..., yn

then the area of the rectangles is approximately the area

under the curve
b

y x
a

y dx

and as x 0 we have

y x

y dx

This last result is true for any function y.

Volume of revolution

y = f (x)

y
b

x
x+

If the curve of y = f (x) is rotated about the xaxis then the volume of the shape formed can
be found by considering many slices each of width x: one slice is shown.
The volume of this slice (a disc) is approximately y2x
Sum of volumes of all slices from a to b

20

C4 14/04/13 SDB

and as x 0 we have (using the result above

y x

y dx )

dx .

Volume of revolution about the xaxis

Volume when y = f (x), between x = a and x = b, is rotated about the xaxis

is V =

y 2 dx .

Volume of revolution about the yaxis

Volume when y = f (x) , between y = c and y = d, is rotated about the yaxis

is V =

x 2 dy .

Volume of rotation about the y-axis is not in the syllabus but is included for completeness.

Parametric integration
When x and y are given in parametric form we can find integrals using the techniques in
integration by substitution.

think of cancelling the dts

See the appendix for a justification of this result.

Example: If x = tan t and y = sin t, find the area under the curve from t = 0 to t = /4.
Solution:

The area =

dx for some limits on x =

dx
dt .
dt

We know that y = sin t, and also that

dx
= sec 2 t
dt

x = tan t

area =

4
0

dx =

sin t sec t dt =
2

4
0

dx
dt
dt

tan t sec t dt

[sec t ] 04

2 1

To find a volume of revolution we need

C4 14/04/13

dx and we proceed as above writing

21

Example:

The curve shown has parametric equations

y

x = t2 1, y = t3.
The section between x = 0 and x = 8 above the x-axis
is rotated about the x-axis through 2 radians. Find
the volume generated.
Solution:

V =

8
0

20
10

y 2 dx .

10

x = 0 t = 1 and x = 8 t = 3,
but the curve is above the x-axis y = t3 > 0 t > 0, t = +1, or 3

dx
= 2t
dt

also y = t3, x = t2 1

V =

t8
2
8 1

dx
dt =
dt

(3

3
1

t 6 2t dt

3
1

t 7 dt

Differential equations
Separating the variables

Example: Solve the differential equation

Solution:

dy
= 3 y + xy .
dx

dy
= 3 y + xy = y(3 + x)
dx

We first cheat by separating the x s and y s onto different sides of the equation.

1
dy = (3 + x ) dx and then put in the integral signs
y

1
dy =
y

3 + x dx

ln y = 3x + 1/2 x2 + c.

See the appendix for a justification of this technique.

22

C4 14/04/13 SDB

Exponential growth and decay

Example:
A radio-active substance decays at a rate which is proportional to the mass of the
substance present. Initially 25 grams are present and after 8 hours the mass has
decreased to 20 grams. Find the mass after 1 day.
Solution:

Let m grams be the mass of the substance at time t.

dm
is the rate of increase of m so, since the mass is decreasing,
dt
dm
= km
dt

1 dm
=
m dt

1
dm =
m

ln m = kt + ln A

ln

m = Ae kt .

k dt

= kt

When t = 0, m = 25 A = 25

m = 25ekt.

When t = 8, m = 20

20 = 25e8k

e8k = 08

8k = ln 08

k = 0027892943

So when t = 24,

m = 25e24 0027892943 = 128.

Answer 128 grams after 1 day.

C4 14/04/13

23

Vectors

Notation
The book and exam papers like writing vectors in the form
a = 3i 4j + 7k.

It is allowed, and sensible, to re-write vectors in column form

3
i.e. a = 3i 4j + 7k = 4 .
7

Definitions, adding and subtracting, etcetera

A vector has both magnitude (length) and direction. If you always think of a vector as a
translation you will not go far wrong.
Directed line segments

The vector

is the vector from A to B,

(or the translation which takes A to B).

This is sometimes called the
displacement vector from A to B.

Vectors in co-ordinate form

Vectors can also be thought of as column vectors,

7
thus in the diagram AB = .
3

3
A

Negative vectors

is the 'opposite' of

7
= .
3

and so

Adding and subtracting vectors

(i) Using a diagram

Geometrically this can be done using a triangle (or a parallelogram):
Adding:
a
b

a+b

24

a+b
b

C4 14/04/13 SDB

The sum of two vectors is called the resultant of those vectors.

Subtracting:
b

ab
a

(ii) Using coordinates

a c
a + c
b + d = b + d

and

a c
a c
b d = b d .

Parallel and non - parallel vectors

Parallel vectors

Two vectors are parallel if they have the same direction

one is a multiple of the other.
Example: Which two of the following vectors are parallel?

6 4 2
3, 2 , 1.

Solution:

6
6
4
3 4
and so is parallel to
Notice that =
2 2
3
3
2

2
4
but is not a multiple of and so cannot be parallel to the other two vectors.
1
2
4
Example: Find a vector of length 15 in the direction of .
3
4
Solution: a = has length
3

a = a =

42 + 32 = 5

4
12
and so the required vector of length 15 = 3 5 is 3a = 3 = .
3
9
C4 14/04/13

25

Non-parallel vectors

If a and b are not parallel and if a + b = a + b, then

a a = b b ( ) a = ( ) b
but a and b are not parallel and one cannot be a multiple of the other
( ) = 0 = ( )
= and = .
Example: If a and b are not parallel and if
b + 2a + b = a + 3b 5a, find the values of and .

Solution:

Since a and b are not parallel, the coefficients of a and b must balance out

2= 5

= 7 and 1 + = 3

= 2.

Modulus of a vector and unit vectors

Modulus

The modulus of a vector is its magnitude or length.

7
then the modulus of

7
3
3
then the modulus of c = c = c =
Or, if c =
3
5

If

58

34

Unit vectors

A unit vector is one with length 1.

12
Example: Find a unit vector in the direction of
.
5
12
2
2
a =
has length a= a = 12 + 5 = 13 ,

5
1312
12
=
and so the required unit vector is 131 a = 131
5 .

5
13

Solution:

26

C4 14/04/13 SDB

Position vectors

If A is the point (1, 4) then the position vector of A is the vector from the origin to A,
1
= a = .
usually written as
4
y

For two points A and B the position vectors are

= a and

ba

= b

go from A O B

To find the vector

= a + b = b a

giving

Ratios
Example: A, B are the points (2, 1) and (4, 7). M lies on AB in the ratio 1 : 3. Find the
coordinates of M.

Solution :
=

2
6

2
05

6
15
2
05

1
15
25

25

M
1

M is (25, 25)
O

C4 14/04/13

27

Proving geometrical theorems

Example:

In a triangle OBC let M and N be the midpoints of OB and OC.

Prove that BC = 2 MN and that BC is parallel to MN.

Solution:

as b, and

Write the vectors

=
=

Then
and

as c.
O

= b
= c.

, go from M to O using b and

To find
then from O to N using c

= b + c

= c b

M
N

b
c
B

, go from B to O using b and

Also, to find
then from O to C using c

= b + c = c b .

But

= b + c = (c b) = BC

BC is parallel to MN
and BC is twice as long as MN.

Example:

P lies on OA in the ratio 2 : 1, and Q lies on OB in the ratio 2 : 1. Prove that PQ

is parallel to AB and that PQ = 2/3 AB.
A

Let a =

Solution:

, and b =

a,

ba

b
O

and

= /3 b /3 a

= 2/3 (b a)
= 2/3

28

PQ is parallel to AB and

PQ = 2/3 AB.
C4 14/04/13 SDB

Three dimensional vectors

Length, modulus or magnitude of a vector

The length, modulus or magnitude of the vector

= a = a =

a1
= a2 is
a3

a12 + a2 2 + a32` ,

a sort of three dimensional Pythagoras.

Distance between two points

To find the distance between A, (a1, a2, a3) and B, (b1, b2, b3) we need to find the length of
the vector
.

= b a

b1
a1
b1 a1

= b2 a2 = b2 a2
b3
a3
b3 a3

= AB =

(b

a1 ) + ( b2 a2 ) + ( b3 a3 )
2

Scalar product
a . b = ab cos

where a and b are the lengths of a and b

and is the angle measured from a to b.

Note that

(i)

a . a = aa cos 0o = a2

(ii)

a (b + c) = a b + a c .

(iii)

a.b = b.a

since cos = cos ()

In co-ordinate form

a1 b1
a . b = . = a1b1 + a 2 b2 = ab cos
a 2 b2
or

C4 14/04/13

a1 b1
a . b = a 2 . b2 = a1b1 + a 2 b2 + a 3 b3 = ab cos .
a 3 b3

29

Perpendicular vectors
If a and b are perpendicular then = 90o and cos = 0

thus a perpendicular to b a . b = 0
and a . b = 0 either a is perpendicular to b

or

a or b = 0.

Example: Find the values of so that a = 3i 2j + 2k and

b = 2i + j + 6k are perpendicular.

Since a and b are perpendicular a . b = 0

Solution:

3 2
2 . = 0
2 6

6 2 2 + 12 = 0

2 = 9 = 3.

1
3

Example: Find a vector which is perpendicular to a, 1 , and b, 1 .

2
1
Solution:

p
Let the vector c, q , be perpendicular to both a and b.
r

p
q
r

1
1 = 0 and

2

p
q

r

3
1 = 0

1

p q + 2r = 0 and 3p + q + r = 0.
Adding these equations gives 4p + 3r = 0.
Notice that there will never be a unique solution to these problems, so having
eliminated one variable, q, we find p in terms of r, and then find q in terms of r.

30

3r
4

q=

5r
4

p=

43r

c is any vector of the form 54r ,
r

C4 14/04/13 SDB

and we choose a sensible value of r = 4 to give

3
5 .

4

Angle between vectors

Example: Find the angle between the vectors

= 4i 5j + 2k
Solution:

and

= i + 2j 3k,

to the nearest degree.

First re-write as column vectors (if you want)

1
2

3

4
a = 5 and b =
2
a = a =

4 2 + 5 2 + 2 2 = 45 = 3 5 ,

a . b = ab cos

14

20 = 3 5 14 cos

cos =

= 143o to the nearest degree.

3 70

12 + 2 2 + 32 =

1
2 = 4 10 6 = 20

3

4
and a . b = 5
2

20

b = b =

= 0.796819

Vector equation of a straight line

x
r = y is usually used as the position vector of a
z

general point, R.

In the diagram the line l passes through the point A

and is parallel to the vector b.

To go from O to R first go to A, using a, and then

from A to R using some multiple of b.

C4 14/04/13

31

 The equation of a straight line through the point A and parallel to the vector b is
r = a + b.
Example: Find the vector equation of the line through the points M, (2, 1, 4),
and N, (5, 3, 7).
Solution:

We are looking for the line through M (or N) which is parallel to the vector

5
2
7

= n m = 3 1 = 4
7
4
3
2
7

equation is r = 1 + 4 .
4
3

Example:

Show that the point P, (1, 7, 10), lies on the line

1
1

r = 3 + 2 .
4
3
Solution:

The x co-ord of P is 1 and of the line is 1

1 = 1 = 2.

In the equation of the line this gives y = 7 and z = 10

P, (1, 7, 10) does lie on the line.

Intersection of two lines

2 Dimensions
Example: Find the intersection of the lines

2
3

1
,
2

l1 , r = +

and

1
1
l2, r = + .
3
1

Solution: We are looking for values of and which give the same x and y
co-ordinates on each line.

32

Equating x co-ords

2 =1+

equating y co-ords

3 + 2 = 3
C4 14/04/13 SDB

Adding

5+=4

= 1

= 2

lines intersect at (3, 1).

3 Dimensions

This is similar to the method for 2 dimensions with one important difference you can not be
certain whether the lines intersect without checking.
You will always (or nearly always) be able to find values of and by equating
x coordinates and y coordinates but the z coordinates might or might not be equal and
must be checked.
Example: Investigate whether the lines

l 1,

2
1

r = 1 + 2
3
1

and

3
l 2, r = 1 +
5

1
3

1

intersect

and if they do find their point of intersection.

Solution: If the lines intersect we can find values of and to give the same x, y and z
coordinates in each equation.

Equating x coords

2 = 3 + ,

equating y coords

1 + 2 = 1 + 3,

II

equating z coords

3 + = 5 + .

III

2 I + II 5 = 5 + 5 = 2, in I = 3.
We must now check to see if we get the same point for the values of and

In l 1, = 3 gives the point (1, 7, 6);

in l 2, = 2 gives the point (1, 7, 7).
The x and y co-ords are equal (as expected!), but the z co-ordinates are different and so
the lines do not intersect.

C4 14/04/13

33

Appendix

Binomial series (1 + x)n for any n proof

Suppose that
f (x) = (1 + x)n = a + bx + cx2 + dx3 + ex4 +

put x = 0, 1 = a
f (x) = n(1 + x)n 1 = b + 2cx + 3dx2 + 4ex3 +
put x = 0, n = b
f (x) = n(n 1)(1 + x)n 2 = 2c + 3 2dx + 4 3ex2 +
put x = 0, n(n 1) = 2c
f (x) = n(n 1)(n 2)(1 + x)

n3

= 3 2d + 4 3 2ex +

put x = 0, n(n 1)(n 2) = 3 2d

Continuing this process, we have

and

, etc.

giving f (x) = (1 + x)n

= 1 + nx +
+

Showing that this is convergent for x < 1, is more difficult!

Derivative of xq for q rational

Suppose that q is any rational number,
Then

y = xq =

, where r and s are integers, s

ys = xr
= r xr 1

Differentiating with respect to x s

34

0.

= qx q 1

since q =
since ys = xr and y = xq
C4 14/04/13 SDB

which follows the rule found for xn, where n is an integer.

for negative limits

We know that the area under any curve, from

x = a to x = b is approximately
y

0
x

If the curve is above the x-axis, all the y values are positive, and if a < b then all values of x
are positive, and so the integral is positive.
1

ln|x|

Example: Find

3
1

ln

ln

1
dx .
x

Solution: The integral wanted is shown as A

in the diagram.

y=1/x
1

By symmetry A = A (A positive)

and we need to decide whether the integral

is +A or A.

2 A'

From x = 1 to x = 3, we are going in

the direction of x decreasing
all x are negative.
And the graph is below the x-axis,
the y values are negative,

y x is positive

the integral is positive and equal to A.

The integral, A = A =
A =

3
1

3
1

1
dx = [ ln x ] 13 = ln 3 ln 1 = ln 3
x

1
dx = ln 3
x

Notice that this is what we get if we write ln x in place of ln x

3
1

1
dx = [ ln | x |] 31 = ln 3 ln 1 = ln 3
x

As it will always be possible to use symmetry in this way, since we can never have one
positive and one negative limit (because there is a discontinuity at x = 0), it is correct to write
ln x for the integral of 1/x .
C4 14/04/13

35

Integration by substitution why it works

We show the general method with an example.

integrand =

Choose u = 1 + x3

But

1
3

rearrange togive

leave the x2 because it appears in dx

this is the same as writing the integrand in

terms of u, and then replacing dx by

The essential part of this method, writing the integrand in terms of u, and then replacing dx
by
, will be the same for all integrations by substitution.

Parametric integration
This is similar to integration by substitution.

36

C4 14/04/13 SDB

Separating the variables why it works

We show this with an example.
If y = 6y3then
and so

18

= 18y2

18

Notice that we cancel the dx.

= x2 sec y

Example: Solve

Solution:

= x2 sec y
cos y

= x2

cos

cos

sin y =

C4 14/04/13

cancelling the dx

+ c

37

Index
Binomial expansion
convergence, 8
for any n, 8
proof - for any n, 34
Differential equations
exponential growth and decay, 23
forming, 12
separating the variables, 22
Differentiation
derivative of xq for q rational, 34
exponential functions, ax, 11
related rates of change, 12
Implicit differentiation, 10
Integration
1
/x for negative limits, 35
by parts, 19
by substitution why it works, 36
choosing the substitution, 18
ex, 13
ln x, 13
parametric, 21
parametric why it works, 36
reverse chain rule, 14
sec x and cosec x, 15
separating variables why it works, 37
standard integrals, 13
substitution, definite, 18
substitution, indefinite, 16
tan x and cot x, 15
using partial fractions, 16
using trigonometric identities, 13
volume of revolution, 20
Parameters
area under curve, 7
equation of circle, 6
equation of hyperbola, 6
intersection of two curves, 5
parametric equations of curves, 5
parametric to Cartesian form, 6
trig functions, 6

38

Parametric differentiation, 11
Parametric integration, 36
areas, 21
volumes, 21
Partial fractions, 3
integration, 16
linear repeated factors, 4
linear unrepeated factors, 3
quadratic factors, 3
top heavy fractions, 4
Scalar product, 29
perpendicular vectors, 30
properties, 29
Vectors, 24
adding and subtracting, 24
angle between vectors, 31
displacement vector, 24
distance between 2 points, 29
equation of a line, 31
intersection of two lines, 32
length of 3-D vector, 29
modulus, 26
non-parallel vectors, 26
parallel vectors, 25
position vector, 27
proving geometrical theorems, 28
ratios, 27
unit vector, 26

C4 14/04/13 SDB

Integration & Differentiation

What you are given and what you need to know in C4

FORMULAE FOR EDEXCEL

2013/14

Integration & Differentiation

What you are given and what you need to know in C4
Recap of C3 facts
Exact Values of trigonometric functions
x (deg)
x (rad)
sin

cos

tan

30

1
2

3
2

45

60

3
2

1
2

90

180

-1

Rules and facts

1. Sin2x + cos2x = 1

Integration & Differentiation | 2013/14

2. Tan x =

sin
cos
1

3. Cosec x =
4. Sec x =
5. Cot x =

sin
1

cos
1
tan

cos
sin

Applying these rules

Dividing (1) by sin2x will give you: 1 + cot2x = cosec2x
Dividing (1) by cos2x will give you: tan2x + 1 = sec2x

(*) means the rule is given in the Edexcel Formula book

3
1

Differentiation

Parametric Equations
If y = f(t) and x = g(t), then:
dy dt
=

dt dx
Implicit Differentiation
When f(x,y) = g(x,y), differentiate implicitly: that is differentiate w.r.t. y and include
dy/dx . The solution can simplified where necessary.
Example: y2 = xy + x + 2
(Hint: Use the product rule for xy)
2

=1
+1+1

ax
( )
= ln()

Start with

y = ax

Take logs of both sides

ln(y) = ln(ax)
ln(y) = x ln(a)

Differentiate implicitly

= ln()

Rearrange and substitute for y

( )
= ln()

(*) means the rule is given n the Edexcel Formula book

Integration & Differentiation | 2013/14

Proof of a x

Integration

Rules for Integration

Integration by substitution

There is no simple rule for integration by substitution, you must follow these steps:
Youll be given an integral which is made up of two functions of x.
4 (

2 1)

Substitute u for one of the functions of x to give function which is easier to integrate.
= 2 1,
Next, find

, and rewrite it so that dx is on its own.

1
= 2, =

2
Rewrite the original integral in terms of u and du.
: 4 = 2
Integrate and substitute back for u at the end.

Integration & Differentiation | 2013/14

2 = 2 + = 2 (

2 1)

Integration by parts*

When u=f(x) and v=g(x), then:

Choose your u and v functions carefully to make the integral easier.

(*) means the rule is given in the Edexcel Formula book

Volume of revolution : Cartesian

2

= 2
1

This describes the volume generated when the curve of y = f(x) from x1 to x2 is rotated 360
about the x-axis.

Volume of revolution: Parametric

= 2

This describes the volume generated when the curve is defined by its parametric form (x(t),
y(t)) in the interval (a,b) is rotated 360 about the x-axis.

Integration & Differentiation | 2013/14

Both equations for the volumes of revolution can be adjusted for rotation about the y-axis by
substituting x for y and vice versa.

(*) means the rule is given n the Edexcel Formula book

Standard Integrals you should know :

1

( + ) =

(+1)

( + )+1 +

where n1

Exponential functions

= +
+

1 +

Other functions

1
= || +

1
1
= | + | +
+

()
= |()| +
()

This rule leads to these standard integrals (*) :

Integration & Differentiation | 2013/14

() = |() + cot()| +

() = |() + tan()| +
() = |()| +

(*) means the rule is given in the Edexcel Formula book

Using functions and derivatives

() = () +

( + 1) () [()] = [()]+1 +

Trigonometric Integration
Basics
Learn these facts and do not confuse them with the rules for differentiation.
sin() = cos() +
cos() = sin() +
Summary (+ constant)
()

Cos x

Sin x

Sin x

-Cos x

sec2(kx)

In formula book

tan (kx)

tan(x)

|sec()|

cot(x)

|sin()|

sec (x)

|sec() + tan()|

cosec(x)

|cosec() + cot()|

(*) means the rule is given n the Edexcel Formula book

Integration & Differentiation | 2013/14

y=f(x)

Applying these facts

By the chain rule:

[sin(+)]

= acos( + )

Hence:

cos( + ) = sin( + ) +

It follows that:

sin( + ) =

cos( + ) +

By the quotient rule:

[tan()]

Hence:

2 () = tan() +

Also:

2 () = k tan() + (*)

Thus:

2 ( + ) = a tan( + ) +

= 2 ()

Integration & Differentiation | 2013/14

(*) means the rule is given in the Edexcel Formula book

C4 Cheat Sheet
Chapter
1 Partial
Fractions

Usual types of questions

Be able to split a fraction whose
denominator is a product of
2+3
linear expressions, e.g.

(+1)

Tips
The textbook provides two methods for dealing with top
heavy fractions. The algebraic long division method is miles
easier!
2 +2

and a remainder of + 2, thus:

2 + 2
+ 2
=1+
2
+
( + 1)
+2
Then split the
into partial fractions as normal.

Deal with top-heavy fractions

where the highest power in the
denominator is greater or equal
to the highest power in the
denominator, e.g

2 +2
(+1)

2 Parametric
Equations

Know that

( )

(This makes sense as we have just divided

numerator and denominator by )

Be able to integrate parametric

equations.
Be able to convert parametric
equations into a single Cartesian
one.

www.drfrostmaths.com

2 +2

e.g. (+1) = 2 +. Using long division we get a quotient of 1

Be able to split a fraction where

one (or more) of the factors in
the denominator are squared,
2+3
e.g. 2 (+1)

(+1)

Dont forget that when you have a squared factor in the

denominator, you need two fractions in your partial fraction
sum:
2

+ 2+
2
( + 1)
+1
When you have three unknowns its generally easiest to use
substitution to get two of them (e.g. the and the ) then
compare the coefficients of 2 to get the . For the above
example:
2 ( + 1) + ( + 1) + 2
We can see immediately, without needing to write out the
expansion, that 0 = + , by comparing 2 terms.
Note: You will NOT be asked to sketch parametric equations.
To convert parametric equations involving trig functions to
Cartesian ones, the strategy is usually to make sin and
cos the subject before using the identity sin2 + cos2
1. Often squaring one of the parametric equations helps so
that we have sin2 and/or cos 2 :
= 3 sin 2
= 4 cos 2
= 23 sin cos
2 = 12 sin2 cos 2
2 = 12(1 cos 2 ) cos 2
2
2 = 12 (1 ( ) )
4
4

What can go ugly

Forgetting the extra term when the
denominators factors are squared.
Being sloppy at algebraic long division!
Be careful with substitution of negative
values.
You may have to spot that you need to
factorise the denominator first before
expressing as partial fractions.
Not realising the fraction is top heavy and
therefore trying to incorrectly do:
2 2

= +
( + 1) + 1

Hitting a dead end converting parametric

equations to Cartesian. See tips on left.

Forgetting to multiply by when

integrating parametric equations.
Remember that the in can be

replaced with , which is easy to

remember, as the s cancel if we think of
and just as quantities.

3 Binomial
Expansion

Expanding out an expression of

the form (1 + ) , where is
negative or fractional.
Expanding out an expression of
the form ( + ) , where
needs to be factorised out first.
Finding the product of two
Binomial expansions, e.g.
1
1
1 +
(1 + )2 (1 )2
1

(1)

(1 + ) = 1 + () +
()2
2!
( 1)( 2)
()3 +
+
3!
Your expression may be a binomial expansion in disguise, e.g.
1
3

1
1

2
2 (2)2 +
2
(1
(2)
= 2) = 1 + ( )
+
2
2!
1 2
1

When the first term is not 1, you have to factorise this

number out, raised to the power outside the brackets. e.g.
1
2

1
1
5
(4 + 5)2 = 42 (1 + )
4
1 5
= 2 [1 + ( ) + ]
2 4
Ensure the outer brackets are maintained till the very end,
when you expand them out.
When finding the product of two expansions, then if you
needed up to the 2 term, then you only need to find up to
the 2 term in each of the two expansions. Only consider
things in the expansion which are up to 2 . e.g.
1
1
1 + 1 +

=
= (1 + )2 (1 )2
1 1
1
1
1
(1 + )2 1 + 2
2
8
1
1
3

(1 ) 2 1 + + 2
2
8
1
1
1
1
1
3
(1 + )2 (1 )2 (1 + 2 ) (1 + + 2 )
2
8
2
8
1
3
1
1
1
= 1 + + 2 + + 2 2
2
8
2
4
8
1
= 1 + + 2
2

www.drfrostmaths.com

Many things!
Lack of brackets when squaring/cubing
things, e.g. you need (2)3 = 8 3 not 2 3
With say (3 + 4)1, forgetting to raise the
3 you factor out to the power of -1.
Forgetting to put the factorial in the
denominators of the Binomial coefficients

(a common error is instead of )

3!

Being careless in using your calculator when

simplifying coefficients.
Be ridiculously careful with signs!
Accidentally forgetting the minus in the
1
power when expanding say (+1)2

4Differentiation

Appreciate that =
represents exponential growth
when > 1, and exponential
decay when 0 < < 1 (and
from C3, know the graphs for
each).

Know that ( ) = ln
(proof unlikely to be asked for)
Be able to differentiate

implicitly, e.g. ( 2 ) = 2
and subsequently be able to

make the subject.

Be able to set up differential
equations, e.g. understand that
the temperature falls at a rate
proportional to its current
temperature could be

represented as =
Connect different derivatives

involving rates, e.g. =

Example of implicit differentiation (which involves collecting

the terms on one side and factorising it out):

Given that 2 + 2 = 2 , find .

Differentiating both sides with respect to :

(2

) + 2 + 2
= 2

(2 + 2) = 2 2

2 2
=
2 + 2

They particularly love use of the product rule!

A differential equation is an equation involving both some
variables and derivatives involving those variables, e.g. a mix

of , and . Solving this equation means to obtain an

equation only involving the variables, and not the derivatives.
Whenever you see the word rate, think /.
A circles radius increases at a rate of 2cm/s. Find the rate of
increase of its area when the radius is 10cm.
First note the variables involved: , and because were

talking about rates, . We need to find . Since derivatives

behave pretty much like normal fractions, first write the

following product with the and copied into the
diagonals:

=

Then fill the remaining diagonals with the remaining variable,

:
=

One value, in this case = 2, is always given. The other we

need to form some formula, in this case = 2 (and often
using simple geometry to find an area of volume), and
differentiate:

= 2

Thus when = 10, = 2 10 = 20

Thus: = 20 2 = 40
www.drfrostmaths.com

A classic is to accidentally treat or as

constants rather than variables, when
differentiating implicitly. Note that

() = if is a constant, but () =

+ by the product rule, and not just .

When differentiating implicitly, you might

forget to put the , e.g. ( 2 ) = 2

rather than the correct 2

Exponential functions do not behave like

polynomials when differentiated. e.g.

( 3 ) = 3 2 , but (3 ) = 3 ln 3, and

absolutely not 31 !
Many students often get their equation
wrong when connecting rates of change,
often say dividing instead of multiplying, or
vice versa. If you use the fill in the
diagonals tip on the left this will unlikely be
a problem.

5 - Vectors

(In rough descending order of how

frequently they appear in exams)
Find the point of intersection of
two lines or prove that two lines
do not intersect.
Find the angle between two
lines.
Finding a missing // value of
a point on a line.
Find the length of a vector or the
distance between two points.
Find the nearest point on a line
to a point not on the line (often
the origin) note: not in your
textbook!
Show lines are perpendicular.
Show a point lies on a line.
Show 3 points are collinear (i.e.
lie on the same straight line)
Find the area of a rectangle,
parallelogram or triangle formed
by vectors.
Find the equation of a line.
Find the reflection of a point in a
line.

www.drfrostmaths.com

When you see the , , unit vectors used in an exam

question, never actually use this notation yourself: always
just write all vectors in conventional column vector form.
Almost always draw a suitable diagram. This will be
particularly helpful when you need to find the area of some
shape (typically the last part of a question).
When finding the area of a shape, you can almost always use
your answers from previous parts of the questions, including
lengths of vectors and angles between two vectors.
1
Remember that area of non-right angled triangle = 2 sin
where the angle appears between the two sides and . A
parallelogram can be cut in half to form two congruent nonright angled triangles (i.e. multiply by 2).
To show 3 points , , are collinear, just show that
is a

multiple of (i.e. vectors are parallel).

Show 3 + 3 + 2 lies on the line with vector equation =
+ 3 + 4 + ( )
3
1+
i.e. Show (3) lies on ( 3 ). Equating 3 = 1 + to = 2.
2
4
Then 4 = 4 2 = 2, so and components are same.
Let 1 : = (9 + 13 3) + ( + 4 2)
Given point has positive vector 4 + 16 3 and lies on
1 such that is perpendicular to 1 , find .
9+
1 : ( 13 + 4 )
3 2
Note that the direction vector of the line, and the vector

are perpendicular. is just a point on the line so can be

9+
represented as ( 13 + 4 ) for some specific we need to
3 2
find.
1
Direction vector of 1 is ( 4 )
2

When finding the angle between two lines,

accidentally using the full vector
representation of the line (in your dot
product), and not just the direction
1
component, e.g. using ( 2 ) instead of
3 + 2
1
just the correct ( 0 ).

Making sign errors when subtracting

vectors, particularly when subtracting an
expression involving a negative. Correctly:

1
1
(2) ( 2 ) = ( 4 )
7 2
3
2 4
Once finding out and (or and ) when
solving simultaneous equation to find the
intersection of two lines, forgetting to show
that these satisfy the remaining equation.
Forgetting the square root when finding the
magnitude of a vector.

Thus:

4
9+
5

= ( 16 ) ( 13 + 4 ) = ( 3 4 )
3
3 2
2
1
5
( 3 4 ) ( 4 ) = 0
2
2
5 + 12 16 4 = 0
1
=
3
1
1
9+
9
3

Thus: = 13 + 4(13) = 14 13
1

6 - Integration

Integrate a large variety of

expressions. See the integration
cheat sheet overleaf. But by
category:
o Integrating trig
functions, including
reciprocal functions and
squared functions
sin2 , cos2 , sec 2 2,
etc.
o Integrating by reverse
chain rule (also known
as integration by
inspection).
o Integrating by a given
substitution.
o Integration by parts.
o Integrating by use of
partial fractions.
o Integrating top heavy
fractions by algebraic
division.

3 2( )
3 )

3
( 3)

One often forgotten integration is exponential functions such

as 2 . Differentiating has effect of multiplying by of the
base, and thus integrating divides by it. i.e.

(2 ) = ln 2 2

2 =

1
2 +
ln 2

Know the two double angle formulae for like the back of
your hand, for use when integrating sin2 or cos 2
In general, know your integrals of all the trig squares, i.e.
sin2 , cos2 , tan2 , 2 , sec 2 , cot 2
For integration by reverse chain rule, always consider
some sensible expression to differentiate, then adjust for the
factor difference. e.g.
(4 3)5

Then your working might be:

Consider = (4 3)6 . Then

www.drfrostmaths.com

= 6(4 3)5 (3) = 18(4 3)5

1
(4 3)5 = (4 3)6 +
18

For integration by substitution, the official specification says

Except in the simplest of cases, the substitution will be
given.
Remember that starting with the substitution, say = 2 +
1, it helps to make the subject, except in some cases where
theres a trigonometric substitution, e.g. if = sin + 1, but
sin appears in the expression to integrate, then we might

Where to start!
One big problem is just not knowing what
method to use to integrate a particular
expression. The cheat sheet overleaf should
help, as should lots of practice of a variety
of expressions!
Similarly getting stuck on integration by
substitution, because you cant get the
whole original expression only in terms of
the new variable ( or otherwise).
Perhaps the all-time biggest mistake is
forgetting to consider the effects of chain
rule. e.g. Accidentally doing
cos 2 = sin 2

Sign errors when integrating/differentiating

trig functions. Other than sin and cos, be
careful about cot/cosec:

(cot ) = 2

thus 2 = cot +
A common one: Forgetting about the chain
rule when integrating expressions of the
form ( + ) , see (4 3)5
example.

Be able to differentiate
parametric equations:

Calculate volumes of revolution

both for normal and parametric
equations:
= 2

= 2

Solve differential equations.

e.g. = +
Trapezium Rule as per C2, but
now with C3/C4 expressions to
integrate. You will frequently be
asked to compare the actual
error and the estimated area
using the rule, and the
percentage error.

make sin the subject instead.

Differentiate and make the subject also, then ensure
original expression is only in terms of new variable.
Dont feel as if you need to memorise a separate formula for

parametric volumes of revolution, since = clearly by

the fact that the s cancel.

You have to change the limits whenever you do either of: (a)
parametric integration or (b) integration by substitution,
because youre integrating in terms of a new variable.

This is more use for STEP, but remember that () =

Remember that constants differentiate to

nothing, i.e. ( 2 ) = 0 not 2!

(), useful when the limits are the wrong way round.
You can tidy things up sometimes using () =
+ (), since the -1 can be factored out the integral.
For integration by parts, if you ever have to IBP twice, write
the second integral as a separate result first before
substituting it in after. This is to avoid sign errors and keep
things tidy. e.g. Workings might be:

Similarly ln is a constant. ln 2 would

differentiate to ln 2.
If 2 = + 1 is the substitution, youre
doing unnecessary work if you then square
root. Differentiating implicitly:

2
=1

= 2
This is much much tidier!
Forgetting to change your limits for either
parametric integration or integration by
substitution!
But note that in integration by substitution,
once youve changed back to the original
variable (probably ), you should use the
original limits.
Dont try and use integration by parts if you
can use integration by inspection.
2
e.g. For , then integration by parts
would lead to a dead end.
For differential equations, ensure the

variable at the top of the matches what

youve moved to the LHS. e.g. If

= 2

then its the you want on the LHS.

2 cos
= 2

= 2

= cos

= sin
2

sin = sin 2 sin

For 2 sin :
= 2

= sin

= 2 = cos

2 sin = 2 cos 2 cos

= 2 cos + 2 cos
= 2 cos + 2 sin
2

cos = 2 sin (2 cos + 2 sin )

= 2 sin + 2 cos 2 sin +

www.drfrostmaths.com

Note the nice double negative tidying up trick towards the

end.

If youre solving = + , then you need the (or

whatever variable appears at the top of ) on the LHS. This

is always achieved by a division or multiplication, which may

require factorisation first:

1
= ( + 1)
= +1

1
1
= + 1
ln|| = 2 + +

2
1 2

www.drfrostmaths.com

1 2

= 2 ++ = 2 +
Note in the above example, we let some new constant =
to help tidy things up. If we had ln + on the righthand-side, wed make = ln so that ln + ln = ln().
Similarly if we had ln = + , and hence = + =
, we could make = .
In differential equations, ensure you separate the RHS into
the form ()() first so that you are able to divide by

1
(), e.g. = + = (1 + ) 1+ =
In differential equations, if youre given initial conditions
(note, often = 0 is often implied for the initial condition),
then its generally easier to plug them in to work out your
constant of integration sooner rather than later.

C4 Integration Cheat Sheet

()

How to deal with it

Standard result
Standard result
In formula booklet, but use
sin
which is of the form

()

sin
()
()

FormBk?
No
No
Yes

1
1
sin 2
2
4

1
1
+ sin 2
2
4
tan
ln| + cot |

Use partial fractions.

No

( + )

Power around denominator so

No

( + )

Yes

ln| |

Yes

No!
Yes (but

1 + cot 2 2
Standard result
= ln = ln
Then differentiate implicitly.
Standard result

cot

ln()
ln

No
No
No
No

Use IBP, where = ln , = 1

www.drfrostmaths.com

ln

No

sin
ln| + 1|

1
1
+1
+1

Reverse chain rule. Of form

ln|| ln| + 1|
2 ln| 2 + 1|

()
()

NOT of form

()
()

. Rewrite as

Reverse chain rule (i.e. Consider

= ( 2 + 1)1 " and differentiate.
Fraction top heavy so do algebraic
division first. Then split into
algebraic fractions as

4 2 1 = (2 + 1)(2 1)
For any function where inner
function is linear expression,
divide by coefficient of
Use sensible substitution. =
2 + 1 or even better, 2 =
2 + 1.
Reverse chain rule.

Use identities in C3 formula

booklet,
1

sin 3 cos 2 = (sin 5 + cos 3)

FB?
No

1
( 2 + 1)1
2

( 2 + 1)2

memorise)

Of form () (())
Use algebraic division.

() (+constant)
1
cos 4
8

product.

Yes

ln|sec + tan |

cot
tan

1
sin 2 cos 2 sin 4
2

No

By observation.
By observation.

()
How to deal with it
For any product of sin and cos
with same coefficient of , use
double angle.

For both sin2 and cos 2 use

identities for cos 2
cos 2 = 1 2 sin2
1 1
sin2 = cos 2
2 2
cos 2 = 2 cos 2 1
1 1
cos 2 = + cos 2
2 2
1 + tan2 sec 2
tan2 sec 2 1
Would use substitution =
+ cot , but too hard
for exam.
Would use substitution =
sec + tan , but too hard for
exam.
cos
which is of the form

cos
()

() (+constant)
cos
sin
ln|sec |

Note: has never come up in an exam.

1
2 + ln|1 2|
2
1
ln |2 + 1|
2
1 2+1

2
1
ln|1 3|
3

3
1
(2 + 1)2 (3 1)
15

1 6
sin
6

1
cos 5
10
1
+ sin 3
6

Sort of