Materials and Design 53 (2014) 822829

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Materials and Design

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/matdes

Study on the mechanical behaviors of grey iron mould by simulation and

experiment
Peng Lan , Jiaquan Zhang
State Key Laboratory of Advanced Metallurgy, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing 100083, China
School of Metallurgical and Ecological Engineering, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing 100083, China

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Article history:
Received 8 May 2013
Accepted 23 July 2013
Available online 2 August 2013
Keywords:
Cast iron
Mechanical behavior
Simulation
Thermal cycling

a b s t r a c t
A three-dimensional nite element model (FEM) of 4.5 ton ingot casting system including ow, heat and
stress coupled calculation by ProCAST software has been developed. The temperature and stress distribution of grey cast iron mould dependence of solidication time has been revealed. The phase transformation stress has been also taken into account according to the thermal expansion coefcient measured
from 293 K to 1193 K during the heating process. Based on the simulated temperature variation of the
hot spot in the 4.5 ton mould inner face, the thermal cycling experiment scheme is made. The tensile
strength and thermal fatigue resistance of this grey cast iron at various temperatures against pretreatment cycles have been studied. The possibility and tendency of longitudinal cracks and map cracks in
ingot mould under service conditions have been discussed.
2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Grey cast iron is one of the most widely used materials for the
manufacture of large steel ingot moulds, beneting from its excellent castability, processability and the resulting feasibility of economical producing. However, the service life of grey iron mould
is usually poor because of its low tensile strength and weak thermal fatigue resistance especially at high temperature, which may
lead to the increase of mould consumption together with the production safety issues, as shown in Fig. 1.
A great number of studies about failure behavior, crack mechanism and high temperature tensile strength of grey cast iron have
been carried out. Sharma [1] experimentally analyzed the variation
of chemistry and microstructure of the specimens from different
moulds at Bethlehem Steel, the relationship between tensile
strength and moulds service times has been revealed. Socie et al.
[24] built up a simple model for estimating the stress/strain response of grey cast iron. Defects were found to be a detrimental effect on fatigue life in castings. Haenny and Zambelli [57] made an
interesting research to analyze the mechanism of crack in grey cast
iron. They pointed out that cracks essentially initiated and propagated inside the graphite phase inducing a permanent loss of elastic stiffness. The cracking rate appeared as strongly dependent on
the graphite morphology whereas the matrix strength seemed to

Corresponding author. Address: Room 417, Yejinshengtai Building, University

of Science and Technology Beijing, No. 30 Xueyuan Road, Haidian District, Beijing
100083, China. Tel.: +86 10 62334222, +86 15210601132.
E-mail addresses: lanpengwudi@126.com, b20110092@xs.ustb.edu.cn (P. Lan).
0261-3069/$ - see front matter 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2013.07.077

have a signicant inuence only on the fracture strength. Sjogren

and Svensson [8,9], Collini et al. [10] obtained similar conclusions
from static tensile tests on cast irons. They found the elasticity
modulus of the graphite phase depended on the graphite morphology and could be described as a function of the nodularity and
ellipsoidal aspect ratio of the graphite particles. Guo and Zhou
[11] carried out experiments on grey cast iron to discuss its thermal fatigue properties. All their results shown that the life of inphase and C-P type fatigue were longer than that of out-of-phase
and P-C type fatigue respectively within the same strain range. In
recent years, more effort have been spent on grey cast iron chemistry alloying [1215], solidication control [16], heat treatment
[17] and surface treatment [18].
However, much attention has been paid to revealing the thermal fatigue resistance to high frequency low temperature cyclic
loads in most of the previous studies. But large grey iron mould
experiences low frequency high temperature periodic loads with
oxidation conditions in practical service. The resistance to this serious fatigue loads could not be simply evaluated according to previous theories [19], which should be studied further. The
improvement of the service life of grey cast iron mould relates to
the understanding of the thermal shock and cyclic load from steel
ingot casting. The high temperature tensile strength has been regarded as an important index to evaluate and predict the ingot
mould working life. In the initial stage of each service period, the
mould inner face temperature increases quite rapidly while the
outer face temperature mainly keeping still. This will lead to large
thermal stress in mould radial direction. And in the following
middle stage, although the temperature gradient decreases, the

P. Lan, J. Zhang / Materials and Design 53 (2014) 822829

823

Fig. 1. Longitudinal crack in initial service times (a) and map cracks after many service times (b) in grey iron mould.

variable amplitude loads result in complex stress distribution and

thermal fatigue behavior upon the mould. After steel ingot being
stripped out, the state of mould inner face becomes more serious
due to the air or/and water cooling. If the thermal stress and phase
transformation stress surpass the local tensile strength somewhere
in the mould, cracks will probably initiate. Actually, the mould tensile strength is functions of service periods and temperature. This
should be taken into consideration in evaluating its thermal fatigue
resistance.
In this study a three-dimensional FEM model of a 4.5 ton ingot
casting system including ow, heat and stress coupled calculation
by ProCAST software has been built up. The tensile strength at various temperatures after different cycles of pretreatment has been
measured. Based on the discussion of simulation and experiment
results, the possibility and tendency of longitudinal crack and
map crack in grey cast iron mould has been revealed. The relationship between simulation and experiment in this paper is presented
in Fig. 2.
2. Numerical simulation analysis
2.1. Model development
A 4.5 ton ingot mould from a steel casting plant and a quarter of
its FEM mesh are shown in Fig. 3. The steel ingots are produced
with riser cover in bottom teeming way. The outer face of ingot
mould is cooled by air convection. The materials of the steel, mould
and insulation board are assigned to H13, GG20 and SLEEVE provided by ProCAST Database, respectively. All those have been veried with experiments by the ESI Group [20]. The details of
thermal model are shown in authors previous paper [21].
For heat transfer behavior during steel solidication, the following equations are employed:

qc

@T
r  krT
@t

where c is the effective specic heat, q is the density, k is the thermal conductivity. The enthalpy is dened as follows:

HT

cp dT L1  fs

Then

@H
dfs
cp  L
@T
dT

Here H is the enthalpy, cp is the specic heat, L is the latent heat, fs is

the solidication fraction.
For the lling process, NavierStokes equation is given:

Dv
lr 2 v  r p q F
Dt

where v is the velocity tensor, l is the viscosity, F is the volume

force.
In the stress calculation, the thermo-elasto-viscoplastic models
and thermo-elastic models integrated in this commercial software
are adopted to describe ingot and mould mechanical behavior,
respectively. In the small strain theory, the total strain rate e_ in
elasto-viscoplastic material can be decomposed as follows [22]:

e_ e_ el e_ vp e_ th
_ el

_ vp

_ th

where e , e , e are the elastic, viscoplastic and thermal strain rate

tensors, respectively. The stress rate r_ depends on elastic strain
rate, and for a liner isotropic material with negligible large rotations
is gived by

r_ Del : e_ el

where Del is the fourth-order isotropic elastic stiffness modulus tensor given by



2
Del 2lI kB  l I  I
3

Here l and kB are the shear modulus and bulk modulus, respectively. I and I are fourth and second order identity tensors.
The viscoplastic strain rate evolves via a ow rule [23],

_
e_ vp km

Fig. 2. Relationship between simulation and experiment.

where k_ is a non-negative parameters, known as the consistency

parameter, specifying the magnitude of e_ vp , while m(r, U) determines the direction of e_ vp . Here, the second-order tensor U reects
the evolution of the isotropic as well as the anisotropic internal
variables. The rate of the internal variables is prescribed by the
product of a rate-independent tensor p(r, U) and the consistency
_
parameter k.

824

P. Lan, J. Zhang / Materials and Design 53 (2014) 822829

Fig. 3. 4.5 ton ingot mould (a) and its FEM mesh (b).

Fig. 4. Temperature (left) and the rst principal stress (right) of 4.5 ton ingot and mould against casting time.

U_ pk_

 N
f

/f

The second-order tensor m is given by

@g
@r

10

_.
where g depends on rate-dependant effects U
For a widely used Perzyna model, the viscoplastic strain rate is
dened as

e_ vp

h/fi

where a is commonly chosen as the initial yield stress, and N is a

calibration parameter that should satisfy N P 1.
Thermal strains eth arise due to volume changes caused by both
temperature difference and phase transformation.

eth

aTdT d

14

T0

11

with g the viscosity parameter, / the overstress function that depends on the rate-independent yield surface f(r, U). An explicit
expression for the consistency parameters is obtained:

h/f i
k_

13

12

For the function /, the following expression is usually presented

[24]:

where a is the thermal expansion coefcient, T0 is the reference

temperature and d is the Kroneckers delta.
2.2. Results and discussions
The temperature and the rst principal stress distribution of the
ingot and mould against casting time are shown in Fig. 4. The total
lling time of this 4.5 ton ingot is about 700 s, and the total solidication time of that is about 8000 s, at which the temperatures of
all nodes are below the solidus. The hot spots of the mould are on

P. Lan, J. Zhang / Materials and Design 53 (2014) 822829

1173
Temperature, K

973

P
N

773
573

373

First Principal stress, MPa

173
0
100

Difference of P and M
1000

10000

60
40
20

M
P
N

0
-20
100

1000

10000

Time, s
Fig. 5. Temperature and stress histories of point M, N and P against casting time.

the inner face of the mould walls [1], located about three fth of
the total height from the bottom. During ingot solidication process, the temperature gradient varies all the time, inducing thermal
stress in the mould walls. Mould inner face stays at high temperature for a longer time, thus it is more liable to form map cracks, as
shown in Fig. 1b.
In order to make a further research on temperature and stress
history of the hot spot in this mould, three points named M, N
and P are marked in the mould wall from outer face to inner face,
as shown in Fig. 4. Their thermal history and stress variation as a
function of casting time are shown in Fig. 5. It can be seen that
at about 260 s the liquid level reaches point P, at which its temperature increases obviously due to the large heat ux with the good
contact between steel and mould. And at about 600 s its temperature reaches the highest value of 1133 K, and then it begins to decrease. This should be the result of air gap formation at the ingotmould interface, leading to the dramatic drop of heat ux. At the
same time, the temperature of point N is nearly 573 K, and that
of the point M just starts to rise. After a slight drop of the temperature of point P, it turns to rise at 1000 s. At about 3200 s, it reaches
1073 K. After about 1800 s at this value, it decreases to 973 K at the

825

nal solidication time. The highest temperature of point N is

953 K at about 5200 s, with the balance of heat ux inow and outow in local area. After being at that temperature for about 2300 s,
it turns to decrease. At 10,000 s it reaches about 873 K. The temperature of point M gives the peak value of 853 K at about
6300 s, and it lasts to 8000 s at this level, then drops to 823 K to
be air or/water cooled after ingot demoulding. Besides, the temperature difference of point P and M increases rapidly from zero to
673 K before 600 s, and after that it gradually decreases to about
100 K at 10,000 s. It can be observed that the closer the node is
to the hot face, the earlier the highest temperature appears.
The rst principal stresses of the three points are also shown in
Fig. 5. It should be noticed that the stress curve of point M shows
the similar trend to the temperature difference of P and M. The
highest value of the tensile stress of point M is about 55 MPa,
which appears at the time when the inner face temperature is
the highest, leading to the maximum temperature gradient in the
radial direction of the mould. This serious status lasts about
500 s, and then the tensile stress gradually drops to 20 MPa from
750 s to 1100 s. After that, it uctuates near 20 MPa with small
amplitudes until 10,000 s. The rst principal stress of point N
shows the highest point of 10 MPa at about 300 s in tensile state,
and then it decreases to zero at 400 s. After that, it gradually reduces to compressive stress at a value of 5 MPa. For a long time
at this level, it nally changes to zero-stress state. The stress history of point P is much more complex than that of point M and
N. Its max compressive stress is about 18 MPa at 290 s, when the
expansion of the hot face is strongly restricted. At about 500 s,
the stress of point P turns to tensile status. It shows the highest value of 23 MPa at 1020 s. After that, the tensile stress at about
20 MPa lasts to 6400 s, and then it decreases to almost zero at
10,000 s.
Sharma [1] and Sheng et al. [25] measured the mould inner face
temperature with similar wall thickness. And their results are
1113 K and 1132.5 K, respectively. Yu and Han [26] predicted the
temperature and thermal stress distribution in mould hot and cold
faces by STM-TEMSTR software. The highest temperatures of
mould inner and outer faces are 1173 K and 973 K, respectively,
while the max tensile stresses are 20 MPa and 30 MPa. Yao et al.
[19] developed a numerical model to calculate the thermal stress
in a at mould. The tensile stress in the outer face of the mould
was about 60 MPa. Most of the results above are similar to that
in the present paper.

Fig. 6. Grey iron plate casting (a), blocks for thermal treatment (b) and tensile specimens (c).

826

P. Lan, J. Zhang / Materials and Design 53 (2014) 822829

3. Thermal cycling experiments analysis

3.1. Specimens preparation
HT200 is one of the most popular grey irons to produce large
steel ingot moulds. As the situation of the mould production, a
HT200 plate casting was made in advance with geometry about
600 mm  600 mm  200 mm, as shown in Fig. 6a. The
measured composition and its casting condition are presented in
Tables 1 and 2. Thirty initial sample blocks sized
66 mm  120 mm  220 mm were cut from the sound area of
plate, from each of which a ner block sample with a size of
30 mm  30 mm  220 mm was cut out correspondingly for the
following thermal treatment, as shown in Fig. 6b. The tensile specimen was made from the thermal pretreated block samples for
Gleeble-1500 thermal simulator as shown in Fig. 6c.
3.2. Thermal cycling treatment

3.3. Tensile test and microstructure observation

The mould crack usually occurs at high temperature during its
service period, but there are also the cases in which the crack appears at the very beginning of casting operation. For this consideration, the thermalmechanical tested was conducted at 293 K,
473 K, 673 K, 873 K and 1073 K respectively, according to GB/T
4338-2006 [27] and GB/T228.1-2010 [28]. Fig. 8 shows the experiment scheme. In order to reduce experimental error, there are at
least two specimens tested at each temperature. If the relative error of the two results is lower than 0.1, the mean value of them will
be regarded as the nal. With Gleeble-1500 thermal simulator, the
specimens were heated at the rate of 20 K per second to the test
temperature and kept at that temperature for three minutes. The
following tensile test was conducted at a rate of 2 mm per minute
for the deformation zone in the middle part. The matrix microstructure at high temperatures was preserved by water cooling
immediately upon the fracture of the specimen.
The graphite morphology of the grey iron specimens near the
fracture was observed with NEOPHOT21 optical microscope

Tensile test

Table 1
Chemical composition of HT200 grey iron, wt%.
C

Si

Mn

3.58

1.59

0.89

0.087

0.076

1073K

1073

Temperature, K

The mould inner face usually experiences the strongest thermal

loads during steel ingot casting [1,19]. Map cracks on the hot face
are the most popular reason which leads to fatigue failure of the
mould after many service times. The thermal cycling pretreatment
was carried out with the block samples by a Mufe furnace. The
scheme was made according to the temperature variation of the
hot spot in the 4.5 ton mould mentioned above, as shown in
Fig. 5. Based on the thermal history of point P, the block samples,
as shown in Fig. 6b, were heated to 1073 K in 10 min at a constant
rate and kept at that temperature for 1 h. Then the temperature
was controlled to drop down to 973 K at the rate of 100 K per hour

before air cooling out of furnace. While the temperature decreased

to 373 K, the sample would be put into furnace again for the next
round of thermal treatment. The repeated heating and cooling history for the simulation is shown in Fig. 7. In this present work, the
max thermal pretreatment period is 50.

873K
873
673K

673

473K

473
Table 2
Casting conditions for HT200 mould sample.

15331553 K

Teeming method

With riser

Gravity, bottom

Mould material

Yes

50

100

150

200

250

300

Time, s

Resin sands

Fig. 8. Tensile test of the mould specimens at various temperatures.

Numerical simulation

Thermal treatment history

2

50

1073

Temperature, K

Casting temperature

293K

873

673

473

273
0

40

80

120

160

40

80

120

160

40

80

Time, min
Fig. 7. Illustration of thermal treatments up to 50 cycles for mould specimens.

120 160 200

827

P. Lan, J. Zhang / Materials and Design 53 (2014) 822829

(OM). The matrix microstructure was observed after etching with

4% nitric acid alcohol with the same microscopes.

150
293K
473K
673K
873K
1073K

The sample was cut from the plate casting, and its size is about
/5  20 mm. The experiment was carried out based on GB/T 43392008 [29]. The thermal expansion coefcient between 293 K and
1203 K was calculated according to the liner expansion rate measured with DIL402C Dilatometer under nearly zero-load conditions, protected by argon at a heating rate of 10 K min1. The
result is shown in Fig. 9. And it has been taken into consideration
in the model of stress calculation.
3.5. Results and discussions

Tensile strength, MPa

3.4. Thermal expansion coefcient measurement

100

50

0
0

Thermal expansion coefficient, 10-6K-1

The tensile strengths of the specimens after different cycles of

thermal load at various temperatures are shown in Fig. 10. It is observed that the tensile strength decreases with pretreatment cycles
increasing. The tensile strength of the specimen after 50 cycles of
thermal loads reduces by 40% at least compared to that of the
one after 1 cycle of pretreatment below 1073 K, leading to the serious decrease of thermal fatigue resistance. There is a remarkable
turning point of the tensile strength curve where the thermal load
cycles equal to 20. The piecewise tting relationships between tensile strength and thermal pretreatment periods are presented in
Table 3. It is easy to compare the tensile strength variation amplitude by the slopes of these tting lines. For the temperature not
above 673 K, the slopes from 20 cycles to 50 cycles are more than
2.5 times that from 1 cycle to 10 cycles. It is implied the effect of
thermal cycling pretreatment on tensile strength is much more signicant in the middle and nal service stage, especially at low temperatures. However, under high temperature conditions the slopes
are very similar in these two regions. This should be related to the
decomposition of cementite and the weakening of the grains
boundary when the temperature above 873 K.
The decrease of pearlite and coarsening of grains are the main
reasons for the reduction of tensile strength, as shown in Fig. 11.
These are closely related to the physical and chemical reaction under cyclic thermal loads especially at high temperatures. It has
been widely accepted that the tensile strength of grey cast iron
essentially depends on the graphite morphology and pearlite fraction [30]. Thus it can be inferred the matrix of the specimens before and after that turning point are pearlite and ferrite,
respectively. And that has been veried by the microstructures
observation. Moreover, recrystallization has been also observed

10

20

30

40

50

Number of thermal load cycles

Fig. 10. Tensile strength against thermal cycles at various temperatures.

40

under thermal cyclic loads, especially in the nal stage, resulting

in the obvious grains coarsening at the temperature above eutectoid. The specimens were kept above 973 K for 2 h in each cycle
of thermal pretreatments, during which enough time and energy
have been provided.
It should be noticed the tensile strength of the specimens at
673 K is higher than that at 473 K, when the cycle of thermal pretreatment is less than 30. Drapkin and Zhukov [31] measured the
internal friction of pearlite grey iron specimens after thermal treatment with torsion pendulum at different temperatures, as shown
in Fig. 12. The internal friction peak near 373 K in as cast specimen
is related to the grain boundary sliding and dislocation movement
[32], while the crest near 673 K in heat treated specimen is regarded to be Snock-K-Kster (SKK) peak, which reects the solution strengthening of carbon atoms segregated near the
dislocations under tensile or torsional deformation [33]. This
should be the reason for the outstanding tensile property near this
temperature range.
For the specimen just after 30 cycles of pretreatment, the matrix is totally ferrite due to oxidation and decarburization. Its internal friction should be different from that of pearlite grey iron and
the SKK peak should not be necessary. But the tensile strength variation between 473 K and 673 K is still abnormal. Actually, this
could be explained by the precipitation of secondary cementite
along prior austenite grain boundary, as shown in Fig. 11c. After
more pretreatments, these precipitate are either decomposed or
oxidated (Fig. 11d). As a result, the tensile strength decreases with
temperature increasing as the cycle of pretreatment above 40.

20

4. Mechanical behaviors and service life of grey cast iron mould

-20

-40
273

473

673

873

1073

1273

Temperature, K
Fig. 9. Thermal expansion coefcient variation against temperatures, at a heating
rate of 10 K min1.

Longitudinal cracks and map cracks are the most popular reasons for the failure of large grey iron mould, which mainly occur
in the initial and nal stage of every service period, respectively.
Longitudinal cracks usually initiate in the outer face of the mould,
while the inner face is under compressive conditions. The relationship between stress and temperature at the hot spot is shown in
Fig. 13, in which the simulated data are from Fig. 5 and experiment
data are from Fig. 10. It is shown that the maximum of the tensile
stress in the outer face of the mould is about 50 MPa when its temperature is about 473 K. It is much lower than the value of
120.64 MPa measured at this temperature for the specimen after
1 cycle of pretreatment. Thus cracks should not appear in initial

828

P. Lan, J. Zhang / Materials and Design 53 (2014) 822829

Table 3
Fitting relationship between tensile strength (TS) and pretreated cycles (Cycs).
From 1 to 20 cycles
293 K
473 K
673 K
873 K
1073 K

From 20 to 50 cycles
2

TS = 0.511Cycs + 133.0 MPa

TS = 0.705Cycs + 128.0 MPa
TS = 0.745Cycs + 121.5 MPa
TS = 0.834Cycs + 83.17 MPa
TS = 0.388Cycs + 34.65 MPa

R = 0.979
R2 = 0.949
R2 = 0.999
R2 = 0.999
R2 = 0.956

R2 = 0.964
R2 = 0.994
R2 = 0.981
R2 = 0.925
R2 = 0.965

TS = 2.175Cycs + 161.0 MPa

TS = 2.207Cycs + 155.1 MPa
TS = 1.912Cycs + 142.8 MPa
TS = 0.870Cycs + 83.91 MPa
TS = 0.237Cycs + 32.13 MPa

Fig. 11. Microstructure of the specimens after different cycles of thermal pretreatment near the fracture (a) 10 cycles, (b) 20 cycles, (c) 30 cycles and (d) 50 cycles.

First principal stress and tensile strength, MPa

160
Original
Thermal treated

Internal friction, 104

140

120

100

80

60

40
273

373

473

573

673

773

Temperature, K

150

1 cycle
10 cycles
20 cycles
30 cycles
40 cycles
50 cycles

120

90
M

60

30

P
N

-30
473

673

873

1073

Temperature, K

Fig. 12. Internal friction of grey iron against temperatures.

Fig. 13. Stresses simulated and measured at various temperatures.

service times in theory, but that indeed happens in practice. It can

be concluded that the longitudinal cracks usually appear in the
mould where serious stress concentration initiates with casting defects or structure defects, not closely related to mould materials.
Map cracks are the main cause of mould fatigue failure after
numbers of service times. The highest tensile stress of 23 MPa in

the inner face appears when the temperature is about 1073 K, as

shown in Fig. 13. The tensile strength of the specimens after 50 cycles of thermal pretreatment at 1073 K is about 19.81 MPa. Therefore, map cracks could initiate at this position under high
temperature loads. Even more, if the outer face of the mould shows
the similar microstructure to the inner by this time, map cracks

P. Lan, J. Zhang / Materials and Design 53 (2014) 822829

may also occur there at 473 K. Because the tensile strength at this
temperature is much lower than the rst principal stress.
5. Conclusions
The possibility and tendency of longitudinal cracks and map
cracks in ingot mould under service conditions have been studied
by numerical simulation and thermal cycling experiment. Main
conclusions are summarized as follows:
(1) The mould outer face is always under tensile state and show
a max tensile stress of 50 MPa at about 473 K. The mould
inner face is initially upon compressive stress, and a peak
value of 23 MPa of tensile stress appears at about 1073 K.
Both the middle and inner parts exhibit zero stress status
at the nal solidication time.
(2) The tensile strength decreases with the cycles of thermal
pretreatment increasing. The tensile strength of the specimen after 50 cycles of thermal loads reduces by 40% at least
compared to that of the one after 1 cycle of pretreatment.
The decrease of pearlite and coarsening of grains should be
the main reasons for the weakening of tensile strength and
thermal fatigue resistance.
(3) The longitudinal crack is not closely related to mould materials. It usually initiates where serious stress concentration
appears, resulting from casting or structure defects. Map
crack forms where thermal stress exceeds the local tensile
strength at high temperature after numbers of service cycles.
They may also initiate in the out face with poor microstructure at low temperature.

References
[1] Sharma SK. Chemistry, microstructure and tensile strength of ingot mould.
Ironmaking Steelmaking 1984;11:21426.
[2] Fash J, Socie DF. Fatigue behavior and mean effects in grey cast iron. Int J
Fatigue 1982;4:13742.
[3] Downing SD, Socie DF. Stress/strain simulation model for grey cast iron. Int J
Fatigue 1982;4:1438.
[4] Weinacht DJ, Socie DF. Fatigue damage accumulation in grey cast iron. Int J
Fatigue 1987;9(2):7986.
[5] Haenny L, Zambelli G. Strain mechanisms in grey cast iron. Eng Fract Mech
1983;18(2):37787.
[6] Haenny L, Zambelli G. The role of the matrix graphite interaction in the tensile
behavior of grey cast iron. Eng Fract Mech 1984;19(1):11321.
[7] Haenny L, Zambelli G. Crack growth resistance of a gray cast iron. Eng Fract
Mech 1985;21(3):52935.
[8] Sjogren T, Svensson IL. Comparison of mechanical properties in ake graphite
and compacted graphite cast irons for piston rings. Int J Cast Met Res
2004;17(2):6571.

829

[9] Sjogren T, Svensson IL. Modelling the effect of graphite morphology on the
modulus of elasticity in cast irons. Int J Cast Met Res 2004;17(5):2719.
[10] Collini L, Nicoletto G, Konecn R. Microstructure and mechanical properties of
pearlitic gray cast iron. Mater Sci Eng A 2008;488(1):52939.
[11] Guo C, Zhou W. Thermal fatigue and fracture mechanism analysis of grey cast
iron. Acta Metall Sin 1989;2(3):194200.
[12] Vadiraj A, Balachandran G, Kamaraj M. Effect of misch metal inoculation on
microstructure, mechanical and wear properties of hypoeutectic gray cast
irons. Mater Des 2009;30(10):448892.
[13] Vadiraj A, Balachandran G, Kamaraj M, et al. Studies on mechanical and wear
properties of alloyed hypereutectic gray cast irons in the as-cast pearlitic and
austempered conditions. Mater Des 2010;31(2):9515.
[14] Vadiraj A, Balachandran G, Kamaraj M, et al. Mechanical and wear behavior of
quenched and tempered alloyed hypereutectic gray cast iron. Mater Des
2011;32(4):243843.
[15] Balachandran G, Vadiraj A, Kamaraj M, et al. Mechanical and wear behavior of
alloyed gray cast iron in the quenched and tempered and austempered
conditions. Mater Des 2011;32(7):40429.
[16] Hejazi MM, Divandari M, Taghaddos E. Effect of copper insert on the
microstructure of gray iron produced via lost foam casting. Mater Des
2009;30(4):108592.
[17] Tasgin Y, Kaplan M, Yaz M. Investigation of effects of boron additives and heat
treatment on carbides and phase transition of highly alloyed duplex cast iron.
Mater Des 2009;30(8):31749.
[18] Ruiz J, Lopez V, Fernandez BJ. Effect of surface laser treatment on the
microstructure and wear behaviour of grey iron. Mater Des
1996;17(5):26773.
[19] Yao S, Zheng X, Jin J, et al. Crack analysis and optimum design of the large at
ingot mould. J Iron Steel Res Int 1996;8(2):227 [in Chinese].
[20] ProCAST 2011. ProCAST users manual. ESI Group. The Virtual Try-Out Space;
2010.
[21] Lan P, Li Y, Zhang J, et al. Effect of mould taper and wall thickness on steel
ingots soundness by 3-D solidication simulation. In: Materials processing
fundamentals, TMS 2012, Florida, 2012: 7178.
[22] Koric S, Thomas BG. Thermo-mechanical models of steel solidication based
on two elastic visco-plastic constitutive laws. J Mater Process Technol
2008;197(1):40818.
[23] Heeres OM, Suiker ASJ, de Borst R. A comparison between the Perzyna
viscoplastic model and the consistency viscoplastic model. Eur J Mech A
Solids 2002;21(1):112.
[24] Simo JC, Hughes TJR. Computational inelasticity. New York: Springer; 1998.
[25] Sheng D, Huang H, Zeng D, et al. Temperature measurement of 4.5 t ingot mold
of vermicular graphite cast iron during teeming. Iron Steel 1982;17(5):614
[in Chinses].
[26] Yu G, Han W, et al. Analysis of the failure behavior of cast iron ingot mould.
Angang Technol 1993;11:316 [in Chinese].
[27] GB/T228.1-2010.
Metallic
materialstensile
testing
at
elevated
temperature. China Zhijian Publishing House; 2007 [in Chinese].
[28] GB/T228.1-2010. Metallic materialstensile testingPart 1: method of test at
room temperature. China Zhijian Publishing House; 2011 [in Chinese].
[29] GB/T 4339-2008. Test methods for thermal expansion characteristic
parameters of metallic materials. China Zhijian Publishing House; 2009 [in
Chinese].
[30] Roehrig K. Thermal fatigue of gray and ductile irons. AFS Trans 1978;86:7588.
[31] Drapkin BM, Zhukov AA. Elastic and relaxation characteristics grey cast iron
during thermal cycling. Met Sci Heat Treat 1971;13:9535.
[32] Tkalcec I, Mari D. Internal friction in martensitic, ferritic and bainitic carbon
steel; cold work effects. Mater Sci Eng A 2004;370(1):2137.
[33] Li S, Deng L, Wu X. The mechanism investigation of deep cryogenic treatment
on high alloy martensitic steel by low frequency internal friction. Cryogenics
2010;50(8):4338.