SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Two-axis model
q

iq

uq

iQ

id

D
f

iD

if
uf

ud

Synchronous machines

8 MW diesel-generator

270 MVA turbo-generator

Rotor windings
Field winding

Damping bar

Field winding

Damping bar

PM synchronous machine; 1 MW ship propulsion motor

Voltage, flux-linkage and motion equations

d d

u
R
i
=
+
q
s d
d
dt

u = R i + d q +
s q
d
q
dt

d f

u f = R f i f +
dt

d D

R
i
0
=
+
DD

dt

0 = R i + d Q
QQ

dt

= L i + L i + L i
d d
df f
dD D
d
= L i + L i + L i
df d
f f
fD D
f

D = LdDid + L fDi f + LDiD

q = Lq iq + LqQ iQ

Q = LqQ iq + LQ iQ
J d
3
p

i
=
+ Tm
q d
d q
2
p dt

= d

dt

Space-vector model for induction motor

Rotor frame of reference

i sq

u sq
i sq

Voltage and flux linkage

r
r
d

s
+ j sr
u s = Rs i rs +

dt

r
d

r
r
r
u
R
i
=
r
r
r +

dt

u sq

i sd
i sd

r
s
r
r

= Ls i rs

+ Lm i rr

sd

u sd

= Lm i rs + Lr i rr

The axes in the rotor frame of reference denoted by d and q

d sd

r
i s = isd + jisq
sd = Ls isd + Lmird
usd = Rs isd + dt sq

r
= L i + L i

s
sq
m
rq
sq

=
+
i
i
i
j
r rd
u = R i + d sq +
rq

s sq
sd
sq

=
L
i
+
L
i
t
d
rd
m
sd
r
rd

rq = Lmisq + Lr irq
urd = Rr ird + d rd

dt

d rq
3

Te = p sd isq sq isd
u = Rr irq +
rq
2
dt

Load angle
For synchronous machines, the position angle of the rotor is defined
differently from the angle typically used for induction machine analysis

d
=
dt

where the load angle is the angle

between the excitation voltage vector
up (on q-axis) and stator voltage
vector urs
ud = u s sin
u = u cos
s
q

d
s =
dt

is replaced by

up
usr

Direct-axis equivalent circuit

Assumption

Ldf = LdD = L fD = Lmd

where Lmd is the direct-axis magnetising inductance

d d

=
+
q
u
R
i
s d
d
dt

d f

u f = R f i f +
dt

d D

0
=
+
R
i
DD

dt

(
(
(

)
)
)

d = Ld id + Lm id + i f + iD

f = L f i f + Lm id + i f + iD

= L i + L i + i + i
D D
m d
f
D
D

di d
d

+
+
u
R
i
L
L
id + i f + iD

s d
q
d
m
d
dt
dt

di f
d

+ Lm
id + i f + iD
u f = R f i f + L f
d
d
t
t

diD
d

R
i
L
L
id + i f + iD
0
=
+
+
DD
D
m

dt
dt

Direct-axis equivalent circuit

id

d d
dt

Ld

d
dt

uf

Rf

RD

d
Lmd
dt

d
dt

LD

id + iD + i f

L f

d
dt

if

iD

did
d

+
+

u
R
i
L
L
id + i f + iD
sd
q
m
d
d
dt
dt

di f
d

=
+
+
u
R
i
L
L
id + i f + iD
f
m
f f
f
dt
dt

0 = R i + L diD + L d i + i + i
DD
D
m
D
d
f

t
t
d
d

More accurate equivalent circuit for direct axis

Assumption

Ldf = LdD = Lmd < L fD

where Lmd is the direct-axis magnetising inductance

id

d d
dt

Ld

d
dt

Lmd

Lk

d
dt

d
dt

LD
id + iD + i f

uf

RD

Rf

d
dt

d
dt

iD

L f

if

Quadrature-axis equivalent circuit

Notation

LqQ = Lmq

where Lmq is the quadrature-axis magnetising inductance

d q

+ d
uq = Rs iq +
dt

0 = R i + d Q
QQ

dt

q = Lq iq + Lm iq + iQ

Q = LQ iQ + Lm iq + iQ

diq

d
=
+
+
+
u
R
i
L
L
iq + iQ

q
s q
d
q
m
dt
dt

0 = R i + L diQ + L d i + i
QQ
Q
m
q
Q

dt
dt

Quadrature-axis equivalent circuit

iq

d q
dt

Lq

d
dt

Lmq

RQ

d
dt
LQ

d
dt
iQ

iq + iQ

diq

=
+
+
+
u
R
i
L
L
iq + iQ
s q
d
q
m
q
dt
dt

0 = R i + L diQ + L d i + i
QQ
Q
m
q
Q

dt
dt

Notations and abbreviations

Leakage factors and other abbreviations

df = 1
dD

L2df
Ld L f

L2dD
= 1
Ld LD

fD = 1
qQ = 1

L2fD
L f LD
L2qQ
Lq LQ

f = 1
D = 1

Ldf L fD
LdDL f
LdDL fD
Ldf LD

Synchronous machine in steady state

Steady state => a) Space vectors are constants in rotor frame
of reference

usr = ud + juq = constant

i rs = id + jiq = constant
b) The time-derivatives of flux linkages vanish

d d d q
=
=0
dt
dt
c) The currents of the damper windings are zero
iD = iQ = 0

Space-vector diagram for

a synchronous generator
ud = Rs id q

uq = Rs iq + d

u f = R f i f
d = Ld id + Ldf i f

q = Lq iq

-j Ld Lq i rs
-j Lq i rs

Rs i rs

Ldf i f

usr

usr = Rs i rs + j Ld id Lq iq + up

j Ld id

j sr

up = ju p = j Ldf i f
id = is sin ( + )

iq = is cos ( + )

Lq iq
up

id

iq

if

sr
i rs

Electromagnetic torque
Te =

3
3
p d iq q id = p Ld Lq id iq + Ldf i f iq

2
2

Neglecting the stator resistance

ud = us sin = Lq iq

uq = us cos = Ld id + u p

)(

=>

us cos u p

id =
Ld

iq = us sin

Lq

3 Ld Lq u s cos u p u s sin u p u s sin

Te = p

2
2
2
Ld Lq
Lq

3p
=
2

u su p

u s2 1
1

sin +

sin 2

2 Xq Xd
Xd

Operator inductances of synchronous machine

Laplace transformation of the voltage and flux-linkage equations

d 0
u
R
i
s
=
+
d
d

s d
q
s

f0

u f = R f i f + s f

D0

0 = RDiD + s D

q0

uq = Rs iq + s q
+ d
s

0 = RQ iQ + s Q Q0
s

= L i + L i + L i
d d
df f
dD D
d
= L i + L i + L i
df d
f f
fD D
f

D = LdDid + L fDi f + LDiD

q = Lq iq + LqQ iQ

Q = LqQ iq + LQ iQ

The flux differences expressed using the current differences

d 0
d
s L
d

f 0 = L
df
f
s

D0 LdD
D

q0

q s Lq

=
Q0 LqQ

Q s

Typical initial values:

Ldf
Lf
L fD

i id 0
d s
LdD

if 0

L fD i f

LD
iD0
iD

iq 0

LqQ iq s

LQ
iQ0
iQ s

iD0 = iQ0 = 0;

if 0 =

uf 0
Rf

Quadrature-axis operator inductance

Voltage equation for the damper winding

Q0
Q0
RQ iQ

0 = RQ iQ + s Q
=> Q
=

s
s
s

Flux-linkage equation for the damper winding

iq 0
Q0

Q s = LqQ iq s + LQ iQ

LqQ s

iq 0

=> iQ =
iq

RQ + LQ s
s

Flux-linkage equation for the stator winding

q0
iq 0
iq 0
LqQ s
iq 0

q
= Lq iq
+ LqQ iQ = Lq iq
LqQ
iq

+
s
s
s
R
L
s
s
Q
Q

L2qQ s
iq 0
iq 0

= Lq
iq
=> q
= Lq ( s ) iq

s
RQ + LQ s
s
s

q0

Quadrature-axis subtransient inductance II

Lq ( s ) = Lq

L2qQ s
RQ + LQ s

At the beginning of a transient process

2
2

L
s
L
qQ
qQ
= qQLq
L''q = lim Lq ( s ) = lim Lq
= Lq
s
s
RQ + LQ s
LQ

Lq is called quadrature-axis subtransient inductance

L''q

= Ls +

LQ Lmq
LQ + Lmq

= Ls +

1
1
LQ

1
Lmq

Quadrature-axis operator inductance III

L2qQ s

L2qQ

RQ
Lq ( s ) = Lq
= Lq
=
L
RQ + LQ s
Q
s
1+
RQ

Lq + Lq

LQ
RQ

1+

s
LQ
RQ

L2qQ LQ
LQ RQ

L2qQ LQ
LQ

Lq + Lq
s
1 + qQ
s
''

LQ RQ
1
+
T
R
qs
Q

=
= Lq
= Lq
''
LQ
LQ
1
+
T
q
0s
1+
1+
s
s
RQ
RQ

1
''
T
q
= L''q
1
s + ''
Tq 0
s+

''
where Tq 0 =

LQ
RQ

= TQ0 ;

open-circuit
time constant

Tq'' = qQTQ'' 0 =

L''q
Lq

TQ'' 0

short-circuit
time constant

Quadrature-axis operator inductance IV

An equation needed later for the inverse Laplace transformation

s+

1
Tq''0

A
B
1
1 1
1
1
= ''
= +
=
+ ''
sLq ( s ) Lq
1 s
1 sLq Lq Lq
1
s s + ''
s + ''
s + ''
Tq
Tq
Tq

Short circuit at the terminals of

a PM synchronous motor

B
Br

Hc

Magnetic characteristic
of the permanent magnets

Line voltage and current in a 3-phase short circuit

1000
800
Line voltages [V]

600
400
200
0
-200
-400
-600
-800
-1000
0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

450

500

300

350

400

450

500

Time [ms]

15000

Line currents [A]

10000
5000
0
-5000
-10000
-15000
0

50

100

150

200

250
Time [ms]

Torque
and minimum flux density in permanent magnets
100000
50000

-50000
-100000
-150000
-200000
-250000
-300000
-350000
0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

450

500

300

350

400

450

500

Time [ms]

0.60
0.40
Minimum flux density [T]

Torque [Nm]

0.20
0.00
-0.20
-0.40
-0.60
-0.80
-1.00
-1.20
0

50

100

150

200

250
Time [ms]

Line voltage and current in a 2-phase short circuit

1000
800
Line voltages [V]

600
400
200
0
-200
-400
-600
-800
-1000
0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

450

500

300

350

400

450

500

Time [ms]

10000
8000
Line currents [A]

6000
4000
2000
0
-2000
-4000
-6000
-8000
-10000
-12000
0

50

100

150

200

250
Time [ms]

Torque and minimum flux density in permanent magnets

150000
100000
Torque [Nm]

50000
0
-50000
-100000
-150000
0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

450

500

300

350

400

450

500

Time [ms]

Minimum flux density [T]

0.60
0.40
0.20
0.00
-0.20
-0.40
-0.60
-0.80
0

50

100

150

200

250
Time [ms]

Direct-axis operator inductance

Laplace transformed voltage and flux-linkage equations

d 0
=
+
u
R
i
s
d
d

s d
q
s

f0

u f = R f i f + s f

D0
=
+
0
R
i
s

DD
s

q0

uq = Rs iq + s q
+ d
s

0 = RQ iQ + s Q Q0
s

d 0
d
s L
d

f 0 = L
df
f
s

D0 LdD
D

q0

q s Lq

=
Q0 LqQ

Q s

Ldf
Lf
L fD

i id 0
d s
LdD

if 0

L fD i f

LD
iD0
iD

iq 0

LqQ iq s

LQ
iQ0
iQ s

d-axis flux and field winding current will be solved as functions of

the d-axis current and field winding voltage.

Direct-axis operator inductance II

After eliminating the damper-winding current and field-winding flux linkage,
we get

uf 0

id 0

= Ld ( s ) id
d
+ Gd ( s ) u f

s
s
s

if 0
uf 0

id 0

if
= sGd ( s ) id
+Fd ( s ) u f

s
s
s

d0

Ld(s) is the direct-axis operator inductance

2

LdD
1
df

Ld ( s ) =
L
sL
T
1
1
+

d
D0
d

D ( s)
LDLd
L f Ld

L
fD
+ s2T f 0TD0 1

LDL f

T
f0

L2dDL f + L2df LD 2Ldf L fDLdD

Ld

LDL f L fD

Direct-axis operator inductance and time constants

The denominator D(s) is

D ( s ) = 1 + s T f 0 + TD0

L
fD
2

+ s T f 0TD0 1

L f LD

Using time constants, the direct-axis operator inductance can be written

1 + Td' s )( 1 + Td''s )
(
Ld ( s ) = Ld
( 1 + Td' 0s )( 1 + Td''0s )
The other coefficient operators in the d, if equations are
Gd ( s ) =
Fd ( s ) =

Ldf
Lf
Tf 0
Lf

Tf 0

1 + DTD0 s

( 1 + Td' 0s )( 1 + Td''0s )
1 + TD0 s

( 1 + Td' 0s )( 1 + Td''0s )

'
''
1
+
T
s
1
+
T
(
)(
d
d s)
N ( s)
Ld ( s ) =
= Ld
'
''
D ( s)
T
s
T
1
1
+
+
( d0 )( d0s )

Time constants
Roots of the denominator

D ( s)
s

L2fD
1 1
=0
= 2 + T f 0 + TD0 + T f 0TD0 1

s
L f LD
s

+
T
T
T f 0TD0
1
D0
f0
=T =
1 1 4 fD

2
s
T f 0 + TD0

Lf
1
'
= Td 0 T f 0 + TD0 T f 0 =
s1
Rf
T f 0TD0
1
L
''
= Td 0 fD
= fDTD0 = fD D
s2
T f 0 + TD0
RD

Transient open-circuit
time constant

Subtransient open-circuit
time constant

'
''
1
+
T
s
1
+
T
(
)(
d
d s)
N ( s)
= Ld
Ld ( s ) =
'
''
D ( s)
+
+
1
1
T
s
T
( d0 )( d0s )

Time constants
Roots of the numerator

N ( s)

L''d
1 1
= 2 + dDTD0 + df T f 0 + fD T f 0TD0 = 0
2
s
Ld
s Ld s

dDTD0 + df T f 0
1
=T =
2
s

Td'

L''d
fD T f 0TD0

Ld
1 1 4

dDTD0 + df T f 0

dDTD0 + df T f 0 df T f 0 = df

Lf
Rf

Transient
short-circuit
time constant

L''d
fD T f 0TD0
Ld
L''d fDTD0 L''d Td''0 L''d fD LD
''

=
Td
dDTD0 + df T f 0 Ld df
Ld df Ld df RD

Subtransient
short-circuit
time constant

Direct-axis subtransient and transient inductances

Subtransient inductance is effective at the beginning of a transient process

L''d

= lim Ld ( s ) = Ld
s

L2dDL f + L2df LD 2Ldf L fDLdD

LDL f L2fD

Transient inductance

L'd

Td' Td''
Td'
= Ld
' Ld = df Ld
Ld Td 0
'
''
''
Td 0 + Td 0 Td 1 ''
Ld

= Ld

Td' Td''

Td' 0 Td''0

Direct-axis operator inductance

An equation (Heaviside expansion) needed later for the
inverse Laplace transformation

1
1
s + ' s + ''
Td 0 Td 0 A
B
C
1
1
= ''
= +
+
sLd ( s ) Ld
1
1 s
1
1
s s + ' s + ''
s + ' s + ''
Td Td
Td Td
1 1
1
1
=
+ '
sLd Ld Ld
1
s + '
Td

1
1
1
+ '' '
Ld Ld
1

s + ''

Td

Reactances and time constants

Typic al value s
Turbogenerators
(with solid
rotor)

p<8

p>8

p<8

p>8

Salient-pole
motors
with damper
winding

Salient-pole generators
with damper winding

Salient-pole generators
without damper winding

xd (p.u.)

1.52.5

0.951.78

0.831.6

0.981.7

0.861.5

0.852.5

xd' (p.u.)

0.150.35

0.150.37

0.230.34

0.20.35

0.250.4

0.220.56

x"d (p.u.)

0.10.25

0.080.24

0.160.24

0.20.35

0.250.4

0.110.32

xq (p.u.)

1.22.3

0.460.91

0.570.89

0.520.9

0.450.8

0.51.5

x"q (p.u.)

0.10.25

0.080.26

0.170.25

0.520.9

0.450.8

0.110.32

Td0
' (s)

515

210

4.210

210

1.58

17

Td' (s)

0.62.0

0.42.5

1.02.0

0.52.5

0.552.5

0.21.5

T"d (s)

0.020.6

0.020.08

0.020.05

0.0040.06

Ta (s)

0.10.7

0.040.25

0.070.15

0.090.6

0.10.6

0.020.15

Sudden three-phase short circuit

Current
measurement

Torque
measurement

Grid

uf

if

Sudden three-phase short circuit

Calculation of short-circuit currents is needed for
design and protection of electrical networks
dimensioning of switch-gear
design of electrical machines
Calculation of dynamic forces and torques is needed for
mechanical dimensioning of the machine, its coupling and
foundations
Two-phase short circuits occur more often than threephase short circuits.
Three-phase short-circuit tests are used for determining
machine parameters.

Basic conditions
No-load conditions before the short circuit

id 0 = iq 0 = iD0 = iQ 0 = 0
u s 0 = uq 0 = d 0 = Ldf i f 0

q 0 = 0;

ud 0 = 0

Three-phase short-circuit at t =0:

ud = uq = 0
uf = Rf if 0

Speed of the rotor is assumed to be constant

Equations for transient analysis

Laplace transformed voltage and flux-linkage equations

d 0
u
R
i
s
=
+
d
d

s d
q
s

f0

u f = R f i f + s f

D0

0 = RDiD + s D

q0

uq = Rs iq + s q
+ d
s

0 = RQ iQ + s Q Q0
s

d 0
d
s L
d

f 0 = L
df
f
s

D0 LdD
D

q0

q s Lq

=
Q0 LqQ

Q s

Ldf
Lf
L fD

i id 0
d s
LdD

if 0

L fD i f

LD
iD0
iD

iq 0

LqQ iq s

LQ
iQ0
iQ s

Equations II
Stator flux-linkages and excitation current as functions of stator currents
and excitation voltage

uf 0

id 0

= Ld ( s ) id
d
+ Gd ( s ) u f

s
s
s

iq 0
q0

= Lq ( s ) iq
q

s
s

d0

if 0

uf 0

id 0

if
= sGd ( s ) id
+Fd ( s ) u f

s
s
s

Modelling of the short circuit

Laplace transformed voltage and flux-linkage equations for
stator winding after substituting the zero initial values

d 0
=
+
0
R
i
s
d

sd
q

0 = Rs iq + s q + d

After substituting the fluxes

[ Rs + sLd ( s ) ] id Lq ( s ) iq = 0

u s0
Ld ( s ) id + Rs + sLq ( s ) iq =
s

d0

= Ld ( s ) id

d
s

q = Lq ( s ) iq

Solution for the stator currents

u s0 Lq ( s )
id =
s D ( s)

i = u s0 Rs + sLd ( s )
q
s
D ( s)

where D(s) is the characteristic polynomial

D ( s ) = [ Rs + sLd ( s )] Rs + sLq ( s ) + 2 Ld ( s ) Lq ( s )
2

1
Rs2
1
2
= Ld ( s ) Lq ( s ) s + sRs
+

+ +
L
s
L
s
L
s
L
s
(
)
(
)
(
)
(
)
q
d
d
d

L''d = lim Ld ( s ) ,

Simplifications
2
2
2
D ( s ) Ld ( s ) Lq ( s ) s + s +
Ta

where Ta =

is the armature short-circuit time constant

1
2
<<

Ta2

L''q = lim Lq ( s )

2
1
1
Rs '' + ''
Ld Lq

2L''d L''q
Rs L''d + L''q

1
2
=> D ( s ) Ld ( s ) Lq ( s ) s + +
Ta

Equations for the currents

id =

u s0

1
2
sLd ( s ) s + +
Ta

iq =

u s0

1
2
Lq ( s ) s + +
Ta

Inverse Laplace transform for the currents

Inverse transformation of a product of two functions is obtained
using the convolution integral

L1 f1 ( s ) f2 ( s ) = f 1 ( t ) f 2 ( t )
where
t

f 1 ( t ) f 2 ( t ) = f 1 ( ) f 2 ( t ) dt = f 1 ( t ) f 2 ( ) dt

L1 {id ( s )} = u s 0

1 1
1
1
L
L

2
sL
s

(
)
d

1
2

s
+
+

T
a

Inverse Laplace transform for the currents II

After the convolution integration, the currents on the d- and q-axis

1 1
1 t
+

id = u s0
e
Xd X 'd Xd
iq =

Td'

1
1
+ '' ' e t
Xd Xd

u s0 t Ta
e
sin t
''
Xq

Current in stator phase a

isa = id cosr iq sin r ;

r = t + r 0

Td''

1 t Ta
'' e
cos t
Xd

Current in phase a
1 1
1 t
isa = u s0
+

e
Xd X 'd Xd
u
+ s''0 e t Ta sin t sin r
Xq

Td'

1
1
+ '' ' e t
Xd Xd

Substituting the rotor angle r = t + r 0

Td''

1 t Ta
cos t cosr
'' e
Xd

gives

1 1
1 t Td' 1
1 t Td''

isa = u s0
+

+ '' ' e
cos ( t + r 0 )
e
Xd X 'd Xd
Xd Xd

N

 

I
II
III

1 1
1 t Ta
1 1
1 t Ta

'' + '' e
cos ( 2 t + r 0 )
cosr 0 '' '' e
2 Xd Xq
2 Xd Xq

V
IV

Current in phase a

The components of the phase current

I

steady-state short-circuit current

II transient component that is damped by the time constant Td'

III subtransient component that is damped by the time constant Td''
IV DC component that is damped by the time constant Ta
V double-frequency component that is damped by the time constant Ta

Components of a phase current

I

II

Current

III

IV
0.00

0.10

0.20

0.30
Time [s]

0.40

0.50

Subtransient period
I

II

Current

III

IV
0.00

0.01

0.01
Time [s]

0.02

0.02

Three-phase short circuit; field current

if

if 0
s

= sGd ( s ) id

Substituting the d-axis current and doing the inverse transformation,

we obtain

Xd

t /T ' X d
t /Ta
d
cos t
i f = i f 0 1+ ' 1 e
' 1 e
Xd

Xd

Three-phase short circuit at the terminals

of a 8.2 MVA synchronous generator
Before the short circuit, the generator
is operating at its rated operation point.
S = 8.2 MVA
cosfii = 0.8 capacitive
Us = 6300 V
f = 50 Hz
Uf = 150 V
A three-phase short-circuit occurs at
t =20 ms.
=>

Us = 0
Uf = 150 V

After the short circuit, the shaft torque is kept constant. The speed of
the rotor is defined by the equation of motion.

Three-phase short circuit; 8.2 MVA generator

10000
8000
Line voltages [V]

6000
4000
2000
0
-2000
-4000
-6000
-8000
-10000
0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

100

120

140

160

Time [ms]

20000

Line currents [A]

15000
10000
5000
0
-5000
-10000
-15000
0

20

40

60

80
Time [ms]

Three-phase short circuit; 8.2 MVA generator

1800
1600
Field current [A]

1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
0

20

40

60

80
Time [ms]

100

120

140

160

Three-phase short circuit; 8.2 MW generator

600000
400000

0
-200000
-400000
-600000
-800000
-1000000
0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

100

120

140

160

Time [ms]

84
83
82
Speed [rad/s]

Torque [Nm]

200000

81
80
79
78
77
76
75
74
0

20

40

60

80
Time [ms]

Two-phase short circuit at the terminals of

a 8.2 MVA synchronous generator
A two-phase short circuit is most
severe, if it occurs at a time instant
when the voltage between the
shorted lines is zero. At this instant,
the stator flux associated with the
shorted branch has a maximum
value. In the short circuit, the flux
freezes to this maximum value
and the rotor rotates in a static,
slowly decaying flux component.

Two-phase short circuit; 8.2 MVA generator

10000
8000
Line voltages [V]

6000
4000
2000
0
-2000
-4000
-6000
-8000
-10000
0

20

40

60

20000

80

100

120

140

160

100

120

140

160

Time [ms]

Line currents [A]

15000
10000
5000
0
-5000
-10000
-15000
-20000
0

20

40

60

80
Time [ms]

Two-phase short circuit; 8.2 MVA generator

1600

Field current [A]

1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
0

20

40

60

80
Time [ms]

100

120

140

160

Two-phase short circuit; 8.2 MVA generator

500000
0
-500000
-1000000
-1500000
0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

100

120

140

160

Time [ms]

83
82
Rotation speed [rad/s]

Air-gap torque [Nm]

1000000

81
80
79
78
77
76
75
74
73
0

20

40

60

80
Time [ms]

Asynchronous operation of
synchronous machines
Current
measurement

Torque
measurement

Grid
if
uf=Rif
R

M =

s
p

(1 S) ;

S0

Asynchronous operation of a synchronous machine

Asynchronous operation
After a drop out of synchronism caused, for instance,
by an over load or loss of excitation
A self-starting synchronous motor when starting
Typically, the field winding is either short-circuited u f = 0
or connected in series with a resistor.

Stator voltage in rotor frame of reference

= ( 1 S ) st + 0

Constant slip

Stator voltage in stator and rotor frames of reference

us = u e j(st +u )
s
usr

= u s e j(u 0 )e jSst

d- and q-components
ud = u s cos (S st + u 0 )

uq = u s sin (Sst + u 0 )

Complex notation (phasors)

u = u s e

j( u 0 ) jS s t

ud = u
u = ju
q

Laplace transformed voltage equations and

the definition of the operator inductances
d0

ud = Rs id + s d s q

u = R i + s q 0 +
sq
d
q

q
s

uf 0

id 0
d0

= Ld ( s ) id
d
+Gd ( s ) u f

s
s
s

q 0 = L s i iq 0
q ( ) q

q
s
s

The initial values of the flux linkages are put to zero, and the
Laplace variable s is replaced by jSs. Field winding is assumed
to be short-circuited, uf = 0

Solution of stator fluxes (Rs = 0)

Voltage equations
ud = u = Rs i d + jS s d ( 1 S ) s q

uq = ju = Rs i q + jSs q + ( 1 S )s d

Solution of flux linkages after neglecting the stator resistance Rs 0

u = jS s d ( 1 S ) s q

u = j ( 1 S ) s d S s q

=>

Instantaneous flux linkages

ud = u s cos (S st + u 0 )

uq = u s sin (S st + u 0 )

=>

u
( 1 2S ) s

=
=

u
j

d j 1 2S 2
s
(
) s

= j ( 1 2S ) s u = u
q j ( 1 2S ) s2
s

u s

S t +

=
cos
s

u
0
d
2

q = u s sin ( S st + u 0 )

Solution of stator currents

Current components from the flux linkages

d = Ld ( jSs ) i d

q = Lq ( jSs ) i q

=>

j d +
j
u
u
i d =
=
e 2
s Ld ( jSs ) s Ld ( jSs )

u
u
j q
i =
=

e
q
s Lq ( jSs )
s Lq ( jSs )

Where d and q are the arguments of the operator inductances.

Instantaneous currents

u s

cos

=
+

i
S
t
s

u
d
0
d L ( jS )
2

s d
s

u s
iq =
cos Sst + u q 0

s Lq ( jSs )

A phase current

isa = id cos iq sin

Phase current
isa =

u s

cos S st + u d 0 cos ( 1 S ) st + 0
2
s Ld ( jSs )

u s

cos S st + u q 0 cos ( 1 S ) st + 0
2

s Lq ( jSs )

Modification using the identity

cos x cos y =

1
cos ( x y ) + cos ( x + y )
2

The phase current

isa =
+

u s

t
+

S
t
+

+
+
cos
cos
1
2
2

(
)

0
u
d
s
u
d
2
2

u s

t
S
t
cos
cos
1
2
2
+

(
)

0
u
q
s
u
q

2
2

2s Ld ( jS s )
2s Lq ( jSs )

is of the form

isa = isa1 cos ( st + 1 ) + isa 2 cos ( 1 2S ) st + 2

A closer study of the phase current components

Fundamental frequency component in phasor notation

i sa 1

u s
=
2 s

j u j t
1
1
+

e 2 e s
Ld ( jS s ) Lq ( jS s )

Complex conjugate of the other current phasor

i *sa 2

u s
=
2 s

j u 2 0 j( 12S ) t
1
1
2 e
s

e
Ld ( jS s ) Lq ( jS s )

Phase current

u s
1
1
cos ( st + 1 )
+
isa =
2 s Ld ( jS s ) Lq ( jS s )
u s
1
1
+

cos [( 1 2S ) st + 2 ]
2 s Ld ( jS s ) Lq ( jS s )

Electromagnetic torque
Te =

3
p d iq q id
2

Flux linkages

u s

d = cos S st + u 0 2

q = u s sin ( S st + u 0 )

s
Currents

u s

id = L ( jS ) cos S st + u d 0 2
s d
s

u s
iq =
cos Sst + u q 0

s Lq ( jSs )

Electromagnetic torque II

3
p d iq q id
2
3 pu s2

+ + cos 2S t + 2 2
=
cos

s
u
0
d
2
2

4 s2 Ld ( jS s )

Te =

3 pu s2

4 s2 Lq ( jS s )

+ cos 2S t + 2 2
cos

s
u
q
0

2
2

The torque is of the form

Te = Te 1 + Te 2 cos ( 2S st + T )

The average torque is

+ cos +
cos
2
d

3 pu s2
1
1
2
2 3 pu s

+
+
Te 1 =
Im

=
2
2

L
S
L
S
j
j
4 s Ld ( jS s )
Lq ( jS s ) 4 s
s)
q(
s)
d (

Operator inductances and slip frequency

Direct axis

1 1
1
1
=
+ '
sLd ( s ) sLd Ld Ld
1
+
s

'
Td
1

=>

1
1
1
+ '' '
Ld Ld
1

s + ''

Td

1
jS s
jS s
1
1 1
1
1
=
+ '
+ '' '
Ld ( jS s ) Ld Ld Ld
1 Ld Ld
1
jS s + '
jS s + ''
Td
Td

Quadrature axis

1 1
1
1
jSs
1
1 1
1
=
+ ''
=
+ ''
=>
sLq ( s ) sLq Lq Lq

Lq ( jSs ) Lq Lq Lq

s+ 1

jS + 1
s
''
Tq''

T
q

The average electromagnetic torque

3 pu s2 1
L'd
Te 1 =
' 1
2
Ld
8 s Ld

S sTd' +

1
S sTd'

L''d
1
2
+ '' 1 '
Ld
Ld S T '' +
s d

1
S sTd''

L''q
1
2

+ '' 1
1

Lq
Lq S T '' +
s q
''
S sTq
consists of three terms similar to the steady-state torque of an
induction machine

Te 1 = TpI

where

2
S SpI
+
SpI
S
SpI =

+ TpII

1
;
'
sTd

2
SpII
S
+
SpII
S
SpII =

+ TpIII

1
;
''
sTd

2
S
SpIII

SpIII
S

SpIII =

1
;
''
sTq

Average torque in asynchronous operation

a) Total torque;
Stator resistance is
taken into account
b) Total torque;
Stator resistance
is neglected
c) Torque caused by the
damper winding
d) Torque caused by the
field winding

Influence of an external resistance connected

in series with the field winding

Without external resistance

With an external resistance

The pulsating torque

T e2

j 2 u 2 0 j2S t
3 pu s2
1
1
2 e

s
e
=

4 s2 Ld ( jS s ) Lq ( jS s )

The reason for the pulsating torque is the saliency of the rotor.
If

Ld ( jS s ) = Lq ( jS s )

=>

Te 2 = 0

At the synchronous speed, this component gives the reluctance torque.

Its peak value is

S=0

=>

3
pu
1
s 1

Te 2 =
4 s2 Ld Lq

Amplitude of the pulsating torque

as a function of slip

Fast and slow starting

''
a) Starting time 10 Td 0.5 s
'
b) Starting time 100 Td 100 s

Starting of a synchronous motor

Current
measurement

Torque and speed

measurement

Grid
if
uf=Rif
R

2.5 MW synchronous motor

Rated values:
Us = 5500 V
Is = 290 A
P = 2.5 MW
fs = 50 Hz
When starting:
Tshaft = 0
Rext = 9 Rf

Starting of a 2.5 MW synchronous motor

6000

Line currents [A]

4000
2000
0
-2000
-4000
-6000
-8000
0

100

200

300

400

500

300

400

500

Time [ms]

600

Field current [A]

400
200
0
-200
-400
-600
-800
0

100

200
Time [ms]

Starting of a 2.5 MW synchronous motor

200000

100000
50000
0
-50000
-100000
-150000
0

100

200

300

400

500

300

400

500

Time [ms]

70
60
Rotation speed [rad/s]

Air-gap torque [Nm]

150000

50
40
30
20
10
0
0

100

200
Time [ms]

Starting of a 2.5 MW synchronous motor

Space vector of stator current
7500

5000

Im [A]

2500

-2500

-5000

-7500
-7500 -5000 -2500

0
Re [A]

2500

5000

7500

Asynchronous operation of a 8.2 MVA

synchronous generator
Rated values:
Us = 6300 V
fs = 50 Hz
Is = 940 A
If = 215 A
S = 8.2 MVA
Under fault:
Uf = 0 V
Tshaft = TN

Asynchronous
operation of a synchronous generator
85
Rotation speed [rad/s]

84
83
82
81
80
79
78
77
76
75
0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

1.5

2.0

2.5

Time [ms]

7.0

Rotor angle [el. rad]

6.0
5.0
4.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
0.0
0.0

0.5

1.0

Time[ms]
[s]
Time

Asynchronous operation of a synchronous generator

50000

Air-gap torque [Nm]

0
-50000
-100000
-150000
-200000
-250000
-300000
0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5
Time [s]

2.0

2.5

Asynchronous operation of a synchronous generator

5000
4000

Line current [A]

3000
2000
1000
0
-1000
-2000
-3000
-4000
-5000
0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

1.5

2.0

2.5

Time [s]

500
400
Field current [A]

300
200
100
0
-100
-200
-300
-400
-500
0.0

0.5

1.0
Time [s]

Asynchronous operation of a synchronous generator

Operating characteristics
Terminal voltage
Supply frequency
Terminal current
Peak current
Power factor
Slip-ring voltage
Slip-ring current
Rotational speed
Air-gap torque

6300.
50.0
1652.1
3731.7
-0.4784
0.00
196.3
755.3
-99890

V
Hz
A
A
Ind.
V
A
1/min
Nm

Equations of synchronous machine using

load angle
Load angle is the angle between the
excitation voltage vector (on q-axis)
and stator voltage vector.
In a balanced stiff three-phase network,
the space vector of stator voltage is

juq

us = u s e j(st +u )

us

ud

The angle of the rotor presented in stator frame of reference is

2
The angular speed of the rotor, its derivative and slip are

= st + u +

d
d
=
= s +
;
dt
dt

d d 2 d 2
= 2 = 2 ;
dt dt
dt

S=

s
1 d
=
s
s dt

Equations of synchronous machine using

load angle
The equation of motion becomes

3
J d 2
p d iq q id =
+ Tm
2
2
p dt

and the voltage equations are

d d
d

=
+

u
R
i

q
s d
s q
d
dt
dt

d q
d
u = R i +
+ s d +
d
s q
q
dt
dt
The dq-components of the balanced three-phase voltage are
ud = u s sin
u = u cos
s
q

Small-signal analysis for synchronous machines

An electrical machine is seldom in a real steady state. There is always
some variation in the shaft torque and supply voltage that causes
disturbances to the operation of the machine. If the variations are small in
amplitude, equations can be linearised to the steady state operation point.
The variables are presented as a sum of a steady state value and
small variation, for instance
i d = id 0 + id ;

= s +

The voltage equations for the steady-state variables are

ud 0 = Rs id 0 s q 0

uq 0 = Rs iq 0 + s d 0

Equations for the voltage variations

For the disturbed variables, the voltage equations are

d d

+
=
+
+
( s + ) q 0 + q
u
u
R
i
i
(
)
d
s d0
d
d 0
dt

d q
u + u = R i + i +
+ ( s + )( d 0 + d )
q
s q0
q
q 0
dt

Subtracting the two sets of equations and assuming that the products
of two small variations can be neglected, we get the equations for
the variations

d d

=
+
s q q 0
u
R
i
s d
d
dt

d q
u = R i +
+ s d + d 0
s q
q
dt

Laplace transformation of the voltage variations

The equations are linear and easy to Laplace transform

u d = Rs id + s d s  q q 0 


u q = Rs iq + s q + s  d + d 0 
The corresponding flux-linkage equations are

 d = Ld ( s ) id + G ( s ) u f


 q = Lq ( s ) iq
Combining the equations, we get

u d = Rs + sLd ( s ) id s Lq ( s ) iq + sG ( s ) u f q 0 

u q = Rs + sLq ( s ) iq + s Ld ( s ) id + sG ( s ) u f + d 0 

Variation of the torque (p=1)

The equation for the varying torque is

3
d

+ Tm0 + Tm
( d 0 + d ) iq 0 + iq q 0 + q ( id 0 + id ) = J
2
dt

) (

The corresponding steady-state torque equation is

3
d 0 iq 0 q 0 id 0 = Tm0
2
Subtracting the two equations, we get

3
d
d 0 iq + iq 0 d q 0 id id 0 q Tm = J

2
dt

Variation of the torque II

The Laplace transformation of the torque variation is

3
d 0 iq + iq 0  d q 0 id id 0  q Tm = sJ 

2
Substituting the flux-linkage equations, the torque becomes

3
d 0 id 0 Lq ( s ) iq q 0 iq 0 Ld ( s ) id + iq 0G ( s ) u f Tm = sJ 

Variation of the voltage components

If the machine is connected to a balanced stiff line voltage, the variation
of the load angle causes a variation in the voltage components

ud 0 + ud = u s sin ( 0 + ) = u s sin 0 cos + u s cos 0 sin

= ud 0 cos + uq 0 sin ud 0 + uq 0

uq 0 + uq = u s cos ( 0 + ) = u s cos 0 cos u s sin 0 sin

= uq 0 cos ud 0 sin uq 0 ud 0

ud = uq 0 = u s cos 0

uq = ud 0 = u s sin 0

Forced variations of a synchronous machine

The variations are often periodic. This is the case, for instance, for the
shaft torque of a diesel driven generator. For sinusoidal disturbance
Tm = Tm0 + Tm cos ( t + T )

If the sinusoidal disturbance in the torque is small, the machine behaves

linearly and the other parameters will also vary sinusoidally. We can use
phasor variables, for instance
id = id 0 + Re ( i d )

where

i d = id e j( t +id )

The Laplace transformed equations derived previously can be changes

to phasor equations by replacing the Laplace variable s with the
frequency j. The variation of the rotation speed can be written

d
d
= s +
dt
dt

=>

= s =

d
dt

=>

= j

Voltages and flux linkages

The voltage equations, assuming that uf is constant and Rs=0, are

ud = j Ld ( j ) i d s Lq ( j ) i q q 0 j

uq = j Lq ( j ) i q + s Ld ( j ) i d + d 0 j
On the other hand

ud = uq 0

uq = ud 0
The steady-state flux linkages (Rs=0) and voltages are related as

uq 0

d 0 =
s

= ud 0
q 0
s

Current phasor
Combining the three previous equations

ud 0

j
u
L
i
L
i
(
)
(
)
d
d
s q
q
q0
s

u
u = j L ( j ) i + L ( j ) i + q 0 j
q
q
s d
d
d 0
s

=>

j ud 0

u
q 0
= j Ld ( j ) i d s Lq ( j ) i q
s

u + j uq 0 = L j i +j L j i

s d( )
d
q( )
q
d0

From which we can solve the currents

ud 0

i
=

d
s Ld ( j )

uq 0
i =

q
s Lq ( j )

Equation of motion in phasor form

The equation of motion in phasor form is

3
d 0 id 0 Lq ( j ) i q q 0 iq 0 Ld ( j ) i d T m = 2 J

2
After substituting the fluxes and currents

uq 0

d 0 =
s

= ud 0
q 0
s

ud 0

i
=
d L ( j )
s d

uq 0
i =

q
s Lq ( j )

we get
2

u
ud20
3
q0

+ uq 0 id 0
ud 0 iq 0 T m = 2 J
2s s Lq ( j )
s Ld ( j )

Equation of motion in phasor form II

The term

3
uq 0 id 0 ud 0 iq 0
2

can be expressed with the aid of the steady-state reactive power

3
3
uq 0 id 0 ud 0 iq 0 = u s cos 0 id 0 u s sin 0 iq 0
2
2
3
= u s cos 0 is sin ( 0 + ) u s sin 0 is cos ( 0 + )
2
3
= u s is sin ( 0 + ) cos 0 cos ( 0 + ) sin 0
2
3
3

= us is sin ( 0 + ) 0 = u s is sin = Q0
2
2
The torque equation becomes
2

u
Q
ud20
3
3
q
0
2
0
J +
= T m

2
2
s 2 s Lq ( j ) 2 s Ld ( j )

Complex synchronisation coefficient

To shorten the notation, a complex synchronisation coefficient
is defined
2
1
3 uq 0
3 ud20
Ks ( ) + j Kd ( ) = Q0

2 sLq ( j ) 2 sLd ( j )
s

and the equation of motion becomes

K s ( ) 2 J + j K d ( ) = T m

where Kd represents damping and Ks is the synchronising torque.

Kd and Ks are frequency-dependent but their values can be

calculated for a certain excitation frequency.

Complex synchronisation coefficient II

1 3 u 2
3 u s2
1
2
2
s
+
Ks =
cos 0 Re
sin 0 Re
+

2
2
L
L
j
2
j
s 2 s

(
)
(
)

s
d

Q0

3 u s2 2
1
1
2
cos 0 Im
Kd =
+ sin 0 Im

2
2 s
Ld ( j )
Lq ( j )

In normal operation,

0 < 300

=>

cos 2 0 >> sin 2 0

This means that the properties of the damper winding on the

quadrature axis are important from the point of view of damping.

Numerical study of a synchronous generator

using small forced vibrations
Forced oscillation of
the mechanical rotation
speed

m = m0 + m cos t
Rated values
S = 8.2 MVA
fs = 50 Hz
Us = 6300 V
Is = 750 A
cos = 0.80
If = 215 A

Forced oscillation of speed and the resulting

oscillation in air-gap torque ( = 50 Hz)
Speed [rad/s]

100
80
60
40
20

Torque [Nm]

0
300

0
-20000
-40000
-60000
-80000
-100000
-120000
-140000
300

350

400

450

500

450

500

Time [ms]

350

400
Time [ms]

Power transfer in the forced oscillation

Variation of speed:

= cos t

Mass of inertia:

d 2
TJ = J 2 = J sin t
dt

Viscous damping:

Td = d

Spring constant:

Tk = k = k
sin t

Total torque:

Ttot

d
= d cos t
dt

= J sin t + d cos t + k sin t

Instantaneous power: P = Ttot

sin t
= cos t J sin t + d cos t + k

Average power of the forced oscillation

Harmonic power [kW]

Instantaneous harmonic power ( = 50 Hz)

100
50
0
-50
-100
-150
300

350

400

450

500

Time [ms]

Pave

1 b

=
cos t J sin t + d cos t + k
sin t dt

tb t a t

1 2
d
2

Is the harmonic power always negative,

i.e. is the damping always positive?

If the harmonic power is positive,

the system tends to increase the
oscillation and the system may be
unstable.
From the harmonic power, we can
calculate the damping coefficient
for the system, which should be
positive.

12
Damping coefficient [kNms]

If the harmonic power is negative,

the machine takes mechanical
power from the shaft forcing the
oscillation. There is damping that
tries to reduce the oscillation.

10
8
6
4
2
0
-2
0

20

40

60

80

Excitation frequency [Hz]

100

Damping coefficient after reducing the

resistance of the stator winding to zero

Damping coefficient [kNms]

12
10
8
6
4
2
0
-2
0

20

40

60

80

Excitation frequency [Hz]

100

Mechanical model for torsional vibrations

of a diesel-generator

Synchronous
generator

Coupling

Diesel engine

Equation of motion for a mass of inertia

d( n n +1 )
d( n n 1 )
d 2 n
d n
+
+
+
Jn
B
C
C
n
n
n 1
dt
dt
dt
dt 2
+ Kn ( n n +1 ) + Kn 1( n n 1 ) = Tn (t )

Torsional vibrations
Explanations for the terms in the torque balance equation

d 2 n
Jn
dt 2

Inertia torque of mass n

d n
Bn
dt

Mechanical friction torque acting on mass n

Cn

d( n n+1 )
dt

K n ( n n + 1 )

Tn (t )

Damping torque component in the shaft

between masses n and n+1
Spring constant of the shaft between
masses n and n+1
Active torque on a mass of inertia.
Electromagnetic torque in the electrical machine.
Piston torque from a cylinder of the diesel engine.

Torque produced by one of the 18 cylinders

100
80

Torque [kNm]

60
40
20
0
-20
-40
-60
0.00

0.05

0.10

0.15

0.20

Time [s]

Fundamental frequency is 6.25 Hz

18 cylinders => largest shaft-torque harmonic at 112.5 Hz

Natural vibration frequencies and modes

Equation of motion in matrix form

d2
d
J 2 + C + K = ;
dt
dt

= 1, 2, 3, ..., N

Natural vibration modes and frequencies; trial function

= e t

d2
d
J 2 e t + C e t + Ket = 2 Je t + Ce t + Ket = 0
dt
dt
=>

2 J + C + K = 0

Non-zero solutions for possible if satisfies the characteristic

equation

det 2 J + C + K = 0

Natural frequencies and modes

The roots of the characteristic equation are typically complex numbers

i = i + j i

i is a natural frequency of the mechanical system, i is associated with

the damping of a vibration mode i. All i should have negative values,
otherwise the system is unstable.
Typically, the damping terms are so small that they can be neglected
if one is only interested in the natural frequencies. In such a case,
matrix C is left out of the analysis.

Results from the combined electromechanical model

Rated values
S = 8.2 MVA
fs = 50 Hz
Us = 6300 V
Is = 750 A
cos = 0.80
If = 215 A

Torque versus torsion angle characteristic

for the non-linear coupling
500
450

Torque [kNm]

400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
0.00

0.02

0.04

0.06

0.08

0.10

0.12

0.14

Torsion angle [rad]

Coupling:

Rated torque 110 kNm;

Stands 330 kNm

The mass of inertia of the synchronous generator is about twice as

large as the mass of inertia of the diesel engine.

Two-phase short circuit in the line

Current and voltage

measurement
Grid

Torque and speed

measurement

Z
if

uf

Diesel engine

Voltages and currents at the terminals of the machine

Terminal voltage [V]

10000
7500
5000
2500
0
-2500
-5000
-7500
-10000
0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

180

200

140

160

180

200

220

Time [ms]

8000
Terminal current [A]

6000
4000
2000
0
-2000
-4000
-6000
-8000
0

20

40

60

80

100

120

Time [ms]

220

Magnetisation current [A]

Field-winding current and the torques

1000
900
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

180

200

220

140

160

180

200

220

Time [ms]

600
Torque [kNm]

400
200
0
-200
-400
-600
-800
0

20

40

60

80

100

120

Time [ms]
Air gap

Coupling

Synchronisation trial at phase opposition

Current and voltage

measurement
Grid

Torque and speed

measurement

Z
if

uf

Diesel engine

Voltages and currents at the terminals of the machine

Terminal voltage [V]

10000
7500
5000
2500
0
-2500
-5000
-7500
-10000
0

20

40

60

80

120

140

160

180

200

220

140

160

180

200

220

Time [ms]

15000
Terminal current [A]

100

10000
5000
0
-5000
-10000
-15000
-20000
0

20

40

60

80

100

120

Time [ms]

Magnetisation current [A]

Field-winding current and the torques

2000
1800
1600
1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
-200
0

20

40

60

80

120

140

160

180

200

220

140

160

180

200

220

Time [ms]

1000
Torque [kNm]

100

500
0
-500
-1000
-1500
0

20

40

60

80

100

120

Time [ms]
Air gap

Coupling

Magnetic field analysis for electrical machines

A complete description of the electromagnetic field requires
5 field variables (E, D, H, B, J).
Maxwells equations

D =
B = 0
B
E =
t
D
H = J +
t

Material conditions

D = E
J =E
B = H
For the frequencies considered,

D
0
t

In addition, we need the boundary conditions for the fields.

Vector potential A and scalar potential

Definitions:

A = B

H = J

B = H
B = A

J = E

E = t

A

E=
t

=>

A = J

=>

A

J =
t

=>

A
A +
+ = 0
t

The 5 original field variables and their 15 components have

been compressed to 2 potentials with altogether 4 components.

Boundary and symmetry conditions

Vector potential on the outer surfaces of a solution region is
typically
A
A = A0
or
=0
n
According to the first condition, the flux through the surface is
zero. The second condition states that the flux density is
orthogonal to the surface.
A=0
A
In the analysis of electrical
machines, symmetry of the field is
often utilised. The vector potential
is forced to be periodic on the
boundaries of the solution sector.

Pole 2 A

A=0

Pole 1

A1 = A2
A

Ferromagnetic non-linearity of iron

Iron is used to increase the magnetic flux of a machine. Its
permeability is a very complicated function of flux density.
=> The field equations become non-linear
1.50

1.00

B [T]

0.50

0.00

-0.50

-1.00

-1.50
-1500

-1000

-500

500

1000

1500

H [A/m]

Iron sample in alternating field

Field in the yoke of electrical machine

Modelling motion
Usually, there is a slotting
on both stator and rotor
surfaces, and there is no
reference frame in which
the motion would not affect
the material properties.
The stator and rotor fields
must be solved in their own
reference frames and
forced to be continuous
over the air gap.

A
A +
+ = 0
t

A'
A' + '
+ ' ' = 0
'
t

In air gap:

A = A'

Simplification I Two-dimensional field

The solution of a time- and motion-dependent, non-linear,
three-dimensional magnetic field requires too much
computation power and time.
The field is usually assumed to be two-dimensional,
independent from the coordinate parallel to shaft of the
machine (z-direction).
The solution task is reduced significantly as the vector
potential has only one component and the scalar potential is a
simple, linear function of the coordinate parallel to the shaft.

A = A( x , y , t )e z

J = J( x , y , t )e z

u (t )
=
z + 0
l

=>

u (t )
A( x , y , t )
1

A( x , y , t ) +
=
l
t

Circuit equations
Electrical machines are typically supplied from voltage
sources. The voltage induced in a winding should be
integrated along the winding
b

1
A

u = dl = J +
dl
t

a
a

The first term gives the resistive voltage drop in the winding.
The second term is the time derivative of the flux-linkage. In a
2D model, we do not know the vector potential in the endwindings. This part of the flux linkage is approximated using
an end-winding inductance Lew.
bi

di
A

+
u = Ri + Lew
dl
dt i a t
i

The summation over i

covers the two-dimensional
conductors in core region.

System of field and circuit equations

The field equation
ui ( t )
A( x , y , t )
1

A( x , y , t )
+
=0
l
t

and the circuit equations for the windings

bi

di
A
u = Ri + Lew
+
dl
dt i a t
i

are solved together as a system of equations.

Simplifications II Time-dependence
Sometimes, the time-variation of the field can be assumed to
be sinusoidal.
A = AR ( x , y , z ) + jAI ( x , y , z ) e j t

= R ( x , y , z ) + jI ( x , y , z ) e j t
1

A +j A + = 0
eff

=>

AR AI + R = 0

eff

1 A + A + = 0
I
R
I

eff

Physical quantities are obtained as real parts of the variables

J = Re ( J ) = J R ( x , y , z ) cos ( t ) J I ( x , y , z ) sin ( t )

Assumption of the sinusoidal time-variation describes

wrongly the non-linearity of iron and motion of rotor.

Example of modelling the time-dependence:

Current versus speed and torque versus speed curves
450
400

Current [A]

350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
-1000

-500

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

3000

2000

2500

3000

Rotation speed [rpm]

Measured

400
350
300
Torque [Nm]

Current and torque measured

from a 30 kW two-pole cage
induction motor made by ABB,
Vaasa.

250
200
150
100
50
0
-1000

-500

500

1000

1500

Rotation speed [rpm]

450

Time-stepping analysis

400

saturation of iron core

skin effect in rotor bars
time harmonics in air gap

Current [A]

350
300
250
200
150
100
50

are modelled properly.

0
-1000

-500

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

3000

2500

3000

Rotation speed [rpm]

Measured

Time-stepping analysis

400
350

Torque [Nm]

300
250
200
150
100
50
0
-1000

-500

500

1000

1500

Rotation speed [rpm]

2000

450
400

(sinusoidal approximation)

350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
-1000

-500

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

3000

2500

3000

Rotation speed [rpm]

Measured

Time-harmonic analysis

1000

400
350
300
Torque [Nm]

Only one stator frequency

and one rotor frequency is
allowed. The time-dependence
of many harmonics is modelled
erroneously. This affects,
especially, the torque versus
speed curve.

Current [A]

Time-harmonic analysis

250
200
150
100
50
0
-1000

-500

500

1500

Rotation speed [rpm]

2000

Quantities derivable from the potentials

Forces and torque is obtained using Maxwells stress tensor

1
1 2
F=v
0 ( B n ) B 2 B n dS
S

F
T

1
1 2
T=v
r 0 ( B n ) B 2 B n dS
S
Flux linkage of a coil can
be integrated from vector
potential

= v A dl

Resistive losses of a
conductor are

Pres

2
= J dV =
+ dV

V
V
1

How to approximate a two-dimensional

function A(x,y)?

A = A ( x , y ) ez

B = A

The cross section of the machine is divided into

finite elements

Piece-wise constant approximation

Ne

 ( x, y ) = a N e ( x, y )
A
i i
i =1

Piece-wise linear approximation

 ( x, y ) =
A

Ne 3

k k
a
i Ni ( x, y )

k =1 i =1

Rotating the rotor within finite element analysis

The elements in the air gap are modified to allow continuous
motion of the rotor

Problem: What is the permeance of an air gap?

= F ;

= B dS = v A dl ;
S

F = H dl
a

Stator core

Rotor tooth

Dimensions: air gap 1 mm, slot opening 2 mm, tooth width 4 mm.
Iron is assumed to be a perfect conductor of magnetic flux if compared
with air.

Boundary conditions
Constant values are forced on the vector potential on the left and right
side boundaries. This puts a constant flux through the region.

= v A dl = A x = d A x =0 L

What is the smallest region to specify proper boundary conditions?

A=Ad
=>

A=0

= Ad L

The exact solution minimises the energy

of the magnetic field
B

1
l
2
2
W ( A ) = H dB dV =
B
d
V
A
d
=

2 0 V
2 0
V0

A
=0
n
2 A( x , y ) = 0

A=0

A=Ad

The solution is found by searching for

such a finite element approximation that
gives the minimum magnetic field energy.

A
=0
n
A ( x , y ) =

Ne 3

k k
a
i Ni ( x, y )

k =1 i =1

A0

Which nodal values give the minimum energy?

Finite element approximation
A ( x , y ) =

Ne 3

aik N ik ( x, y )

k =1 i =1

Approximation for the energy

2

3
l

k k

,
d

W ( a1 , a2 , a3 ,...) =
a
N
x
y

i i ( )
2 0 k =1 e i =1
k

Ne

Equation for the nodal values ai that give the minimum energy

W ( a1 , a2 , a3 ,...)

=
ai
ai

2 0

k k

a
N
x
,
d
y

(
)
= 0,
i i

k =1 e i =1
k

Ne

i = 1, ... N v

Refining the finite element mesh I

57 nodes

W = 3.716 J/m

Refining the finite element mesh II

666 nodes

W = 3.666 J/m

Permeance of the air gap

b

The magnetomotive force over the air gap

b

Fab = H dl

The total flux over the air gap (from boundary

condition)

= v A dl = ( Ax = d Ax =0 ) L = Ad L
Permeance per machine length

Fab L

0.005 Wb/m
Wb
= 3.41 10 6
1466 kA/m 1 mm
Am

Compared with a non-slotted air gap, a 11% larger magnetomotive force is

required to produce the flux => Carters coefficient for the slotting is 1.11

Validation: Starting of the two-pole 30 kW motor

C u rre n t o f P h a s e A
1000

[A]

500

as

-5 0 0
M e a s u re d
FEM
-1 0 0 0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4
t [s ]

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

A n g u la r v e lo c ity o f th e ro to r
400

rm

[rad/s ]

300
200
100
0
-1 0 0

M e a s u re d
FEM
0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4
t [s ]

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

Transient analysis of electrical machines

FEM versus lumped parameter models
Finite element analysis

Lumped parameter models

+
+
+
+

saturation of the core

skin effect in conductors
harmonics caused by motion
=> good accuracy

needs a lot of computation

detailed information of machine
which may be difficult to get
only a few commercial codes
experienced user

no saturation
no skin effect
no higher harmonics
=> problems in accuracy

+ fast
+ only a few parameters given
by the manufacturer
+ easy to program or solve with
a commercial code