Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
Announcements
ReadChapter12,concentratingonsections
12.4and12.5.
ReadChapter7.
Homework12is6.59,6.61,12.19,12.22,
12.24,12.26,12.28,12.29,7.1,7.3,7.4,7.5,
7.6,7.9,7.12,7.16;dueThursday,12/3.
EconomicDispatch:Formulation
Thegoalofeconomicdispatchisto
determinethegenerationdispatchthat
minimizestheinstantaneousoperatingcost,
subjecttotheconstraintthattotal
generation=totalload+losses
m
Minimize
CT
Ci ( PGi )
i 1
Such that
m
PGi PD PLosses
i 1
Initiallywe'll
ignoregenerator
limitsandthe
losses
3
UnconstrainedMinimization
Thisisaminimizationproblemwithasingle
equalityconstraint
Foranunconstrainedminimizationa
necessary(butnotsufficient)conditionfora
minimumisthegradientofthefunction
mustbezero, f (x) 0
Thegradientgeneralizesthefirstderivative
formultivariableproblems:
f ( x )
f (x) f (x)
f (x)
x , x ,, x
1
2
n
4
MinimizationwithEqualityConstraint
Whentheminimizationisconstrainedwithan
equalityconstraintwecansolvetheproblem
usingthemethodofLagrangeMultipliers
Keyideaistorepresentaconstrained
minimizationproblemasanunconstrained
problem.
That is, for the general problem
minimize f (x) s.t. g (x) 0
We define the Lagrangian L(x, ) f (x) T g(x)
Then a necessary condition for a minimum is the
L x (x, ) 0 and L (x, ) 0
EconomicDispatchLagrangian
For the economic dispatch we have a minimization
constrained with a single equality constraint
L(PG , )
Ci ( PGi ) ( PD PGi )
i 1
(no losses)
i 1
PD PGi 0
i 1
EconomicDispatchExample
What is economic dispatch for a two generator
system PD PG1 PG 2 500 MW and
C1 ( PG1 ) 1000 20 PG1 0.01PG21
$/h
$/h
dC2
( PG 2 ) 15 0.06 PG 2
dPG 2
500 PG1 PG 2 0
7
EconomicDispatchExample,
contd
We therefore need to solve three linear equations
0
20 0.02 PG1
15 0.06 PG 2
500 PG1 PG 2 0
1 PG1 20
0
0.02
0
0.06 1 PG 2 15
1 0 500
1
PG1
312.5 MW
P 187.5 MW
G2
26.2 $/MWh
Economicdispatchexample,contd
Atthesolution,bothgeneratorshavethe
samemarginal(orincremental)cost,andthis
commonmarginalcostisequalto.
Intuitionbehindsolution:
Ifmarginalcostsofgeneratorsweredifferent,
thenbydecreasingproductionathighermarginal
costgenerator,andincreasingproductionat
lowermarginalcostgeneratorwecouldlower
overallcosts.
Generalizestoanynumberofgenerators.
Ifdemandchanges,thenchangeintotalcosts
canbeestimatedfrom.
Economicdispatchexample,contd
Anotherwaytosolvetheequationsisto:
RearrangethefirsttwoequationstosolveforPG1
andPG2 intermsof,
Plugintothirdequationandsolvefor,
Usethesolvedvalueof toevaluatePG1 andPG2.
Thisworksevenwhenrelationshipbetween
generationlevelsand ismorecomplicated:
Equationsaremorecomplicatedthanlinearwhen
therearemaximumandminimumgeneration
limitsorweconsiderlosses.
10
LambdaIterationSolutionMethod
Discussiononpreviouspageleadstolambda
iteration method:
thismethodrequiresauniquemappingfromavalue
oflambda(marginalcost)toeachgeneratorsMW
output: PGi().
foranychoiceoflambda(commonmarginalcost),
thegeneratorscollectivelyproduceatotalMW
output,
themethodthenstartswithvaluesoflambdabelow
andabovetheoptimalvalue(correspondingtotoo
littleandtoomuchtotaloutput),andthen
iterativelybracketstheoptimalvalue.
11
LambdaIterationAlgorithm
Pick L and H such that
m
L
P
(
Gi ) PD 0
i 1
H
P
(
Gi ) PD 0
i 1
H L Do
While
M ( H L ) / 2
m
If
M
H
M
P
)
0
Then
Gi
D
i 1
Else L M
End While
12
LambdaIteration:GraphicalView
Inthegraphshownbelowforeachvalueoflambda
thereisauniquePGi for each generator. This
relationship is the PGi() function.
13
LambdaIterationExample
Consider a three generator system with
IC1 ( PG1 ) 15 0.02 PG1
$/MWh
IC2 ( PG 2 ) 20 0.01PG 2
$/MWh
IC3 ( PG 3 ) 18 0.025PG 3
$/MWh
15
0.02
18
PG 3 ( )
0.025
PG 2 ( )
20
0.01
14
LambdaIterationExample,contd
Pick L so
L
P
(
Gi ) 1000 0 and
i=1
m
H
P
(
Gi ) 1000 0
i=1
Try L 20 then
i 1
15 20 18
0.02
0.01
Try H 30 then
0.025
1000 670 MW
1230 MW
i 1
15
LambdaIterationExample,contd
Pick convergence tolerance 0.05 $/MWh
Then iterate since H L 0.05
M ( H L ) / 2 25
m
Then since
H
P
25
(25)
1000
280
we
set
Gi
i 1
Since 25 20 0.05
L
P
22.5
(22.5)
1000
195
we
set
Gi
i 1
16
LambdaIterationExample,contd
Continue iterating until H L 0.05
The solution value of , , is 23.53 $/MWh
*
ThirtyBusEDExample
Caseiseconomicallydispatched(withoutconsidering
theincrementalimpactofthesystemlosses).
18
GeneratorMWLimits
Generatorshavelimitsontheminimumand
maximumamountofpowertheycan
produce
Typicallytheminimumlimitisnotzero.
Becauseofvaryingsystemeconomicsusually
manygeneratorsinasystemareoperatedat
theirmaximumMWlimits:
Baseload generatorsareattheirmaximumlimits
exceptduringtheoffpeak.
19
LambdaIterationwithGenLimits
In the lambda-iteration method the limits are taken
into account when calculating PGi ( ) :
if calculated production for PGi PGi ,max
then set PGi ( ) PGi ,max
if calculated production for PGi PGi ,min
then set PGi ( ) PGi ,min
20
LambdaIterationGenLimitExample
In the previous three generator example assume
the same cost characteristics but also with limits
0 PG1 300 MW 100 PG 2 500 MW
200 PG 3 600 MW
With limits we get:
m
LambdaIterationLimitExample,contd
Again we continue iterating until the convergence
condition is satisfied.
With limits the final solution of , is 24.43 $/MWh
(compared to 23.53 $/MWh without limits).
Maximum limits will always cause to either increase
or remain the same.
Final solution is:
PG1 (24.43) 300 MW (at maximum limit)
PG 2 (24.43) 443 MW
PG 3 (24.43) 257 MW
22
BackofEnvelopeValues
$/MWhr =fuelcost *heatrate +variableO&M
Typicalincrementalcostscanberoughly
approximated:
Typicalheatrate foracoalplantis10,modern
combustionturbineis10,combinedcycleplantis6
to8,oldercombustionturbine15.
Fuelcosts($/MBtu)arequitevariable,withcurrent
valuesaround2forcoal,3to5fornaturalgas,0.5
fornuclear,probably10forfueloil.
Hydrocoststendtobequitelow,butarefuel
(water)constrained
23
Windandsolarcostsarezero.
InclusionofTransmissionLosses
Thelossesonthetransmissionsystemarea
functionofthegenerationdispatch.
Ingeneral,usinggeneratorsclosertothe
loadresultsinlowerlosses
Thisimpactonlossesshouldbeincluded
whendoingtheeconomicdispatch
Lossescanbeincludedbyslightlyrewriting
theLagrangian toincludelossesPL:
i 1
i 1
m
24
ImpactofTransmissionLosses
The inclusion of losses then impacts the necessary
conditions for an optimal economic dispatch:
m
i 1
i 1
The necessary conditions for a minimum are now:
m
dCi
PL
L
(PG , )
( PGi ) 1
( PG ) 0
dPGi
PGi
PGi
PD PL ( PG ) PGi 0
i 1
25
ImpactofTransmissionLosses
dCi
PL
Solving for , we get:
( PGi ) 1
( PG ) 0
dPGi
PGi
dCi
1
( PGi )
dPGi
PL
1 P ( PG )
Gi
Define the penalty factor Li for the i th generator
(don't confuse with Lagrangian L!!!)
1
Thepenaltyfactor
Li
attheslackbusis
PL
1 P ( PG )
alwaysunity!
Gi
26
ImpactofTransmissionLosses
The condition for optimal dispatch with losses is then
L1 IC1 ( PG1 ) L2 IC2 ( PG 2 ) Lm ICm ( PGm )
1
. So, if increasing PGi increases
Li
PL
1 P ( PG )
Gi
PL
the losses then
( PG ) 0 Li 1.0
PGi
This makes generator i appear to be more expensive
(i.e., it is penalized). Likewise Li 1.0 makes a generator
appear less expensive.
27
CalculationofPenaltyFactors
Unfortunately, the analytic calculation of Li is
somewhat involved. The problem is a small change
in the generation at PGi impacts the flows and hence
the losses throughout the entire system. However,
using a power flow you can approximate this function
by making a small change to PGi and then seeing how
the losses change:
PL
PL
( PG )
PGi
PGi
1
Li
PL
1
PGi
28
TwoBusPenaltyFactorExample
PL
( PG ) 0.0387
PG 2
PL 0.37 MW
0.037
PG 2
10 MW
L2 0.9627
L2 0.9643
29
ThirtyBusEDExample
Nowconsiderlosses.
Becauseofthepenaltyfactorsthegeneratorincremental
costsarenolongeridentical.
30
AreaSupplyCurve
Theareasupplycurveshowsthecosttoproducethe
nextMWofelectricity,assumingareaiseconomically
dispatched 10.00
7.50
Supply
curvefor
thirtybus
system
5.00
2.50
0.00
0
100
200
Total Area Generation (MW)
300
400
31
EconomicDispatch Summary
Economicdispatchdeterminesthebestwayto
minimizethecurrentgeneratoroperatingcosts.
Thelambdaiterationmethodisagoodapproachfor
solvingtheeconomicdispatchproblem:
generatorlimitsareeasilyhandled,
penaltyfactorsareusedtoconsidertheimpactoflosses.
Economicdispatchisnotconcernedwithdetermining
whichunitstoturnon/off(thisistheunitcommitment
problem).
Basicformofeconomicdispatchignoresthe
transmissionsystemlimitations.
32
SecurityConstrainedED
orOptimalPowerFlow
Transmissionconstraintsoftenlimitabilityto
uselowercostpower.
Suchlimitsrequiredeviationsfromwhatwould
otherwisebeminimumcostdispatchinorderto
maintainsystemsecurity.
Needtosolveorapproximatepowerflowin
ordertoconsidertransmissionconstraints.
33
SecurityConstrainedED
orOptimalPowerFlow
ThegoalofasecurityconstrainedEDor
optimalpowerflow(OPF)istodeterminethe
best waytoinstantaneouslyoperatea
powersystem,consideringtransmission
limits.
Usuallybest =minimizingoperatingcost,
whilekeepingflowsontransmissionbelow
limits.
Inthreebuscasethegenerationatbus3must
belimitedtoavoidoverloadingthelinefrom
bus 3 to bus 2
34
SecurityConstrainedDispatch
Bus 2
-22 MW
4 MVR
22 MW
-4 MVR
Bus 1
1.00 PU
357 MW
179 MVR
1.00 PU
0 MW
37 MVR
100%
194 MW OFF AGC -142 MW
49 MVR
232 MVR AVR ON
145 MW 100%
-37 MVR
Home Area
Bus 3
Scheduled Transactions
100.0 MW
-122 MW
41 MVR
100 MW
124 MW
-33 MVR
1.00 PU
179 MW
89 MVR
448 MW AGC ON
19 MVR AVR ON
Needtodispatchtokeepline
frombus3tobus2fromoverloading
35
MultiAreaOperation
Inmultiareasystem,rules havebeenestablished
regardingtransactionsontielines:
InEasterninterconnection,inprinciple,uptonominal
thermalinterconnectioncapacity,
InWesterninterconnectiontherearemorecomplicated
rules
Theactualpowerthatflowsthroughtheentirenetwork
dependsontheimpedanceofthetransmissionlines,
andultimatelydeterminewhatareacceptablepatterns
ofdispatch:
Canresultinneedtocurtail transactionsthatotherwise
satisfyrules.
Economicallyuncompensatedflowthroughotherareas
isknownasparallelpath orloopflows.
SinceERCOTisonearea,alloftheflowsonAClinesare
insideERCOTandthereisnouncompensatedflowon
AClines.
36
SevenBusCase:Oneline
Systemhas
threeareas
44 MW
-42 MW
-31 MW
0.99 PU
3
1.05 PU
1
106 MW -37 MW
AGC ON
62 MW
1.00 PU
-32 MW
94 MW
AGC ON
79 MW
-77 MW
5
8029 $/MWH
-39 MW
40 MW
1.01 PU
130 MW
40 MVR
168 MW AGC ON
-40 MW
1.04 PU
6
Leftarea
hasone
bus
Toparea
hasfive
buses
-14 MW
32 MW
80 MW
30 MVR
110 MW
40 MVR
38 MW
-61 MW
1.04 PU
31 MW
20 MW
-20 MW
40 MW
1.04 PU
20 MW
200 MW
0 MVR Left Area Cost
4189 $/MWH
200 MW AGC ON
No net
interchange
between
Any areas.
-20 MW
200 MW
0 MVR
201 MW AGC ON
Rightareahasone
bus
37
SevenBusCase:AreaView
Top
40.1 MW
0.0 MW
Area Losses
7.09 MW
-40.1 MW
0.0 MW
Systemhas
40MWof
LoopFlow
Left
Area Losses
0.33 MW
Right
40.1 MW
0.0 MW
Actual
flow
between
areas
Scheduled
flow
Area Losses
0.65 MW
Loopflowcanresultinhigherlosses
38
SevenBus LoopFlow?
Top
4.8 MW
0.0 MW
-4.8 MW
0.0 MW
Left
Area Losses
-0.00 MW
100MWTransaction
betweenLeftandRight
Area Losses
9.44 MW
Right
104.8 MW
100.0 MW
Notethat
Tops
Losseshave
increased
from
7.09MWto
9.44MW
Area Losses
4.34 MW
Transactionhas
actuallydecreased
theloopflow
39