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334

ARRAYS: LINEAR, PLANAR, AND CIRCULAR

Figure 6.21Tschebyscheffpolynomialsoforderszerothroughve.

inthearrayfactorofstepb.Thecos(u)isreplacedby z/z0, and not by z,sothat

(672)wouldbevalidfor |z| |z0|.At |z| = |z0|,(672)attainsitsmaximum
valueofunity.
e.Equatethearrayfactorfromstepb,aftersubstitutionof(672),toa TM(z)from
(669).The TM(z)chosenshouldbeoforder Mwhere Misanintegerequalto
onelessthanthetotalnumberofelementsofthedesignedarray.Thiswillallow
thedeterminationoftheexcitationcoefcients ans.
f.Writethearrayfactorof(661a)or(661b)usingthecoefcientsfoundin
stepe.

N-ELEMENT LINEAR ARRAY: UNIFORM SPACING, NONUNIFORM AMPLITUDE

335

Example 6.9

DesignabroadsideDolphTschebyscheffarrayof10elementswithspacing dbetweenthe
elementsandwithamajortominorloberatioof26dB.Findtheexcitationcoefcientsand
formthearrayfactor.
Solution:

1.Thearrayfactorisgivenby(661a)and(661c).Thatis,
M =5

(AF)2M =

ancos[(2n 1)u]
n=1

u=

d
cos

2.Whenexpanded,thearrayfactorcanbewrittenas
(AF)10 = a1cos(u) + a2cos(3u)
+ a3cos(5u) + a4cos(7u) + a5cos(9u)
Replacecos(u),cos(3u),cos(5u),cos(7u),andcos(9u)bytheirseriesexpan
sionsfoundin(666).
3. R0 (dB) =26 =20log10(R0)or R0 (voltageratio) =20.Determine z0by
equating R0to T9(z0).Thus
R0 =20 = T9(z0) =cosh[9cosh1(z0)]
or
z0 =cosh[19cosh1(20)] =1.0851
Anotherequationwhichcan,ingeneral,beusedtond z0anddoesnotrequire
hyperbolicfunctionsis[10]
1
z0 =
2

1/P

R0 + R02 1

1/P

+ R0

R02 1

(673)

where Pisanintegerequaltoonelessthanthenumberofarrayelements(inthis
case P =9). R0 = H0/H1and z0areidentiedinFigure6.22.
4.Substitute
z
z
cos(u) =
=
1.0851
z0
inthearrayfactorfoundinstep2.
336

ARRAYS: LINEAR, PLANAR, AND CIRCULAR

Figure 6.22

Tschebyscheffpolynomialofordernine(a)amplitude(b)magnitude.

5.Equatethearrayfactorofstep2,afterthesubstitutionfromstep4,to T9(z).
Thepolynomial T9(z)isshownplottedinFigure6.22.Thus
(AF)10 = z[(a1 3a2 +5a3 7a4 +9a5)/z0]
+ z3[(4a2 20a3 +56a4 120a5)/z03]
+ z5[(16a3 112a4 +432a5)/z05]
+
z7[(64a4 576a5)/z07]
+
z9[(256a5)/z09]
35

N-ELEMENT LINEAR ARRAY: UNIFORM SPACING, NONUNIFORM AMPLITUDE

=9z 120z +432z 576z7 +256z9

Matchingsimilartermsallowsthedeterminationofthe ans.Thatis,
(
256a5/z09 =256
432
(64a4 576a5)/z07 = 576

337

(4a2 20a3
+56a4

120a5)/z03 = 120
(a1 3a2 +5a3 7a4 +9a5)/z0 =9

a5
a4
a3
a2
a1

=2.0860
=2.8308
=4.1184
=5.2073
=5.8377

Innormalizedform,the ancoefcientscanbewrittenas
a5
a4
a3
a2
a1

=1
=1.357
=1.974or
=2.496
=2.798

a5
a4
a3
a2
a1

=0.357
=0.485
=0.706
=0.890
=1

Therst(left)setisnormalizedwithrespecttotheamplitudeoftheelements
attheedgewhiletheother(right)isnormalizedwithrespecttotheamplitude
ofthecenterelement.
6.Usingtherst(left)setofnormalizedcoefcients,thearrayfactorcanbe
writtenas
(AF)10 =2.798cos(u) +2.496cos(3u) +1.974cos(5u)
+1.357cos(7u) +cos(9u)
where u =[(d/)cos ].

ThearrayfactorpatternsofExample6.9for d = /4and /2areshownplottedin

Figure6.23.Sincethespacingislessthan (d < ),maximaexistonlyatbroadside
(0 =90).Howeverwhenthespacingisequalto (d = ),twomoremaximaappear
(onetoward 0 =0andtheothertoward 0 =180).For d = thearrayhasfour
maxima,anditactsasan end-reaswellasa broadsidearray.
Table 6.7 lists the maximum element spacing dmax for the various linear and planar
arrays, including Dolph-Tschebyscheff arrays, in order to maintain either one or two
amplitude maxima.
TobetterillustratehowthepatternofaDolphTschebyscheffarrayisformedfrom
theTschebyscheffpolynomial,letusagainconsiderthe10elementarraywhosecorre
spondingTschebyscheffpolynomialisoforder9andisshownplottedinFigure6.22.
TheabscissaofFigure6.22,intermsofthespacingbetweentheelements(d)andthe
angle ,isgivenby(672)or

z = z0cos u = z0cos

338

cos

ARRAYS: LINEAR, PLANAR, AND CIRCULAR

=1.0851cos

cos

(674)

Figure 6.23Arrayfactorpowerpatternofa10elementbroadsideDolphTschebyscheffarray.

For d = /4, /2,3/4,and thevaluesof zforanglesfrom =0to90to

180areshowntabulatedinTable6.9.ReferringtoTable6.9andFigure6.22,itis
interestingtodiscussthepatternformationforthedifferentspacings.
1. d = /4, N =10, R0 =20
At =0thevalueof zisequalto0.7673(point A).As attainslargervalues,
zincreasesuntilitreachesitsmaximumvalueof1.0851for =90.Beyond90,
zbeginstodecreaseandreachesitsoriginalvalueof0.7673for =180.Thus
for d = /4,onlytheTschebyscheffpolynomialbetweenthevalues0.7673 z
1.0851(A z z0)isusedtoformthepatternofthearrayfactor.
2. d = /2, N =10, R0 =20
339

N-ELEMENT LINEAR ARRAY: UNIFORM SPACING, NONUNIFORM AMPLITUDE

TABLE 6.9 Values of the Abscissa z as a Function of for a 10Element

Dolph-Tschebyscheff Array with R0 = 20

0
10
20
30

d = /4
40
50
60
70
80
90
100

d = /2
110
120
130
140
150
160
170

d = 3/4
180

d=
z (Eq. 6-74)
0.7673
0.7764
0.8028
0.8436

0.8945
0.9497
1.0025
1.0462
1.0750
1.0851
1.0750
1.0462
1.0025
0.9497
0.8945
0.8436
0.8028
0.7764
0.7673

z (Eq. 6-74)

z (Eq. 6-74)

0.0
0.0259
0.1026
0.2267
0.3899
0.5774
0.7673
0.9323
1.0450
1.0851
1.0450
0.9323
0.7673
0.5774
0.3899
0.2267
0.1026
0.0259
0.0

0.7673
0.7394
0.6509
0.4912
0.2518
0.0610
0.4153
0.7514
0.9956
1.0851
0.9956
0.7514
0.4153
0.0610
0.2518
0.4912
0.6509
0.7394

0.7673

z (Eq. 6-74)
1.0851
1.0839
1.0657
0.9904
0.8049
0.4706
0.0
0.5167
0.9276
1.0851
0.9276
0.5167
0.0
0.4706
0.8049
0.9904
1.0657
1.0839
1.0851

At =0thevalueof zisequalto0(point B).As becomeslarger, zincreases

untilitreachesitsmaximumvalueof1.0851for =90.Beyond90, zdecreases
andcomesbacktotheoriginalpointfor =180.For d = /2,alargerpartofthe
Tschebyscheffpolynomialisused (0 z 1.0851; B z z0).
3. d =3/4, N =10, R0 =20
Forthisspacing,thevalueof zfor =0is 0.7673(point C),anditincreases
as becomeslarger.Itattainsitsmaximumvalueof1.0851at =90.Beyond90,
ittracesbacktoitsoriginalvalue (0.7673 z z0; C z z0).
4. d = , N =10, R0 =20
Asthespacingincreases,alargerportionoftheTschebyscheffpolynomialisused
toformthepatternofthearrayfactor.When d = ,thevalueof zfor =0isequal
to 1.0851(point D)whichinmagnitudeisequaltothemaximumvalueof z.As
attainsvalueslargerthan0, zincreasesuntilitreachesitsmaximumvalueof1.0851
for =90.Atthatpointthepolynomial(andthusthearrayfactor)againreaches
itsmaximumvalue.Beyond =90, zandinturnthepolynomialandarrayfactor
retracetheirvalues (1.0851 z +1.0851; D z z0).For d = therearefour
maxima,anda broadsideandan end-rearrayhavebeenformedsimultaneously.
ItisoftendesiredinsomeDolphTschebyscheffdesignstotakeadvantageofthe
largestpossiblespacingbetweentheelementswhilemaintainingthesamelevelof
340

ARRAYS: LINEAR, PLANAR, AND CIRCULAR

allminorlobes,includingtheonetoward =0and180.Ingeneral,aswellasin
Example6.8(Figure6.20),theonlyminorlobethatcanexceedtheleveloftheothers,
whenthespacingexceedsacertainmaximumspacingbetweentheelements,isthe
onetowardendre( =0or180or z = 1inFigure6.21orFigure6.22).The
maximumspacingwhichcanbeusedwhilemeetingtherequirementsisobtainedusing
(672)or
d
cos
(675)
z = z0cos(u) = z0cos

Therequirementnottointroduceaminorlobewithalevelexceedingtheothersis
accomplishedbyutilizingtheTschebyscheffpolynomialupto,butnotgoingbeyond
z = 1.Therefore,for =0or180
1 z0cos

dmax

(676)

or
dmax

cos1

1
z0

(676a)

TheexcitationcoefcientsofaDolphTschebyscheffarraycanbederivedusing
variousdocumentedtechniques[11][13]andothers.Onemethod,whoseresultsare
suitableforcomputercalculations,isthatbyBarbiere[11].Thecoefcientsusingthis
methodcanbeobtainedusing

an =

(q + M 2)!(2M 1)

foreven2Melements

(677a)

M +1

n(q

n)!(q + n 2)!(M q +1)!

(677b)

n =1,2, . . . M +1

2 n =1
where
=
M
1 n =1

(1)
M q (z0)2q 1

(q n)!(q + n 1)!(M q)!

q =n
C. Beamwidth
and Directivity

ForlargeDolphTschebyscheffarraysscannednottooclosetoendreandwithside

n =1,2, . . . M

lobesintherangefrom
20to 60dB,thehalfpowerbeamwidthanddirectivitycan
befoundbyintroducingabeambroadeningfactorgivenapproximatelyby[4]

(q + M 2)!(2M)

(1)M q +1(z0)2(q 1)
2
q =n
2

cosh (cosh
1
R
0
)
2

2
(678)
f =1 +0.636
forodd2M +1elements

R0

N-ELEMENT LINEAR ARRAY: UNIFORM SPACING, NONUNIFORM AMPLITUDE

341

Figure 6.24BeambroadeningfactoranddirectivityofTschebyscheffarrays.(SOURCE:R.S.
Elliott,BeamwidthandDirectivityofLargeScanningArrays,FirstofTwoParts, The
Microwave Journal,December1963).

where R0isthemajortosidelobevoltageratio.Thebeambroadeningfactorisplotted
inFigure6.24(a)asafunctionofsidelobelevel(indB).
ThehalfpowerbeamwidthofaDolphTschebyscheffarraycanbedeterminedby
1.calculatingthebeamwidthofauniformarray(ofthesamenumberofelements
andspacing)using(622a)orreadingitoffFigure6.12
342

ARRAYS: LINEAR, PLANAR, AND CIRCULAR

2.multiplyingthebeamwidthofpart(1)bytheappropriatebeambroadeningfactor
fcomputedusing(678)orreadingitoffFigure6.24(a)
Thesameprocedurecanbeusedtodeterminethebeamwidthofarrayswithacosine
onapedestaldistribution[4].
Thebeambroadeningfactor fcanalsobeusedtodeterminethedirectivityoflarge
DolphTschebyscheffarrays,scannednearbroadside,withsidelobesinthe 20to
60dBrange[4].Thatis,

D0 =

2R02
1 + (R02 1)f

(L + d)

whichisshownplottedinFigure6.24(b)asafunctionof L + d(inwavelengths).
FromthedatainFigure6.24(b)itcanbeconcludedthat:

(679)

1.ThedirectivityofaDolphTschebyscheffarray,withagivensidelobelevel,
increasesasthearraysizeornumberofelementsincreases.
2.Foragivenarraylength,oragivennumberofelementsinthearray,thedirec
tivitydoesnotnecessarilyincreaseasthesidelobeleveldecreases.Asamatter
offact,a 15dBsidelobearrayhassmallerdirectivitythana 20dBsidelobe
array(seeFigure6.26).Thismaynotbethecaseforallothersidelobelevels.
Thebeamwidthandthedirectivityofanarraydependlinearly,butnotnecessarilyat
thesamerate,ontheoveralllengthortotalnumberofelementsofthearray.Therefore,
thebeamwidthanddirectivitymustberelatedtoeachother.Forauniformbroadside
arraythisrelationis[4]

D0 =

101.5

(680)

where disthe3dBbeamwidth(indegrees).Theaboverelationcanbeusedasa
goodapproximationbetweenbeamwidthanddirectivityformostlinearbroadsidearrays
withpracticaldistributions(includingtheDolphTschebyscheffarray).Equation(680)
statesthatforalinearbroadsidearraytheproductofthe3dBbeamwidthandthe
directivityisapproximatelyequalto100.Thisisanalogoustotheproductofthegain
andbandwidthforelectronicampliers.
D. Design
ThedesignofaDolphTschebyscheffarrayisverysimilartothoseofothermethods.
Usuallyacertainnumberofparametersisspecied,andtheremainingareobtained
followingacertainprocedure.Inthissectionwewilloutlineanalternatemethod
thatcanbeused,inadditiontotheoneoutlinedandfollowedinExample6.9,to
designaDolphTschebyscheffarray.Thismethodleadstotheexcitationcoefcients
moredirectly.

N-ELEMENT LINEAR ARRAY: UNIFORM SPACING, NONUNIFORM AMPLITUDE

343

Specify
a.Thesidelobelevel(indB).
b.Thenumberofelements.
Design Procedure
a.Transformthesidelobelevelfromdecibelstoavoltageratiousing
R0(VoltageRatio) =[R0(VR)] =10R0 (dB )/20

(681)

b.Calculate P,whichalsorepresentstheorderoftheTschebyscheffpoly
nomial,using
P =numberofelements 1
c.Determine z0using(673)or
z0 =cosh

cosh1[R0(VR)]

d.Calculatetheexcitationcoefcientsusing(677a)or(677b).
e.Determinethebeambroadeningfactorusing(678).

(682)

f.Calculateusing(622a)thehalfpowerbeamwidthofauniformarraywiththe
samenumberofelementsandspacingbetweenthem.
g.FindthehalfpowerbeamwidthoftheTschebyscheffarraybymultiplyingthe
halfpowerbeamwidthoftheuniformarraybythebeambroadeningfactor.
h.Themaximumspacingbetweentheelementsshouldnotexceedthatof(676a).
i.Determinethedirectivityusing(679).
j.Thenumberofminorlobesforthethreedimensionalpatternoneithersideof
themainmaximum (0 90),usingthemaximumpermissiblespacing,is
equalto N 1.
k.Calculatethearrayfactorusing(661a)or(661b).
Thisprocedureleadstothesameresultsasanyother.

Example 6.10

CalculatethehalfpowerbeamwidthandthedirectivityfortheDolphTschebyscheffarray
ofExample6.9foraspacingof /2betweentheelements.
Solution:ForExample6.9,
R0 =26dB R0 =20(voltageratio)
Using(678)orFigure6.24(a),thebeambroadeningfactor fisequalto
f =1.079

344

ARRAYS: LINEAR, PLANAR, AND CIRCULAR

Accordingto(622a)orFigure6.12,thebeamwidthofauniformbroadsidearraywith
L + d =5isequalto

h =10.17
ThusthebeamwidthofaDolphTschebyscheffarrayisequalto
h

Thedirectivitycanbeobtainedusing(679),anditisequalto
D0 =

2(20)2
1 +[(20)2 1]

1.079
5

=9.18(dimensionless) =9.63dB

whichcloselyagreeswiththeresultsofFigure6.24(b).

Indesigningnonuniformarrays,theamplitudedistributionbetweentheelements
isusedtocontrolthesidelobelevel.ShowninFigure6.25aretheexcitationampli
tudedistributionsofDolphTschebyscheffarrayseachwith N =10elements,uniform
elementspacingof d = /4,anddifferentsidelobelevels.Itisobservedthatas
thesidelobelevelincreasesthedistributionfromthecenterelement(s)towardthose

0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4

=10.17 f =10.17 (1.079) =10.97

0.3
0.2
0.1
0

0.8

0.6

0.4

0
0.2
0.2
ARRAYLENGTH(l)

0.4

0.6

0.8

Figure 6.25Amplitudedistribution,fordifferentsidelobelevels,ofaDolphTschebyscheff
arraywith N =10, d = /4.

345

SUPERDIRECTIVITY

DIRECTIVITY

50

HPBW

40
NORMALIZEDXCT FNS

30

6
Sidelobelevel80dB
5

4
101

20

Sidelobelevel60dB
Sidelobelevel40dB
Sidelobelevel30dB
Sidelobelevel21.05dB
Sidelobelevel20dB
102

10
103

SIDELOBELEVEL(dB)

Figure 6.26DirectivityandhalfpowerbeamwidthversussidelobelevelforaDolph
Tschebyscheffarrayof N =10, d = /4.

attheedgesissmootherandmonotonicallydecreasesforalllevelsexceptthatof
20dB.Forthisparticulardesign (N =10, d =0.25),thesmallestsidelobelevel,
whichstillmaintainsamonotonicamplitudedistributionfromthecentertowardthe
edges,isabout 21.05dB,whichisalsodisplayedinFigure6.25.Smallerside
lobelevelsthan 20dBwillleadtoevenmoreabruptamplitudedistributionat
theedges.

HPdBWeg(rs)

RDECITVdYB()

Indesigningnonuniformarrays,thereisacompromisebetweensidelobelevel
andhalfpowerbeamwidth/directivity.Whilethesidelobeleveldecreases,thehalf
powerbeamwidth(HPBW)decreasesandthedirectivityusuallyincreases.Thisis
demonstratedinFigure6.26fora10elementDolphTschebyschefflineararraywith
auniformspacingof /4betweentheelements.Similartrendscanbeexpectedfor
otherdesigns.
AninteractiveMATLABandFORTRANcomputerprogramentitled Arrayshas
beendeveloped,anditperformstheanalysisforuniformandnonuniformlineararrays,
anduniformplanararrays.TheMATLABversionoftheprogramalsoanalyzesuni
formcirculararrays.Thedescriptionoftheprogramisprovidedinthecorresponding
READMEle.
6.9

SUPERDIRECTIVITY

Antennaswhosedirectivitiesaremuchlargerthanthedirectivityofareferenceantenna
ofthesamesizeareknownassuperdirectiveantennas.Thusasuperdirectivearrayis
onewhosedirectivityislargerthanthatofareferencearray(usuallyauniformarray
346

ARRAYS: LINEAR, PLANAR, AND CIRCULAR

ofthesamelength).Inanarray,superdirectivityisaccomplishedbyinsertingmore
elementswithinaxedlength(decreasingthespacing).Doingthisleadseventuallyto
verylargemagnitudesandrapidchangesofphaseintheexcitationcoefcientsofthe
elementsofthearray.Thusadjacentelementshaveverylargeandoppositelydirected
currents.Thisnecessitatesaverypreciseadjustmentoftheirvalues.Associatedwith
thisareincreasesinreactivepower(relativetotheradiatedpower)andthe Qof
thearray.

6.9.1

Efciency and Directivity

Becauseoftheverylargecurrentsintheelementsofsuperdirectivearrays,theohmic
lossesincreasesandtheantennaefciencydecreasesverysharply.Althoughpractically
theohmiclossescanbereducedbytheuseofsuperconductivematerials,thereisno
easysolutionforthepreciseadjustmentoftheamplitudesandphasesofthearray
elements.Highradiationefciencysuperdirectivearrayscanbedesignedutilizingarray
functionsthatareinsensitivetochangesinelementvalues[14].
Inpractice,superdirectivearraysareusuallyreferredtoas super gain.However,
supergainisamisnomerbecausesuchantennashaveactualoverallgains(becauseof
verylowefciencies)lessthanuniformarraysofthesamelength.Althoughsignicant
superdirectivityisverydifcultandusuallyveryimpractical,amoderateamountcan
beaccomplished.Superdirectiveantennasareveryintriguing,andtheyhavereceived
muchattentionintheliterature.
Thelengthofthearrayisusuallythelimitingfactortothedirectivityofanarray.
Schelkunoff[15]pointedoutthattheoreticallyveryhighdirectivitiescanbeobtained
fromlinearendrearrays.BowkampanddeBruijn[16],however,concludedthat
theoreticallythereisnolimitinthedirectivityofalinearantenna.Morespecically,
Riblet[10]showedthatDolphTschebyscheffarrayswithelementspacinglessthan
/2canyieldanydesireddirectivity.AnumericalexampleofaDolphTschebyscheff
arrayofnineelements, /32spacingbetweentheelements(totallengthof /4),
anda1/19.5 (25.8dB)sidelobelevelwascarriedoutbyYaru[8].Itwasfound
thattoproduceadirectivityof8.5timesgreaterthanthatofasingleelement,the
currentsontheindividualelementsmustbeontheorderof14 106amperesand
theirvaluesadjustedtoanaccuracyofbetterthanonepartin1011.Themaximum
radiationintensityproducedbysuchanarrayisequivalenttothatofasingleelement

withacurrentofonly19.5 103amperes.Iftheelementsofsuchanarrayare1cm
diameter,ofcopper, /2dipolesoperatingat10MHz,theefciencyofthearrayis
lessthan1014%.

6.9.2

Designs With Constraints

Tomakethedesignsmorepractical,applicationsthatwarrantsomesuperdirectivity
shouldincorporateconstraints.Oneconstraintisbasedonthesensitivityfactor,andit
wasutilizedforthedesignofsuperdirectivearrays[17].Thesensitivityfactor(desig
natedas K)isanimportantparameterwhichisrelatedtotheelectricalandmechanical
tolerancesofanantenna,anditcanbeusedtodescribeitsperformance(especiallyits
practicalimplementation).Foran Nelementarray,suchasthatshowninFigure6.5(a),

SUPERDIRECTIVITY

347

itcanbewrittenas[17]
N

|an|2
K=

n=1
2

ane

(683)

j krn

n=1

where anisthecurrentexcitationofthe nthelement,and rnisthedistancefromthe

nthelementtothefareldobservationpoint(in the direction of maximum radiation).
Inpractice,theexcitationcoefcientsandthepositioningoftheelements,which
resultinadesiredpattern,cannotbeachievedasspecied.Acertainamountoferror,
bothelectricalandmechanical,willalwaysbepresent.Thereforethedesiredpattern
willnotberealizedexactly,asrequired.However,ifthedesignisaccomplishedbased
onspeciedconstraints,therealizedpatternwillapproximatethedesiredonewithina
specieddeviation.
Toderivedesignconstraints,therealizedcurrentexcitationcoefcients cnsare
relatedtothedesiredones ansby
cn = an + nan = an(1 + n)

(683a)

where nanrepresentstheerrorinthe nthexcitationcoefcient.Themeansquarevalue

of nisdenotedby
(683b)
= |n|2
Totakeintoaccounttheerrorassociatedwiththepositioningoftheelements,
weintroduce
(k )2
(683c)
2 =
3
where istherootmeansquarevalueoftheelementpositionerror.Combining(683b)
and(683c)reducesto
(683d)
= 2 +2
where isameasureofthecombinedelectricalandmechanicalerrors.
Foruncorrelatederrors[17]

averageradiationintensityofrealizedpattern
maximumradiationintensityofdesiredpattern

Iftherealizedpatternistobeveryclosetothedesiredone,then
K

348

1
K

(683e)

ARRAYS: LINEAR, PLANAR, AND CIRCULAR

Equation(683e)canberewritten,byintroducingasafetyfactor S,as
=

1
SK

(683f)

Sischosenlargeenoughsothat(683e)issatised.When
ismultipliedby100,
100 representsthepercenttoleranceforcombinedelectricalandmechanicalerrors.
Thechoiceofthevalueof Sdependslargelyontherequiredaccuracybetweenthe
desiredandrealizedpatterns.Forexample,ifthefocusisprimarilyontherealization
ofthemainbeam,avalueof S =10willprobablybesatisfactory.Forsidelobesof
20dBdown, Sshouldbeabout1,000.Ingeneral,anapproximatevalueof Sshould
bechosenaccordingto
S 10 10b/10
(683g)
where brepresentsthepatternlevel(indBdown)whoseshapeistobeaccurately
realized.
Theabovemethodcanbeusedtodesign,withthesafetyfactor Kconstrainedtoa
certainvalue,arrayswithmaximumdirectivity.Usuallyonerstplots,foreachselected
excitationdistributionandpositioningoftheelements,thedirectivity Dofthearray
underinvestigationversusthecorrespondingsensitivityfactor K(using683)ofthe
samearray.Thedesignusuallybeginswiththeexcitationandpositioningofauniform
array(i.e.,uniformamplitudes,aprogressivephase,andequallyspacedelements).The
directivityassociatedwithitisdesignatedas D0whilethecorrespondingsensitivity
factor,computedusing(683),isequalto K0 =1/N.
Asthedesigndeviatesfromthatoftheuniformarrayandbecomessuperdirective,
thevaluesofthedirectivityincreasemonotonicallywithincreasesin K.Eventually
amaximumdirectivityisattained(designatedas Dmax),anditcorrespondstoa K =
Kmax;beyondthatpoint (K > Kmax),thedirectivitydecreasesmonotonically.The
antennadesignershouldthenselectthedesignforwhich D0 < D < Dmaxand K0 =
1/N < K < Kmax.
Thevalueof Dischosensubjecttotheconstraintthat Kisacertainnumberwhose
correspondingtoleranceerror
of(683f),forthedesiredsafetyfactor S,canbe
achievedpractically.Toleranceerrorsoflessthanabout0.3percentareusuallynot
achievableinpractice.Ingeneral,thedesignermusttradeoffbetweendirectivityand
sensitivityfactor;larger Ds(provided D Dmax)resultinlarger Ks (K Kmax),
andviceversa.
Anumberofconstraineddesignscanbefoundin[17].Forexample,anarrayof

cylindricalmonopolesaboveaninniteandperfectlyconductinggroundplanewas
designedforoptimumdirectivityat f =30MHz,withaconstraintonthesensitivity
factor.Thespacing dbetweentheelementswasmaintaineduniform.
Forafourelementarray,itwasfoundthatfor d =0.3themaximumdirectivity
was14.5dBandoccurredatasensitivityfactorof K =1.Howeverfor d =0.1the
maximumdirectivitywasupto15.8dB,withthecorrespondingsensitivityfactorupto

about103.At K0 =1/N =1/4,thedirectivitiesfor d =0.3and0.1wereabout11.3

and8dB,respectively.Whenthesensitivityfactorwasmaintainedconstantandequal
to K =1,thedirectivityfor d =0.3was14.5dBandonly11.6dBfor d =0.1.
Itshouldbenotedthatthedirectivityofasinglemonopoleaboveaninniteground

PLANAR ARRAY

349

planeistwicethatofthecorrespondingdipoleinfreespaceandequaltoabout3.25
(orabout5.1dB).

6.10

PLANAR ARRAY

Inadditiontoplacingelementsalongaline(toformalineararray),individualradiators
canbepositionedalongarectangulargridtoformarectangularorplanararray.Planar
arraysprovideadditionalvariableswhichcanbeusedtocontrolandshapethepatternof
thearray.Planararraysaremoreversatileandcanprovidemoresymmetricalpatterns
withlowersidelobes.Inaddition,theycanbeusedtoscanthemainbeamofthe
antennatowardanypointinspace.Applicationsincludetrackingradar,searchradar,
remotesensing,communications,andmanyothers.
Aplanararrayofslots,usedintheAirborneWarningandControlSystem(AWACS),
isshowninFigure6.27.Itutilizesrectangularwaveguidesticksplacedvertically,with
slotsonthenarrowwallofthewaveguides.Thesystemhas360viewofthearea,
andatoperatingaltitudescandetecttargetshundredsofkilometersaway.Itisusually
mountedataheightabovethefuselageofanaircraft.
6.10.1

Array Factor

Toderivethearrayfactorforaplanararray,letusrefertoFigure6.28.If Melements
areinitiallyplacedalongthe xaxis,asshowninFigure6.28(a),thearrayfactorofit

Figure 6.27AWACSantennaarrayofwaveguideslots.(PHOTOGRAPHCOURTESY:NorthropGrum
manCorporation).

350
ARRAYS: LINEAR, PLANAR, AND CIRCULAR

Figure 6.28 Linearandplanararraygeometries.

canbewrittenaccordingto(652)and(654)as
M

(684)

IM1ej (M1)(kdxsin cos +x )

AF =
M=1

where IM1istheexcitationcoefcientofeachelement.Thespacingandprogressive
phaseshiftbetweentheelementsalongthe xaxisarerepresented,respectively,by dx

PLANAR ARRAY

351

and x.If Nsucharraysareplacednexttoeachotherinthe ydirection,adistance

dyapartandwithaprogressivephase y,arectangulararraywillbeformedasshown
inFigure6.28(b).Thearrayfactorfortheentireplanararraycanbewrittenas
N

I1n

AF =
n=1

IM1ej (M1)(kdxsin cos +x ) ej (n1)(kdysin sin +y )

(684a)

M=1

or
(685)

AF = SxMSyn
where

SxM =

IM1ej (M1)(kdxsin cos +x )

(685a)

I1nej (n1)(kdysin sin +y )

(685b)

M=1
N

Syn =
n=1

Equation(685)indicatesthatthepatternofarectangulararrayistheproductofthe
arrayfactorsofthearraysinthe xand ydirections.
Iftheamplitudeexcitationcoefcientsoftheelementsofthearrayinthe ydirection
areproportionaltothosealongthe x,theamplitudeofthe(m, n)thelementcanbe
writtenas
(686)
IMn = IM1I1n
Ifinadditiontheamplitudeexcitationoftheentirearrayisuniform (IMn = I0),(684a)
canbeexpressedas
M

ej (M1)(kdxsin cos +x )

AF = I0
M=1

ej (n1)(kdysin sin +y )

(687)

n=1

Accordingto(66),(610),and(610c),thenormalizedformof(687)canalsobe
writtenas

AFn(, ) =
where

sin

M
x
2
x
2

sin

1sin
1sin
x = kdxsin cos + x

y = kd
ysin sin + y

N
y
2
y
2

(688)

(688a)
(688b)

Whenthespacingbetweentheelementsisequalorgreaterthan /2,multiple
maximaofequalmagnitudecanbeformed.Theprincipalmaximumisreferredtoas
the major lobeandtheremainingasthe grating lobes.A grating lobeisdenedas
alobe,otherthanthemainlobe,producedbyanarrayantennawhentheinterelement
352

ARRAYS: LINEAR, PLANAR, AND CIRCULAR

spacingissufcientlylargetopermittheinphaseadditionofradiatedeldsinmore
thanonedirection.Toformoravoidgratinglobesinarectangulararray,thesame
principlesmustbesatisedasforalineararray.Toavoidgratinglobesinthe x-zand
y-zplanes,thespacingbetweentheelementsinthe xand ydirections,respectively,
mustbelessthan /2(dx < /2and dy < /2).

Table 6.7 lists the maximum element spacing dmax (for either dx , dy or both)
for the
various uniform and nonuniform arrays, including planar arrays, in order to
maintain
either one or two amplitude maxima.
Forarectangulararray,themajorlobeandgratinglobesof SxMand Synin(685a)
and(685b)arelocatedat
kdxsin cos + x = 2M M =0,1,2, . . .

(689a)

kdysin sin + y = 2n n =0,1,2, . . .

(689b)

Thephases xand yareindependentofeachother,andtheycanbeadjustedso

thatthemainbeamof SxMisnotthesameasthatof Syn.However,inmostpractical
applicationsitisrequiredthattheconicalmainbeamsof SxMand Synintersectandtheir
maximabedirectedtowardthesamedirection.Ifitisdesiredtohaveonlyonemain
beamthatisdirectedalong = 0and = 0,theprogressivephaseshiftbetween
theelementsinthe xand ydirectionsmustbeequalto
x = kdxsin 0cos 0

(690a)

y = kdysin 0sin 0

(690b)

Whensolvedsimultaneously,(690a)and(690b)canalsobeexpressedas
tan 0 =

y dx

(691a)

x dy

sin2 0 =

x
kdx

(691b)

kdy

Theprincipalmaximum (M = n =0)andthegratinglobescanbelocatedby
kdx (sin cos sin 0cos 0) = 2M,

M =0,1,2, . . .

(692a)

kdy (sin sin sin 0sin 0) = 2n,

n =0,1,2, . . .

(692b)

or
sin cos sin 0cos 0 =
sin sin sin 0sin 0 =

M
,
dx
n
,
dy

M =0,1,2, . . .

(693a)

n =0,1,2, . . .

(693b)

which,whensolvedsimultaneously,reduceto
=tan1

sin 0sin 0 n/dy

sin 0cos 0 M/dx

PLANAR ARRAY

(694a)

353

and
=sin1

sin 0cos 0 M/dx

cos

=sin1

sin 0sin 0 n/dy

sin

Inorderforatruegratinglobetooccur,bothformsof(694b)mustbesatised
simultaneously(i.e.,leadtothesame value).

(694b)

Todemonstratetheprinciplesofplanararraytheory,thethreedimensionalpattern
ofa5 5elementarrayofuniformamplitude, x = y =0,and dx = dy = /4,is
showninFigure6.29.Themaximumisorientedalong 0 =0andonlythepattern
abovethe x-yplaneisshown.Anidenticalpatternisformedinthelowerhemisphere
whichcanbediminishedbytheuseofagroundplane.
Toexaminethepatternvariationasafunctionoftheelementspacing,thethree
dimensionalpatternofthesame5 5elementarrayofisotropicsourceswith dx =
dy = /2and x = y =0isdisplayedinFigure6.30.AscontrastedwithFigure6.29,
thepatternofFigure6.30exhibitscompleteminorlobesinallplanes.Figure6.31
displaysthecorrespondingtwodimensionalelevationpatternswithcutsat =0(x-z
plane), =90(y-zplane),and =45.Thetwoprincipalpatterns( =0and =
90)areidentical.ThepatternsofFigures6.29and6.30displayafourfoldsymmetry.

Figure 6.29Threedimensionalantennapatternofaplanararrayofisotropicelementswitha
spacingof dx = dy = /4,andequalamplitudeandphaseexcitations.

354

ARRAYS: LINEAR, PLANAR, AND CIRCULAR

Figure 6.30Threedimensionalantennapatternofaplanararrayofisotropicelementswitha
spacingof dx = dy = /2,andequalamplitudeandphaseexcitations.

Asdiscussedpreviously,arrayspossesswideversatilityintheirradiationcharac
teristics.Themostcommoncharacteristicofanarrayisitsscanningmechanism.To
illustratethat,thethreedimensionalpatternofthesame5 5elementarray,withits
maximumorientedalongthe 0 =30, 0 =45,isplottedinFigure6.32.Theele
mentspacingis dx = dy = /2.Themaximumisfoundintherstquadrantofthe
upperhemisphere.Thesmallringaroundtheverticalaxisindicatesthemaximum
valueofthepatternalongthataxis ( =0).Thetwodimensionalpatternsareshown
inFigure6.33,andtheyexhibitonlyatwofoldsymmetry.Theprincipalplanepattern
( =0or =90)isnormalizedrelativetothemaximumwhichoccursat 0 =
30, 0 =45.Itsmaximumalongtheprincipalplanes( =0or =90)occurs
when =21anditis17.37dBdownfromthemaximumat 0 =30, 0 =45.
Toillustratetheformationofthegratinglobes,whenthespacingbetweentheele
mentsislarge,thethreedimensionalpatternofthe5 5elementarraywith dx = dy =
and x = y =0aredisplayedinFigure6.34.Itscorrespondingtwodimensionalele
vationpatternsat =0( =90)and =45areexhibitedinFigure6.35.Besides
themaximaalong =0and =180,additionalmaximawithequalintensity,
referredtoas grating lobes,appearalongtheprincipalplanes(x-zand y-zplanes)when
=90.Furtherincreaseofthespacingto dx = dy =2wouldresultinadditional
gratinglobes.
Thearrayfactoroftheplanararrayhasbeenderivedassumingthateachelementis
anisotropicsource.Iftheantennaisanarrayof identicalelements,thetotaleldcan

PLANAR ARRAY

355

Figure 6.31Twodimensionalantennapatternsofaplanararrayofisotropicelementswitha
spacingof dx = dy = /2,andequalamplitudeandphaseexcitations.

beobtainedbyapplyingthepatternmultiplicationruleof(65)inamannersimilaras
forthelineararray.
Whenonlythecentralelementofalargeplanararrayisexcitedandtheothersare
passivelyterminated,ithasbeenobservedexperimentallythatadditionalnullsinthe
patternoftheelementaredevelopedwhicharenotaccountedforbytheorywhichdoes
notincludecoupling.Thenullswereobservedtobecomedeeperandnarrower[18]
asthenumberofelementssurroundingtheexcitedelementincreasedandapproached
alargearray.Theseeffectsbecamemorenoticeableforarraysofopenwaveguides.
Ithasbeendemonstrated[19]thatdipsatanglesinteriortogratinglobesareformed
bycouplingthroughsurfacewavepropagation.Thecouplingdecaysveryslowlywith
distance,sothatevendistantelementsfromthedrivenelementsexperiencesubstantial
356

ARRAYS: LINEAR, PLANAR, AND CIRCULAR

Figure 6.32Threedimensionalantennapatternofaplanararrayofisotropicelementswitha
spacingof dx = dy = /2,equalamplitude,andprogressivephaseexcitation.

parasiticexcitation.Theangleswheretheselargevariationsoccurcanbeplacedoutside
scananglesofinterestbychoosingsmallerelementspacingthanwouldbeusedinthe
absenceofsuchcoupling.Becauseofthecomplexityoftheproblem,itwillnotbe
pursuedhereanyfurtherbuttheinterestedreaderisreferredtothepublishedliterature.

6.10.2

Beamwidth

Thetaskofndingthebeamwidthofnonuniformamplitudeplanararraysisquite
formidable.Instead,averysimpleprocedurewillbeoutlinedwhichcanbeusedto
computetheseparametersforlargearrayswhosemaximumisnotscannedtoofaroff
broadside.Themethod[20]utilizesresultsofauniformlineararrayandthebeam
broadeningfactoroftheamplitudedistribution.
Themaximumoftheconicalmainbeamofthearrayisassumedtobedirected
toward 0, 0asshowninFigure6.36.Todeneabeamwidth,twoplanesarechosen.
Oneistheelevationplanedenedbytheangle = 0andtheotherisaplanethat
isperpendiculartoit.Thecorrespondinghalfpowerbeamwidthofeachisdesignated,
respectively,by hand h.Forexample,ifthearraymaximumispointingalong
0 = /2and 0 = /2, hrepresentsthebeamwidthinthe y-zplaneand h,the
beamwidthinthe x-yplane.

PLANAR ARRAY

357

Figure 6.33Twodimensionalantennapatternsofaplanararrayofisotropicelementswitha
spacingof dx = dy = /2,equalamplitude,andprogressivephaseexcitation.

Foralargearray,withitsmaximumnearbroadside,theelevationplanehalfpower
beamwidth hisgivenapproximatelyby[20]

1
cos2

0[

2
x0

cos2

0 +

2
y0

sin2 0]

(695)

where x0representsthehalfpowerbeamwidthofa broadsidelineararrayof M

elements.Similarly, y0representsthehalfpowerbeamwidthofa broadsidearrayof
Nelements.
358

ARRAYS: LINEAR, PLANAR, AND CIRCULAR

Figure 6.34Threedimensionalantennapatternofaplanararrayofisotropicelementswitha
spacingof dx = dy = ,andequalamplitudeandphaseexcitations.

Thevalues

of

obtainedbyusingpreviousresults.Forauni
x0and

y0canbe
formdistribution,forexample,thevaluesof x0and y0canbeobtainedbyusing,
respectively,thelengths (Lx + dx )/and (Ly + dy )/andreadingthevaluesfrom
thebroadsidecurveofFigure6.12.ForaTschebyscheffdistribution,thevaluesof
x0and
y0areobtainedbymultiplyingeachuniformdistributionvaluebythebeam
broadeningfactorof(678)orFigure6.24(a).Thesameconceptcanbeusedtoobtain
thebeamwidthofotherdistributionsaslongastheircorrespondingbeambroadening
factorsareavailable.
y0),(695)reducesto
Forasquarearray (M = N, x0 =

sec 0 =

(695a)

sec 0

Equation(695a)indicatesthatfor 0 >0thebeamwidthincreasesproportionallyto
sec 0 =1/cos 0.Thebroadeningofthebeamwidthbysec 0,as 0increases,is
consistentwiththereductionbycos 0oftheprojectedareaofthearrayinthepoint
ingdirection.
Thehalfpowerbeamwidth
h,intheplanethatisperpendiculartothe = 0
elevation,isgivenby[20]

PLANAR ARRAY

359

Figure 6.35Twodimensionalantennapatternsofaplanararrayofisotropicelementswitha
spacingof dx = dy = ,andequalamplitudeandphaseexcitations.

1
2
x0

2
y0

(696)

cos2 0

anditdoesnotdependon 0.Forasquarearray,(696)reducesto
=
Thevaluesof
360

x0

and

y0

x0

(696a)

y0

arethesameasin(695)and(695a).

ARRAYS: LINEAR, PLANAR, AND CIRCULAR

Figure 6.36Halfpowerbeamwidthsforaconicalmainbeamorientedtoward = 0, = 0.
(SOURCE:R.S.Elliott,BeamwidthandDirectivityofLargeScanningArrays,LastofTwoParts,
The Microwave Journal,January1964.)
sin 0 +

Foraplanararray,itisusefultodeneabeamsolidangle
=

by
(697)

asitwasdonein(223),(224),and(226a).Using(695)and(696),(697)canbe
expressedas
2

2
y0
2

1/2

cos2

sec 0

x0
2

cos2

2
x0

6.10.3

1/2

(698)

y0

Directivity

ThedirectivityofthearrayfactorAF(, )whosemajorbeamispointinginthe = 0
and = 0direction,canbeobtainedbyemployingthedenitionof(222)andwriting
itas
4[AF(0, 0)][AF(0, 0)]|max
(699)
D0 =

2
[AF(, )][AF(, )]sin d d
0

361

PLANAR ARRAY

Anovelmethodhasbeenintroduced[21]forintegratingthetermsofthedirectivity
expressionforisotropicandconicalpatterns.
Asinthecaseofthebeamwidth,thetaskofevaluating(699)fornonuniform
amplitudedistributionisformidable.Instead,averysimpleprocedurewillbeoutlined
tocomputethedirectivityofaplanararrayusingdatafromlineararrays.
Itshouldbepointedoutthatthedirectivityofanarraywithbidirectionalcharacter
istics(twosidedpatterninfreespace)wouldbehalfthedirectivityofthesamearray
withunidirectional(onesidedpattern)elements(e.g.,dipolesovergroundplane).
Forlargeplanararrays,whicharenearlybroadside,thedirectivityreducesto[20]
D0 = cos 0Dx Dy

(6100)

where Dxand Dyarethedirectivitiesofbroadsidelineararrayseach,respectively,of

lengthandnumberofelements Lx, Mand Ly, N.Thefactorcos 0accountsforthe
decreaseofthedirectivitybecauseofthedecreaseoftheprojectedareaofthearray.
Eachofthevalues, Dxand Dy,canbeobtainedbyusing(679)withtheappropriate
beambroadeningfactor f.ForTschebyscheffarrays, Dxand Dycanbeobtained
using(678)orFigure624(a)and(679).Alternatively,theycanbeobtainedusing
thegraphicaldataofFigure6.24(b).
Formostpracticalamplitudedistributions,thedirectivityof(6100)isrelatedtothe
beamsolidangleofthesamearrayby

D0

sin 0+
2
2

32,400 sin 0 +
(degrees2)

(6101)

where Aisexpressedinsquareradiansorsquaredegrees.Equation(6101)should
becomparedwith(226)or(227)givenbyKraus.

Example 6.11

Computethehalfpowerbeamwidths,beamsolidangle,anddirectivityofaplanarsquare
arrayof100isotropicelements (10 10).AssumeaTschebyscheffdistribution, /2spac
ingbetweentheelements, 26dBsidelobelevel,andthemaximumorientedalong 0 =
30, 0 =45.
Solution:Sinceinthe xand ydirections
Lx + dx = Ly + dy =5

andeachisequalto L + dofExample6.10,then
=

x0

=10.97

Accordingto(695a)
=

362

x0

ARRAYS: LINEAR, PLANAR, AND CIRCULAR

and(696a)
=

=10.97

and(697)
=

=12.67(10.97) =138.96 (degrees2)

Thedirectivitycanbeobtainedusing(6100).Sincethearrayissquare, Dx = Dy,each
oneisequaltothedirectivityofExample6.10.Thus

Using(6101)
D0

32,400

A(degrees

32,400
138.96

=233.16 (dimensionless) =23.67dB

Obviouslywehaveanexcellentagreement.
A(rads

AninteractiveMATLABandFORTRANcomputerprogramentitled Arrayshas
beendeveloped,anditperformstheanalysisforuniformandnonuniformlineararrays,
anduniformplanararrays.TheMATLABversionoftheprogramalsoanalyzesuniform
circulararrays.ThedescriptionoftheprogramisprovidedinthecorrespondingREAD
MEle.
6.11

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

Antennaarrayscanbedesignedtocontroltheirradiationcharacteristicsbyproperly
selectingthephaseand/oramplitudedistributionbetweentheelements.Ithasalready
beenshownthatacontrolofthephasecansignicantlyaltertheradiationpatternof
anarray.Infact,theprincipleofscanningarrays,wherethemaximumofthearray
patterncanbepointedindifferentdirections,isbasedprimarilyoncontrolofthe
phaseexcitationoftheelements.Inaddition,ithasbeenshownthataproperampli
tudeexcitationtaperbetweentheelementscanbeusedtocontrolthebeamwidthand
sidelobelevel.Typicallytheleveloftheminorlobescanbecontrolledbytaper
ingthedistributionacrossthearray;thesmootherthetaperfromthecenterofthe
arraytowardtheedges,thelowerthesidelobelevelandthelargerthehalfpower
beamwidth,andconversely.Thereforeaverysmoothtaper,suchasthatrepresented
sec 0 =10.97sec(30 ) =12.67
byabinomialdistributionorothers,wouldresultinverylowsidelobebutlarger
halfpowerbeamwidth.Incontrast,anabruptdistribution,suchasthatofuniformillu
mination,exhibitsthesmallerhalfpowerbeamwidthbutthehighestsidelobelevel
(about 13.5dB).Therefore,ifitisdesiredtoachievesimultaneouslybothaverylow
sidelobelevel,aswellasasmallhalfpowerbeamwidth,acompromisedesignhasto
beselected.TheDolphTschebyscheffdesignofSection6.8.3isonesuchdistribution.

Thereareotherdesignsthatcanbeusedeffectivelytoachieveagoodcompromise
betweensidelobelevelandbeamwidth.TwosuchexamplesaretheTaylorLine
Source(TschebyscheffError)andtheTaylorLineSource(OneParameter).Theseare

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

363

discussedindetailinSections7.6and7.7ofChapter7,respectively.Bothofthese
areverysimilartotheDolphTschebyscheff,withprimarilythefollowingexceptions.
FortheTaylorTschebyscheffErrordesign,thenumberofminorlobeswiththe
samelevelcanbecontrolledaspartofthedesign;theleveloftheremainingoneis
monotonicallydecreasing.ThisisincontrasttotheDolphTschebyscheffwhereall
theminorlobesareofthesamelevel.Therefore,giventhesamesidelobelevel,the
halfpowerbeamwidthoftheTaylorTschebyscheffErrorisslightlygreaterthanthat
D0 = cos(30 )(9.18)(9.18) =229.28 (dimensionless) =23.60dB
oftheDolphTschebyscheff.FortheTaylorOneParameterdesign,theleveloftherst
minorlobe(closesttothemajorlobe)iscontrolledaspartofthedesign;thelevelof
theremainingonesaremonotonicallydecreasing.Therefore,giventhesamesidelobe
level,thehalfpowerbeamwidthoftheTaylorOneParameterisslightlygreaterthan
thatoftheTaylorTschebyscheffError,whichinturnisslightlygreaterthanthatof
theDolphTschebyscheffdesign.Moredetailsofthesetwomethods,andotherones,
canbefoundinChapter7.Howevertherearesomeothercharacteristicsthatcanbe
usedtodesignarrays.
Uniformarraysareusuallypreferredindesignofdirectradiatingactiveplanararrays
withalargenumberofelements[22].Onedesignconsiderationinsatelliteantennas
isthebeamwidthwhichcanbeusedtodeterminethefootprintareaofthecoverage.
Itisimportanttorelatethebeamwidthtothesizeoftheantenna.Inaddition,itisalso
importanttomaximizethedirectivityoftheantennawithintheangularsectordened
bythebeamwidth,especiallyattheedgeofthecoverage(EOC)[22].Forengineering
designpurposes,closedformexpressionswouldbedesirable.
Torelatethehalfpowerbeamwidth,oranyotherbeamwidth,tothelengthofthe
arrayinclosedform,itiseasiertorepresenttheuniformarraywithalargenumber
ofelementsasanaperture.Thenormalizedarrayfactorforarectangulararrayisthat
of(688).Forbroadsideradiation (0 =0)andsmallspacingsbetweentheelements
(dx and dy ),(688)canbeusedtoapproximatethepatternofauniformillu
minatedaperture.Inoneprincipalplane(i.e., x-zplane; =0)ofFigure6.28,(688)
reducesforsmallelementspacingandlargenumberofelementsto

kLx
sin
1
2
(AF )n(, =0) =
kLx
M
sin
sin
2
(6102)
where Lxisthelengthofthearrayinthe xdirection.Thearrayfactorof(6102)
canbeusedtorepresenttheeldinaprincipalplaneofauniformaperture(see
Sections12.5.1,12.5.2andTable12.1).Sincethemaximumeffectiveareaofauniform
arrayisequaltoitsphysicalarea AeM = Ap[see(1237)],themaximumdirectivityis
equalto
sin

D0 =

Mkdx
sin
2
kdx
sin
2

4
2

AeM =

sin

4
2

Mkdx
sin
2
Mkdx
sin
2

Ap =

4
2

sin

Lx Ly

Thereforethenormalizedpowerpatterninthe xzplane,multipliedbythemaxi
mumdirectivity,canbewrittenastheproductof(6102)and(6103),anditcan

(6103)

364
ARRAYS: LINEAR, PLANAR, AND CIRCULAR

beexpressedas

P (, =0) =

4Lx Ly
2

kLx
sin
2
kLx
sin
2

sin

(6104)

Themaximumof(6104)occurswhen =0.However,foranyotherangle = c,
themaximumofthepatternoccurswhen
sin

kLx
sin c =1
2

(6105)

or
Lx =

ksin c

2sin c

(6105a)

Thereforetomaximizethedirectivityattheedge = cofagivenangularsector
0 c,theoptimumaperturedimensionmustbechosenaccordingto(6105a).
Doingotherwiseleadstoadecreaseindirectivityattheedgeofthecoverage.
Forasquareaperture (Ly = Lx )themaximumvalueofthenormalizedpower
patternof(6104)occurswhen =0,anditisequalto

P ( =0 )|max =4

Lx

(6106)

whilethatattheedgeofthecovering,usingtheoptimumdimension,is
P ( = c) =4

Lx

(6107)

Thereforethevalueofthedirectivityattheedgeofthedesiredcoverage ( = c),
relativetoitsmaximumvalueat =0,is
P ( = c)
=
P ( =0)

(6108)

=0.4053 (dimensionless) = 3.92dB

Thusthevariationofthedirectivitywithinthedesiredcoverage (0 c)isless
than4dB.
If,forexample,thelengthofthearrayforamaximumhalfpowerbeamwidth
coverageischangedfromtheoptimumorchosentobeoptimizedatanotherangle,then
thedirectivityattheedgeofthehalfpowerbeamwidthisreducedfromtheoptimum.
Similarexpressionshavebeenderivedforcircularapertureswithuniform,parabolic
andparabolicwith 10dBcosineonapedestaldistributions[22],andtheycanbe
foundinChapter12,Section12.7.

6.12

CIRCULAR ARRAY

365

CIRCULAR ARRAY

Thecirculararray,inwhichtheelementsareplacedinacircularring,isanarraycon
gurationofverypracticalinterest.Overtheyears,applicationsspanradiodirection
nding,airandspacenavigation,undergroundpropagation,radar,sonar,andmany
othersystems.Morerecently,circulararrayshavebeenproposedforwirelesscommu
nication,andinparticularforsmartantennas[23].FormoredetailsseeSection16.12.
6.12.1

Array Factor

ReferringtoFigure6.37,letusassumethat Nisotropicelementsareequallyspaced
onthe x-yplanealongacircularringoftheradius a.Thenormalizedeldofthearray
canbewrittenas
N
ej kRn
(6109)
En(r, , ) =
an
Rn
n=1

where Rnisthedistancefromthe nthelementtotheobservationpoint.Ingeneral

Rn = (r2 + a2 2arcos )1/2

(6109a)

r acos n = r a(a a r ) = r asin cos(

n)

(6109b)

whichfor r
Rn

areducesto

Geometryofan Nelementcirculararray.

-3Figure 6.37
366

where

ARRAYS: LINEAR, PLANAR, AND CIRCULAR

a a r = (a xcos n + a ysin n) (a xsin cos + a ysin sin + a z

cos )
(6109c)

=sin cos( n)
Thus(6109)reduces,assumingthatforamplitudevariations Rn
En(r, , ) =

r,to

ej kr
r

ane+j kasin cos(n )

(6110)

n=1

where
an =excitationcoefcients(amplitudeandphase)of nthelement
n
N
Ingeneral,theexcitationcoefcientofthe nthelementcanbewrittenas

n =2
where

an = Inej n
=angularpositionof nthelementon xyplane

(6111)

In =amplitudeexcitationofthe nthelement
n =phaseexcitation(relativetothearraycenter)ofthe nthelement
With(6111),(6110)canbeexpressedas
En(r, , ) =
where

ej kr
[AF(, )]
r

(6112)

Inej[kasin cos(n )+n]

AF(, ) =

(6112a)

n=1

Equation(6112a)representsthearrayfactorofacirculararrayof Nequallyspaced
elements.Todirectthepeakofthemainbeaminthe (0, 0)direction,thephase
excitationofthe nthelementcanbechosentobe
n = kasin 0cos(0 n)

(6113)

Thusthearrayfactorof(6112a)canbewrittenas
N

Inej ka[sin cos(n)sin 0cos(0 n)]

AF(, ) =
n=1
N

(6114)

Inej ka[cos cos 0 )

=
n=1

CIRCULAR ARRAY

Toreduce(6114)toasimplerform,wedene 0as
0 = a[(sin cos sin 0cos 0)2 + (sin sin sin 0sin 0)2]1/2

Thusthe
exponentialin
(6114)takesthe
formof
ka(cos
cos 0)

367

(6115)
k0[sin cos( n) sin 0cos(0 n)]
[(sin cos sin 0cos 0)2 + (sin sin sin 0sin 0)2]1/2

(6116)

whichwhenexpandedreducesto
ka(cos cos 0)
= k0

cos n(sin cos sin 0cos 0) +sin n(sin sin sin 0sin 0)
[(sin cos sin 0cos 0)2 + (sin sin sin 0sin 0)2]1/2
(6116a)

Dening
sin cos sin 0cos 0

cos =

[(sin cos sin 0cos 0)2 + (sin sin sin 0sin 0)2]1/2

(6117)

then
sin =[1 cos2 ]1/2
sin sin sin 0sin 0
[(sin cos sin 0cos 0)2 + (sin sin sin 0sin 0)2]1/2

(6118)

Thus(6116a)and(6114)canberewritten,respectively,as
ka(cos cos 0) = k0(cos ncos +sin nsin ) = k0cos(n )

AF(, ) =

(6119)

Inej k0cos(n )

Inej ka(cos cos 0) =

n=1

(6120)

n=1

where
=tan1

sin sin sin 0sin 0

(6120a)

sin cos sin 0cos 0

and 0isdenedby(6115).
Equations(6120),(6115),and(6120a)canbeusedtocalculatethearrayfactor
once N, In, a, 0,and 0arespecied.Thisisusuallyverytimeconsuming,even
formoderatelylargevaluesof N.Thethreedimensionalpatternofthearrayfactor
fora10elementuniformcirculararrayof ka =10isshowninFigure6.38.The
correspondingtwodimensionalprincipalplanepatternsaredisplayedinFigure6.39.
368

ARRAYS: LINEAR, PLANAR, AND CIRCULAR

Relative
magnitude
1.0

90
q
x zplane(f0)

90
q
y zplane(f90)

Figure 6.38Threedimensionalamplitudepatternofthearrayfactorforauniformcircular
arrayof N =10elements (C/ = ka =10).

Astheradiusofthearraybecomesverylarge,thedirectivityofauniformcircular
arrayapproachesthevalueof N,where Nisequaltothenumberofelements.An
excellentdiscussiononcirculararrayscanbefoundin[24].
Forauniformamplitudeexcitationofeachelement (In = I0),(6120)canbewrit
tenas
+

JMN (k0)ej MN(/2 )

AF(, ) = NI0

(6121)

M=

where Jp(x)istheBesselfunctionoftherstkind(seeAppendixV).Thepartof
thearrayfactorassociatedwiththezeroorderBesselfunction J0(k0)iscalledthe
principal termandtheremainingtermsarenotedasthe residuals.Foracirculararray
withalargenumberofelements,theterm J0(k0)alonecanbeusedtoapproximatethe
twodimensionalprincipalplanepatterns.Theremainingtermsin(6121)contribute
negligiblybecauseBesselfunctionsoflargerordersareverysmall.
TheMATLABcomputerprogram Arrays,whichisusedtocomputeradiationchar
acteristicsofplanarandcirculararrays,doescomputetheradiationpatternsofacircular
arraybasedon(6120)and(6121).Theonebasedon(6121)computestwopatterns;
onebasedontheprincipaltermandtheotherbasedontheprincipaltermplustwo
residualterms.

MULTIMEDIA

369

Figure 6.39Principalplaneamplitudepatternsofthearrayfactorforauniformcirculararray
of N =10elements (C/ = ka =10).

6.13

MULTIMEDIA

IntheCDthatispartofthebook,thefollowingmultimediaresourcesareincludedfor
thereview,understanding,andvisualizationofthematerialofthischapter:
a. Javabased interactive questionnaire,withanswers.
b. Javabased appletforcomputinganddisplayingtheradiationcharacteristics,
directivity,andpatternofuniformandnonuniformlineararrays.
c. Javabasedpattern animationofuniformandnonuniformlineararrays.
d. Matlaband Fortrancomputerprogram,designated Arrays,forcomputingthe
radiationcharacteristicslinear,planar,andcirculararrays.
e. Power Point (PPT)viewgraphs,inmulticolor.
370

ARRAYS: LINEAR, PLANAR, AND CIRCULAR

REFERENCES
1.G.Aspley,L.ColtumandM.Rabinowitz,QuicklyDeviseaFastDiodePhaseShifter,
Microwaves,May1979,pp.6768.
2.R.E.Collin, Foundations for Microwave Engineering(2ndedition),McGrawHill,Inc.,New
York,1992.
3.D.M.Pozar, Microwave Engineering,3rdedition,JohnWiley&Sons,Inc.,NewYork,
2004.
4.R.S.Elliott,BeamwidthandDirectivityofLargeScanningArrays,FirstofTwoParts,
Microwave Journal,December1963,pp.5360.
5.W.W.HansenandJ.R.Woodyard,ANewPrincipleinDirectionalAntennaDesign,
Proc. IRE,Vol.26,No.3,March1938,pp.333345.

6.J.S.Stone,UnitedStatesPatentsNo.1,643,323andNo.1,715,433.
7.C.L.Dolph,ACurrentDistributionforBroadsideArraysWhichOptimizestheRelation
shipBetweenBeamwidthandSideLobeLevel, Proc. IRE and Waves and Electrons,June
1946.
8.N.Yaru,ANoteonSuperGainArrays, Proc. IRE,Vol.39,September1951,
pp.10811085.
9.L.J.Ricardi,RadiationPropertiesoftheBinomialArray, Microwave J.,Vol.15,No.12,
December1972,pp.2021.
10.H.J.Riblet,DiscussiononACurrentDistributionforBroadsideArraysWhichOpti
mizestheRelationshipBetweenBeamwidthandSideLobeLevel, Proc. IRE,May1947,
pp.489492.
11.D.Barbiere,AMethodforCalculatingtheCurrentDistributionofTschebyscheffArrays,
Proc. IRE,January1952,pp.7882.
12.R.J.Stegen,ExcitationCoefcientsandBeamwidthsofTschebyscheffArrays, Proc. IRE,
November1953,pp.16711674.
13.C.J.Drane,Jr.,UsefulApproximationsfortheDirectivityandBeamwidthofLargeScan
ningDolphChebyshevArrays, Proc. IEEE,November1968,pp.17791787.
14.M.M.DawoudandA.P.Anderson,DesignofSuperdirectiveArrayswithHigh
RadiationEfciency. IEEE Trans. Antennas Propagat.,Vol.AP26.No.6,January1978,
pp.819823.
15.S.A.Schelkunoff,AMathematicalTheoryofLinearArrays, Bell System Tech. Journal,
Vol.22,January1943,pp.8087.
16.C.J.BowkampandN.G.deBruijn,TheProblemofOptimumAntennaCurrentDistri
bution, Phillips Res. Rept.,Vol.1,January1946,pp.135158.
17.E.H.Newman,J.H.Richmond,andC.H.Walter,SuperdirectiveReceivingArrays,
IEEE Trans. Antennas Propagat.,Vol.AP26,No.5,September1978,pp.629635.
18.J.L.Allen,OnSurfaceWaveCouplingBetweenElementsofLargeArrays, IEEE Trans.
Antennas Propagat.,Vol.AP13,No.4,July1965,pp.638639.
19.R.H.T.Bates,ModeTheoryApproachtoArrays, IEEE Trans. Antennas Propagat.,
Vol.AP13,No.2,March1965,pp.321322.
20.R.S.Elliott,BeamwidthandDirectivityofLargeScanningArrays,LastofTwoParts,
Microwave Journal,January1964,pp.7482.
21.B.J.Forman,ANovelDirectivityExpressionforPlanarAntennaArrays, Radio Science,
Vol.5,No.7,July1970,pp.10771083.
22.K.Praba,OptimalApertureforMaximumEdgeofCoverage(EOC)Directivity, IEEE
Antennas Propagat. Magazine,Vol.36,No.3,June1994,pp.7274.

PROBLEMS

371

23.P.IoannidesandC.A.Balanis,UniformCircularArraysforSmartAntennas,IEEETrans.
AntennasandPropagat.SocietyInternationalSymposium,Monterey,CA,June2025,
2004,Vol.3,pp.27962799.
24.M.T.Ma, Theory and Application of Antenna Arrays,Wiley,1974,Chapter3,pp.191202.

PROBLEMS

6.1.

6.2.

Foraspacingof d = /4betweentheelements,
Threeisotropic ndthe
sources,with (a)arrayfactor
spacing d
betweenthem, (b)angles(indegrees)wherethenullsofthepatternoccur (0 180)
areplaced
(c)angles(indegrees)wherethemaximaofthepatternoccur (0 180)
alongthe
zaxis.The
Twoveryshortdipoles(innitesimal)ofequallengthareequidistantfromthe
excitation
originwiththeircenterslyingonthe yaxis,andorientedparalleltothe zaxis.
coefcientof Theyareexcitedwithcurrentsofequalamplitude.Thecurrentindipole1(at
eachoutside y = d/2)leadsthecurrentindipole2(at y = +d/2)by90inphase.The
elementisunity spacingbetweendipolesisonequarterwavelength.Tosimplifythenotation,
whilethat
let E0equalthemaximummagnitudeofthefareldatdistance rduetoeither
ofthecenter sourcealone.
elementis2. (a)Deriveexpressionsforthefollowingsixprincipalplanepatterns:
1. |E ( )|for =0 4. |E ( )|for =0
2. |E ( )|for =90 5. |E ( )|for =90
3. |E ()|for =90 6. |E ()|for =90
(b)Sketchthesixeldpatterns.
6.3. Athreeelementarrayofisotropicsourceshasthephaseandmagnituderela
tionshipsshown.Thespacingbetweentheelementsis d = /2.
(a)Findthearrayfactor.
(b)Findallthenulls.
z
#21
d
#1

d
#3+1

6.4. RepeatProblem6.3whentheexcitationcoefcientsforelements#1,#2and
#3are,respectively, +1, +jand j.
372

ARRAYS: LINEAR, PLANAR, AND CIRCULAR

6.5.Fourisotropicsourcesareplacedalongthe zaxisasshown.Assumingthatthe
amplitudesofelements#1and#2are +1andtheamplitudesofelements#3
and#4are 1(or180degreesoutofphasewith#1and#2),nd
(a)thearrayfactor in simplied form
(b)allthenullswhen d = /2
z
#2
d
#1
d/2

d/2
#3

d
#4

6.6.Threeisotropicelementsofequalexcitationphaseareplacedalongthe yaxis,
asshowninthegure.Iftherelativeamplitudeof#1is +2andof#2and
#3is +1,nda simpliedexpressionforthethreedimensionalunnormalized
arrayfactor.
z

d
#3

d
#1

#2

6.7.Designa uniform broadsidelineararrayof Nelementsplacedalongthe zaxis

withauniformspacing d = /10betweentheelements.Determinethe closest
integer numberofelementssothatinthe elevation planethe
(a)Halfpowerbeamwidthofthearrayfactorisapproximately60.
(b)Firstnullbeamwidthofthearrayfactoris60.
6.8.Auniformarrayof3elementsisdesignedsothatitsmaximumisdirected
towardbroadside.Thespacingbetweentheelementsis /2.Forthearray
factoroftheantenna,determine
(a)alltheangles(in degrees)wherethenullswilloccur.
(b)alltheangles(in degrees)whereallthemaximawilloccur.
(c)thehalfpowerbeamwidth(in degrees).
(d)directivity(dimensionlessand in dB).
(e)the relativevalue(in dB)ofthemagnitudeofthearrayfactortoward
endre (0 =0)comparedtothattowardbroadside (0 =90).

PROBLEMS

6.9.

6.12.

6.10.
6.11.

6.13.

373

6.14. Designatwoelementuniformarrayofisotropicsources,positionedalongthe
zaxisadistance /4apart,sothatitsonlymaximumoccursalong 0 =0.
Assumingordinaryendreconditions,ndthe
(a)relativephaseexcitationofeachelement
(b)arrayfactorofthearray
(c)directivityusingthecomputerprogram DirectivityofChapter2.Compare
itwithKrausapproximateformula.
RepeatthedesignofProblem6.9sothatitsonlymaximumoccursalong
=180.
Designafourelementordinaryendrearraywiththeelementsplacedalong
the zaxisadistance dapart.Foraspacingof d = /2betweentheelements
ndthe
(a)progressivephaseexcitationbetweentheelementstoaccomplishthis
(b)angles(in degrees)wherethenullsofthearrayfactoroccur
(c)angles(in degrees)wherethemaximumofthearrayfactoroccur
(d)beamwidth(in degrees)betweentherstnullsofthearrayfactor
(e)directivity(in dB)ofthearrayfactor.Verifyusingthecomputerprogram
DirectivityofChapter2.
Designanordinaryendreuniformlineararraywithonlyonemaximumso
thatitsdirectivityis20dB(aboveisotropic).Thespacingbetweentheelements
is /4,anditslengthismuchgreaterthanthespacing.Determinethe
(a)numberofelements
(b)overalllengthofthearray(inwavelengths)
(c)approximatehalfpowerbeamwidth(indegrees)
(d)amplitudelevel(comparedtothemaximumofthemajorlobe)oftherst
minorlobe(indB)
(e)progressivephaseshiftbetweentheelements(indegrees).
Designa uniform ordinary end-relineararrayof8elementsplacedalongthe
zaxissothatthe maximum amplitudeofthearrayfactorisorientedindifferent
directions.Determinethe range(in )ofthe spacing dbetweentheelements
whenthemainmaximumofthearrayfactorisdirectedtoward
(a) 0 =0only;
(b) 0 =180only;
(c) 0 =0and180only;
(d) 0 =0,90,and180only.
Itisdesiredtodesigna uniform ordinary end-rearrayof6elementswitha
maximumtoward 0 =0and 0 =180,simultaneously.Determinethe
(a)smallestseparationbetweentheelements(in ).
(b)excitationprogressivephaseshift(in degrees)thatshouldbeused
(c) approximatedirectivityofthearray(dimensionlessandin dB)
(d) relativevalue(in dB)ofthemagnitudeofthearrayfactortowardbroadside
(0 =90)comparedtothattowardthemaximum (0 =0or180).
374

6.15.

6.16.
ARRAYS: LINEAR, PLANAR, AND CIRCULAR

RedesigntheendreuniformarrayofProblem6.12inordertoincreaseits
directivitywhilemaintainingthesame,asinProblem6.12,uniformity,number
ofelements,spacingbetweenthem,andendreradiation.
(a)WhatdifferentfromthedesignofProblem6.12areyougoingtodoto
achievethis?Beveryspecic,andgivevalues.
6.17. (b)Byhowmanydecibels(maximum)canyouincreasethedirectivity,com
paredtothedesignofProblem6.12?
(c)Areyouexpectingthehalfpowerbeamwidthtoincreaseordecrease?Why
increaseordecreaseandbyhowmuch?
(d)Whatantennagureofmeritwillbedegradedbythisdesign?Bevery
specicinnamingit,andwhyisitdegraded?
Tenisotropicelementsareplacedalongthe zaxis.DesignaHansenWoodyard
endrearraywiththemaximumdirectedtoward 0 =180.Findthe:
(a)desiredspacing
(b)progressivephaseshift (inradians)
6.18. (c)locationofallthenulls(indegrees)
(d)rstnullbeamwidth(indegrees)
(e)directivity;verifyusingthecomputerprogram DirectivityofChapter2.
Design a uniform ordinaryendrearrayof6elementsplacedalongthe zaxis
andwiththemaximumofthearrayfactor directed onlyalong 0 =0(end-re
only in one direction).Determinethe
(a)maximumspacing(in )thatcanbeusedbetweentheelements.
(b)maximumdirectivity(in dB)ofthearrayfactorusingthemaximumallow
ablespacing.
6.19.
Ifthearraywasdesignedtobea Hansen-Woodyardendrearrayofthesame
numberofelements,whatwouldthefollowingparametersbeforthenewarray?
(c)directivity(in dB).
6.20.
(d)Spacing(in )betweentheelements.
Anarrayof10isotropicelementsareplacedalongthe zaxisadistance d
apart.Assuminguniformdistribution,ndtheprogressivephase(indegrees),
halfpowerbeamwidth(indegrees),rstnullbeamwidth(indegrees),rstside
lobelevelmaximumbeamwidth(indegrees),relativesidelobelevelmaximum
(indB),anddirectivity(indB)(usingequationsandthecomputerprogram
DirectivityofChapter2,andcompare)for
(a)broadside(c)HansenWoodyardendre
(b)ordinaryendre
arrayswhenthespacingbetweentheelementsis d = /4.
Findthebeamwidthanddirectivityofa10elementuniformscanningarrayof
isotropicsourcesplacedalongthe zaxis.Thespacingbetweentheelementsis
/4andthemaximumisdirectedat45fromitsaxis.
Showthatinorderforauniformarrayof Nelementsnottohaveanyminor
lobes,thespacingandtheprogressivephaseshiftbetweentheelementsmustbe
(a) d = /N, =0forabroadsidearray.
(b) d = /(2N ), = kdforanordinaryendrearray.

6.21.

PROBLEMS

375

Auniformarrayof20isotropicelementsisplacedalongthe zaxisadistance
/4apartwithaprogressivephaseshiftof rad.Calculate (givetheanswer
inradians)forthefollowingarraydesigns:
(a)broadside
(b)endrewithmaximumat 0 =0
(c)endrewithmaximumat 0 =180
(d)phasedarraywithmaximumaimedat 0 =30
6.22. (e)HansenWoodyardwithmaximumat 0 =0
(f)HansenWoodyardwithmaximumat 0 =180
Designa19elementuniformlinearscanningarraywithaspacingof /4
betweentheelements.
(a)Whatistheprogressivephaseexcitationbetweentheelementssothatthe
maximumofthearrayfactoris30fromthelinewheretheelements
areplaced?
(b)Whatisthehalfpowerbeamwidth(indegrees)ofthearrayfactorofparta?
6.23. (c)Whatisthevalue(indB)ofthemaximumoftherstminorlobe?
Verifyusingthecomputerprogram Arraysofthischapter.
Forauniformbroadsidelineararrayof10isotropicelements,determinethe
approximatedirectivity(indB)whenthespacingbetweentheelementsis
(a) /4

(b)

/2

(c)3/4

(d)

Comparethevalueswiththoseobtainedusingthecomputerprogram Arrays.
6.24. Themaximumdistance dbetweentheelementsinalinearscanningarrayto
suppressgratinglobesis
dmax =

1 + |cos(0)|

where 0isthedirectionofthepatternmaximum.Whatisthemaximumdis
tancebetweentheelements,withoutintroducinggratinglobes,whenthearray
isdesignedtoscantomaximumanglesof
(a) 0 =30(b) 0 =45(c) 0 =60
6.25. Anarrayof4isotropicsourcesisformedbyplacingoneattheorigin,andone
alongthe x, y,and zaxesadistance dfromtheorigin.Findthearrayfactor
forallspace.Theexcitationcoefcientofeachelementisidentical.
6.26. Thenormalizedarrayfactorofalineararrayofdiscreteelementsplacedalong
the zaxiscanbeapproximatedby
(AF )n cos

0 90
0 360

Assumenowthatthesamephysicallineararray,withthesamenumberof
elements,isplacedalongthe yaxis, and it is radiating in the0 180,0
180angularspace. For the array with its elements along the yaxis
376

6.27.

ARRAYS: LINEAR, PLANAR, AND

CIRCULAR

(a)Writethenew
approximatearrayfactor.

(b)Findthehalfpowerbeamwidth(in degrees)inthetwoprincipalplanes.
1. xyplane
2. yzplane
(c)Exactdirectivity(dimensionlessand in dB)basedontheapproximate
expressionforthearrayfactor.
RepeatProblem6.26foranarrayfactorof
(AF )n cos2

0 90
0 360

6.28. Designalineararrayofisotropicelementsplacedalongthe zaxissuchthatthe

nullsofthearrayfactoroccurat =0and =45.Assumethattheelements
arespacedadistanceof /4apartandthat =0.
(a)Sketchandlabelthevisibleregionontheunitcircle
(b)Findtherequirednumberofelements
(c)Determinetheirexcitationcoefcients
6.29. Designalineararrayofisotropicelementsplacedalongthe zaxissuchthat
thezerosofthearrayfactoroccurat =10,70,and110.Assumethatthe
elementsarespacedadistanceof /4apartandthat =45.
(a)Sketchandlabelthevisibleregionontheunitcircle
(b)Findtherequirednumberofelements
(c)Determinetheirexcitationcoefcients
6.30. RepeatProblem6.29sothatthenullsoccurat =0,50and100.Assume
aspacingof /5and =0betweentheelements.
6.31. Designathreeelementbinomialarrayofisotropicelementspositionedalong
the zaxisadistance dapart.Findthe
(a)normalizedexcitationcoefcients
(b)arrayfactor
(c)nullsofthearrayfactorfor d =
(d)maximaofthearrayfactorfor d =
6.32. Showthatathreeelementbinomialarraywithaspacingof d /2between
theelementsdoesnothaveasidelobe.
6.33. Fourisotropicsourcesareplacedsymmetricallyalongthe zaxisadistance d
apart.Designabinomialarray.Findthe
(a)normalizedexcitationcoefcients
(b)arrayfactor
(c)angles(indegrees)wherethearrayfactornullsoccurwhen d =3/4
6.34. Fiveisotropicsourcesareplacedsymmetricallyalongthe zaxis,eachsepa
ratedfromitsneighborbyanelectricaldistance kd =5/4.Forabinomial
array,ndthe
(a)excitationcoefcients
(b)arrayfactor

PROBLEMS

(c)normalizedpowerpattern
(d)angles(indegrees)wherethenulls(ifany)occur
Verifypartsoftheproblemusingthecomputerprogram Arrays.
6.35.

377

Designafourelementbinomialarrayof /2dipoles,placedsymmetrically
alongthe xaxisadistance dapart.Thelengthofeachdipoleisparalleltothe
zaxis.
6.36. (a)Findthenormalizedexcitationcoefcients.
(b)Writethearrayfactorforallspace.
6.37. (c)Writeexpressionsforthe Eeldsforallspace.
RepeatthedesignofProblem6.35whenthe /2dipolesareplacedalongthe
yaxis.
Designabroadsidebinomialarrayofsixelementsplacedalongthe zaxis
separatedbyadistance d = /2.
(a)Findtheamplitudeexcitationcoefcients(ans).
(b)Whatistheprogressivephaseexcitationbetweentheelements?
(c)Writethearrayfactor.
6.38. (d)Nowassumethattheelementsare /4dipolesorientedinthe zdirection.
Writetheexpressionfortheelectriceld vectorinthefareld.
6.39.
Verifypartsoftheproblemusingthecomputerprogram Arrays.
RepeatProblem6.37foranarrayofsevenelements.
Fiveisotropicelements,withspacing dbetweenthem,areplacedalongthe
zaxis.Forabinomialamplitudedistribution,
(a)writethearrayfactorinitsmostsimpliedform
6.40. (b)computethedirectivity(indB)andcompareusingthecomputerprogram
Arraysofthischapter (d = /2)
(c)ndthenullsofthearraywhen d = (0 180)
Atypicalbasestationthatyouseeasyoutravelaroundthecityconsistsofan
equilateral/triangulararrayofdipoles.Assumethateachsideoftheequilateral
triangleconsistsofthreedipoles.Letusassumethateachofthedipoles,at
afrequencyof1.9GHz,is /2inlength.Thedipolesareplacedalongthe
yaxis,areseparatedbyadistanceof /2,andarepointingalongthe zaxis.
Thecenterelementisplacedattheoriginandtheothertwoareplacedoneon
eachsideofthecenterelement.Assumingthattheelementsarefedinphase
andaredesignedforabroadsidebinomialamplitudedistribution:
378

6.42.

6.43.
6.41.

6.44.

ARRAYS: LINEAR, PLANAR, AND CIRCULAR

(a)Determinethe totalnormalizedamplitudeexcitationcoefcientofeach
element.
(b)Writeanexpressionforthenormalizedarrayfactor.
(c)Determinethemaximumdirectivity(dimensionlessand in dB)ofthe array
factorwhen d = /2.
6.45. (d)Statethedirectivity(dimensionlessand in dB)ofeachindividualelement.
(e)Makingan educated guess,whatwouldyouexpectthe very maximum directivity(dimensionlessand in dB)oftheentire3elementarray, which takes
into account the element pattern and the array factor,couldnotexceed?
A nonuniformlineararrayhas 3 elementsplacedsymmetricallyalongthe zaxis
andspaced d = /4apart,and all are fed with the same phase.However,the
totalamplitudeexcitationcoefcientsoftheelementsareasfollows:
2forthecenterelement
Unityforeachoftheedgeelements
Forthearrayfactorofthearray,determinethe:
(a)Angle (in degrees)wherethemaximumofthemainlobeoccurs.
(b)Angles (in degrees)wherethe 2 half-power pointsofthemainlobeoccur.
(c)Halfpowerbeamwidth(in degrees)ofthemainlobe.
(d)Approximatemaximumdirectivity(dimensionlessand in dB).
Designa ve-element binomial arraywithelementsplaced along the z-axis.
(a)Derivetheexcitationcoefcients.
(b)Writea simplied expressionforthearrayfactor.
(c)Foraspacingof d =3/4,determinealltheangles (in degrees)where
thearrayfactorpossessesnulls.
(d)Foraspacingof d =3/4,determinealltheangles (in degrees)where
thearrayfactorpossesses mainmaxima.
Designaveelementbinomialarraywiththeelementsplacedalongthe zaxis.
Itisdesiredthattheamplitudepatternofthearrayfactorhasnulls onlyat =0
and180, one major lobewiththemaximumat 0 =90,and no minor lobes.
Tomeettherequirementsofthisarray,determinethe:
(a)Spacingbetweentheelements(in ).
(b)Totalamplitudeexcitationcoefcientofeachelement.
(c)Directivity(dimensionlessand in dB).
(d)Halfpowerbeamwidth(in degrees).
Itisdesiredtodesignabinomialarraywithauniformspacingbetweenthe
elementsof /2placedalongthe zaxis,andwithanelevationhalfpower
beamwidthforitsarrayfactorof15.18degrees.Toaccomplishthis,deter
minethe:
(a)Numberofelements.
(b)Directivity(dimensionlessandin dB).
(c)Sidelobelevelofthearrayfactor(in dB).
Design a nonuniform binomial broadside linear array of N elements,
with a uniform spacing dbetweentheelements,whichisdesiredto have no minor lobes.

PROBLEMS

379

(a)Determinethe largest spacing d(in ).

(b)Findthe closest integer numberofelementssothatthehalfpower
beamwidthis18.
(c)Comparethedirectivities(indB)ofthe uniformand binomialbroadside
arrayswiththesamenumberofelementsandspacingbetweenthem. Which
is smaller and by how many dB?
6.46. Designa nonuniform broadside binomialarrayof threeelementsthatitspattern
hasonemajorlobeandnominorlobesin0 180.Itisalsorequired
thatthepatternexhibitsnullstoward =0and =180.Determinethe:
(a)Normalizedtotalamplitudecoefcientofeachofthethreeelements(the
ones at the edges to be of unity amplitude).
(b)Halfpowerbeamwidth(in degrees).
(c)Directivity(dimensionlessand in dB).
6.47. RepeatthedesignofProblem6.31foraDolphTschebyscheffarraywithaside
lobelevelof 20dB.
6.48. Designathreeelement, 40dBsidelobelevelDolphTschebyscheffarrayof
isotropicelementsplacedsymmetricallyalongthe zaxis.Findthe
(a)amplitudeexcitationcoefcients
(b)arrayfactor
(c)angleswherethenullsoccurfor d =3/4(0 180)
(d)directivityfor d =3/4
(e)halfpowerbeamwidthfor d =3/4
6.49. Designafourelement, 40dBsidelobelevelDolphTschebyscheffarrayof
isotropicelementsplacedsymmetricallyaboutthe zaxis.Findthe
(a)amplitudeexcitationcoefcients
(b)arrayfactor
(c)angleswherethenullsoccurfor d =3/4.
Arealloftheminorlobesofthesamelevel?Whynot?Whatneedstobe
changedtomakethemofthesamelevel?
Verifypartsoftheproblemusingthecomputerprogram Arrays.
6.50. RepeatthedesignofProblem6.49foraveelement, 20dBDolph
Tschebyscheffarray.
6.51. RepeatthedesignofProblem6.49forasixelement, 20dBDolph
Tschebyscheffarray.
6.52. RepeatthedesignofProblem6.35foraDolphTschebyscheffdistributionof
40dBsidelobeleveland /4spacingbetweentheelements.Inaddition,
ndthe
(a)directivityoftheentirearray
(b)halfpowerbeamwidthsoftheentirearrayinthe x-yand y-zplanes
6.53. RepeatthedesignofProblem6.36foraDolphTschebyscheffdistributionof
40dBsidelobeleveland /4spacingbetweentheelements.Inaddition,
ndthe
380

6.55.
6.54.

6.56.

ARRAYS: LINEAR, PLANAR, AND CIRCULAR

(a)directivityoftheentirearray
(b)halfpowerbeamwidthsoftheentirearrayinthe x-yand y-zplanes
Designaveelement, 40dBsidelobelevelDolphTschebyscheffarrayof
isotropicelements.Theelementsareplacedalongthe xaxiswithaspacingof
/4betweenthem.Determinethe
(a)normalizedamplitudecoefcients(b)arrayfactor
(c)directivity(d)halfpowerbeamwidth
6.57. Thetotallengthofadiscreteelementarrayis4.Fora 30dBsidelobelevel
DolphTschebyscheffdesignandaspacingof /2betweentheelementsalong
the zaxis,ndthe
(a)numberofelements(b)excitationcoefcients
(c)directivity(d)halfpowerbeamwidth
Designabroadsidethreeelement, 26dBsidelobelevelDolphTschebyscheff
arrayofisotopicsourcesplacedalongthe zaxis.Forthisdesign,ndthe
(a)normalizedexcitationcoefcients
(b)arrayfactor
(c)nullsofthearrayfactorwhen d = /2(indegrees)
6.58.
(d)maximaofthearrayfactorwhen d = /2(indegrees)
(e)HPBWbeamwidth(indegrees)ofthearrayfactorwhen d = /2
(f)directivity(indB)ofthearrayfactorwhen d = /2
Designabroadsideuniformarray,withitselementsplacedalongthe zaxis,in
orderthedirectivityofthearrayfactoris33dB(aboveisotropic).Assuming
6.59. thespacingbetweentheelementsis /16,anditisverysmallcomparedtothe
overalllengthofthearray,determinethe:
(a)Closestnumberofintegerelementstoachievethis.
(b)Overalllengthofthearray(inwavelengths).
(c)Halfpowerbeamwidth(indegrees).
(d)Amplitudelevel(indB)ofthemaximumoftherstminorlobecompared
tothemaximumofthemajorlobe.
ThedesignofProblem6.57needstobechangedtoanonuniformDolph
Tschebyscheffinordertolowerthesidelobeamplitudelevelto 30dB,while
maintainingthesamenumberofelementsandspacing.Forthenewnonuniform
design,whatisthe:
(a)Halfpowerbeamwidth(indegrees).
(b)Directivity(indB).
DesignaDolphTschebyschefflineararrayof Nelementswithuniformspacing
betweenthem.Thearrayfactormustmeetthefollowingspecications:
(1) 40dBsidelobelevel.
(2)Fourcompleteminorlobesfrom0 90;allofthesamelevel.
(3)Largestallowablespacingbetweentheelements(inwavelengths)andstill
meetabovespecications.
Determine:
(a)Numberofelements

PROBLEMS

381

(b)Excitationcoefcients,normalizedsothattheonesoftheedgeelements
isunity.
(c)Maximumallowablespacing(inwavelengths)betweentheelementsand
stillmeetspecications.
(d)Plot(in1increments)thenormalized (max =0dB)arrayfactor(indB).
Checktoseethatthearrayfactormeetsthespecications.Ifnot,ndout
whatiswrongwithit.
Verifypartsoftheproblemusingthecomputerprogram Arrays.
6.60. DesignthearrayfactorofathreeelementDolphTschebyscheffbroadsidearray
withasidelobelevelof 40dB.Determinethe
(a) normalizedamplitudecoefcients.
(b) maximum allowablespacing(in )tomaintainthesamesidelobelevelfor
allminorlobes.
(c)approximatehalfpowerbeamwidth(in degrees) using the spacing from
part b.
(d)approximatedirectivity(in dB) using the spacing from part b.
6.61. Designa Dolph-Tschebyscheff broadsidearrayof5elementswitha 30dB
sidelobelevel.
(a)Determinethenormalizedamplitudeexcitationcoefcients. Make the ones
at the edges of the array unity.
(b)Determinethemaximumspacingbetweentheelements(in ) so that all
sidelobes are maintained at the same level of 30 dB.
(c)ForthespacingofPartb,determinethehalfpowerbeamwidth(in degrees).
Compareittothatof a uniform arrayofthesamenumberofelements
andspacing.
(d)ForthespacingofPartb,determinethedirectivity(dimensionlessand in
dB).
6.62. ItisdesiredtodesignaDolphTschebyscheffnonuniformlinearbroadsidearray.
Thedesiredarrayshouldhave20elementswithauniformspacingbetween
them.Therequiredsidelobelevel 40dBdownfromthemaximum.Determine
the:
(a)Maximumuniformspacingthatcanbeusedbetweentheelementsandstill
maintainaconstantsidelobelevelof 40dBforallminorlobes.
(b)Halfpowerbeamwidth(in degrees)ofa uniformbroadsidelineararray
ofthesamenumberofelementsandspacingastheDolphTschebyscheff
array.Assume d = /2.
(c)Halfpowerbeamwidth(in degrees)oftheDolphTschebyscheffarraywith
d = /2.
(d)DirectivityoftheDolphTschebyscheffarrayof d = /2(dimensionless
andin dB).
(e)Directivityoftheuniformbroadsidearrayof d = /2(dimensionlessand
in dB).
6.63. DesignabroadsidelinearDolphTschebyscheffarraywiththeelementsplaced
alongthe zaxissothatitsarrayfactorpattern, using the largest possible spacing
382

6.64.

ARRAYS: LINEAR, PLANAR, AND CIRCULAR

6.65. between the elements while still maintaining the same sidelobe level,
has9minor
lobesoneachsideofthethreedimensionalpattern.Thedesiredsidelobelevel
is 60dB.Toaccomplishthis,determinethe:
(a)OrderoftheTschebyscheffpolynomial.
6.66. (b)Numberofelements.
(c)Maximumspacingbetweentheelements(in ).
Itisdesiredtodesigna broadside Tschebyschefflineararrayof N =10ele
ments,placedalongthe zaxis,withauniformspacingof d = /2betweenthe
elementsandwithauniformsidelobelevelof 26 dBfromthemainmaximum.
Determinethe:
(a)Progressivephase(in degrees)excitationbetweentheelements.
(b)Numberof complete minor lobesintheelevationplane between0
90.
(c) Maximumspacingbetweentheelementsto maintain the same sidelobe
level
6.67.
over all the minor lobes.
Itisdesiredtodesigna 25 dBbroadsideDolphTschebyscheffarrayof6
elementswithaspacingof d = /4betweentheelements.Determinethe:
(a)HPBW(in degrees).
(b)Maximumdirectivity(dimensionlessand in dB).
ADolphTschebyscheffbroadsidearrayof6elements,50dBsidelobelevel,
6.68. andwithaspacingof /2betweentheelementsisdesignedtooperateat9GHz.
Forthearrayfactoroftheantenna,determinethe:
(a)Halfpowerbeamwidth(in degrees).Howmuchnarrowerorwider(in
degrees)isthishalfpowerbeamwidthcomparedtothatofauniformarray
ofthesamenumberofelementsandspacing? Justify your answer. Do you
expect it? Why?
(b)Directivityofarrayfactor(in dB).Howmuchsmallerorlarger(in dB)is
thisdirectivity(in dB)comparedtothatofauniformarrayofthesame
numberofelementsandspacing? Justify you answer. Do you expect it?
Why?
Inthedesignofantennaarrays, with a spacing of d /2,thereisa
choicebetween uniform, binomial, cosine-squared,and Dolph-Tschebyscheff
(of 25dBsidelobelevel)distributions.Ifitisdesiredto:
(a)Selectthedesigndistributionswiththe smallest half-power beamwidths,
placetheantennasinorderof smaller-to-larger half-power beamwidths.
(b)Selectthedesigndistributionswiththe lowest sidelobe level,placethe
antennasinorder of lower-to-higher sidelobe level.
Itisdesiredtodesignaplanar squarearraywithuniformilluminationsothat
its approximatehalfpowerbeamwidthis1,whenthemainbeammaximum,is
pointedinsomedirection 0.Determinethetotaldimension(in )oneachside
ofthesquarearraywhenitsmaximumisdirectedtoward(z axis is perpendicular
to the plane of the array):
(a)Broadside (0 =0);

383

(b) 0 =60frombroadside.
Treat the planar array in each plane as a source with a continuous distribution
(like an aperture), and assume it is large in terms of a wavelength.
6.69. Inhighperformanceradararrayslowsidelobesareverydesirable.Inapartic
ularapplicationitisdesiredtodesignabroadsidelineararraywhichmaintains
allthesidelobesatthesamelevelof 30dB.Thenumberofelementsmust
be3andthespacingbetweenthemmustbe /4.
(a)Statethedesignthatwillmeetthespecications.
(b)Whataretheamplitudeexcitationsoftheelements?
(c)Whatisthehalfpowerbeamwidth(indegrees)ofthemainlobe?
(d)Whatisthedirectivity(indB)ofthearray?
6.70. Designanonuniformamplitudebroadsidelineararrayof5elements.Thetotal
lengthofthearrayis2.Tomeetthesidelobeandhalfpowerbeamwidth
specications,theamplitudeexcitationsoftheelementsmustbethatofacosine
onapedestaldistributionrepresentedby
Amplitudedistribution =1 +cos(xn/L)
where xnisthepositionofthe nthelement(intermsof L)measuredfrom
thecenterofthearray.Determinetheamplitudeexcitationcoefcients ansof
theveelements.Assumeuniformspacingbetweentheelementsandtheend
elementsarelocatedattheedgesofthearraylength.
6.71. Itisdesiredtodesignauniformsquarescanningarraywhoseelevationhalf
powerbeamwidthis2.Determinetheminimumdimensionsofthearraywhen
thescanmaximumangleis
(c) 0 =60
(a) 0 =30(b) 0 =45
6.72. Determinetheazimuthalandelevationanglesofthegratinglobesfora10 10
elementuniformplanararraywhenthespacingbetweentheelementsis .The
maximumofthemainbeamisdirectedtoward 0 =60, 0 =90andthearray
islocatedonthe x-yplane.
6.73. Designa10 8(10inthe xdirectionand8inthe y)elementuniformplanar
arraysothatthemainmaximumisorientedalong 0 =10, 0 =90.Fora
spacingof dx = dy = /8betweentheelements,ndthe
(a)progressivephaseshiftbetweentheelementsinthe xand ydirections
(b)directivityofthearray
(c)halfpowerbeamwidths(intwoperpendicularplanes)ofthearray.
Verifythedesignusingthecomputerprogram Arraysofthischapter.
6.74. Themainbeammaximumofa10 10planararrayofisotropicelements
(100elements)isdirectedtoward 0 =10and 0 =45.Findthedirectiv
ity,beamwidths(intwoperpendicularplanes),andbeamsolidanglefora
Tschebyscheffdistributiondesignwithsidelobesof 26dB.Thearrayis
placedonthe x-yplaneandtheelementsareequallyspacedwith d = /4.
Itshouldbenotedthatanarraywithbidirectional(twosidedpattern)elements
wouldhaveadirectivitywhichwouldbehalfofthatofthesamearraybut
384

6.75.
6.76.

ARRAYS: LINEAR, PLANAR, AND

CIRCULAR

aTschebyscheffdistributionarrayof 30dB
sidelobes.

Inthedesignofuniformlineararrays,themaximumusuallyoccursat = 0at
thedesignfrequency f = f0,whichhasbeenusedtodeterminetheprogressive
withunidirectional(one phasebetweentheelements.Asthefrequencyshiftsfromthedesignedcenter
sidedpattern)elements.
Verifythedesignusing frequency f0to fh,themaximumamplitudeofthearrayfactorat f = fhis
the
0.707thenormalizedmaximumamplitudeofunityat f = f0.Thefrequency
computerprogram
fhisreferredtoasthehalfpowerfrequency,anditisusedtodeterminethe
Arraysofthischapter. frequencybandwidthoverwhichthepatternmaximumvariesoveranamplitude
RepeatProblem6.73for of3dB.Usingthearrayfactorofalinearuniformarray,deriveanexpression
forthe3dBfrequencybandwidthintermsofthelength Lofthearrayandthe
scanangle 0.