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SYS-11
Principles of RF Planning:

Section 2:
PropagationI

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Blank

Section 2: Propagation - I
Objectives:
Upon completion of this section, the trainee is expected to be able to
CALCULATE:
The path loss under different Propagation environments by using
Classic Models such as the Okumara-Hata or the COST 231 WalfischIkegami models as appropriate.
The attenuation slope for a given Cell site environment.
The Transmit EIRP for a BTS for a given distance and propagation
environment.
The distance ( cell radius) for a given EIRP and the propagation
environment.
The Fresnel Zone break point using appropriate models and
equations.
Propagation of Radio Signals:
Free Space Propagation: A definition of a Cell:
The ability of Electro Magnetic waves to propagate depends a lot on the
propagation environment. In vacuum, i.e., free space, they propagate
(radiate) without any obstruction.
Page 2 of 46

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Such a radiation, according to Maxwells theory, occurs uniformly in all

directions, at the speed of light.
This may be viewed a set of concentric SPHERES, expanding both in
time and space.
We can visualize the radiation as shown in the diagram opposite.
At the speed of light the signal takes 3.3 Sec to travel a distance of 1
Km. Thus the signal at point d3 (3 Kms) arrives 9.9 Sec, with uniform
signal strength at all points on the sphere S3.
In cellular communications, this sphere is called the Cell.
The signal is attenuated as it travels to the receiver. The extent of
attenuation is called the FREE SPACE LOSS.
Free Space Loss is given by the equation:
LFS = 10 log [(4d/) 2] . (1)
Expressed in dBs,
LFS = 32.44 + 20 log (f) + 20 log (d), . (2)
Where, the frequency f is in MHz and distance d is in Kms.
Equation (2) can also be written as:
LFS = L0 + 10 log (d) (3)
Where is the SLOPE of the attenuation with distance. Such a straightline model simplifies system design.
The SLOPE is a very useful concept in studying the various
propagation models and also in calculating the Fade Margin required for
a cell.

Propagation of Radio Signals:

Free Space Radiation:
Time

LFS = 10 log [ ( 4d/ )2 ]

(1)

S3

S2

S1

d1

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d2

d3

Space

Expressed in dBs,

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RF Planning

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LFS = 32.44 + 20 log (f) + 20 log(d),(2)

Where, the frequency f is in MHz and distance d is
in Kms.
Equation (2) can also be written as:
LFS = L0 + 10 log (d) (3)
Where is the SLOPE of the attenuation
characteristic.

Propagation. Contd.
In a mobile environment, there is seldom a direct line of sight between
the mobile and the BTS. Hence the pure free space path loss calculated
as per the formula given in the previous page is not directly applicable.
The signal almost always arrives via multiple paths at the receiver end,
be it a mobile or the BTS.
The multi path is due to reflection, diffraction and scattering of radio
waves. The extent of these effects depends on the type and the total
area of the obstruction. For instance, a plain surface will cause
maximum reflection while a sharp edge like the corner of a building will
cause scattering of signals known as the knife edge effect.
Cell Definition revisited:
A cell is a geographical area, which is covered by radio signals.
Conventionally, a practical cell is considered to have an irregular shape,
with uniform Receive Signal Strength (RSS) all around. This is shown in
Fig. (a).
However, it is convenient to assume a regular shape for analytical and
planning purposes. Ideally a cell should be circular in shape with
varying signal strengths all around. From a geometrical point of view
this can be approximated by a hexagon, with different RSS values on the
sides. This s illustrated in Fig.(c).

Propagation.. Contd.
A typical Multi Path Environment:

Knife Edge Diffraction:

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d2

d1
dB
0

V = h { 2(d1+d2)/ d1d2}

10

20

-2 -1 0 1 2

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Propagation.. Contd.

Cell Definition.. revisited..

RSS 1

RSS 1

MOTOROLA LTD-2000

RSS 1

RSS 1

Fig.(a).

Fig.(b).

Fig.(c).

A typical irregular shaped

cell, with uniform RSS
values around.

An ideal cell shape

with irregular RSS
values around

A theoretical cell
with irregular RSS
values around.

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unpredictable

propagation

Propagation.. Contd.

Urban Propagation Environment:

This is the most common and
environment for a mobile system.

yet

Building Penetration:
Buildings are responsible for reflection and shadowing of signals. Trees
and foliage also contribute to shadowing as well as scattering of radio
signals.
Attenuation of signals by buildings is measured by taking the difference
between the median signal level in front of the building and inside the
building. Obviously, the building attenuation depends on the type of
construction and the materials used as well as how big or small it is.
Typically, the attenuation values may cause the signal levels to vary by
40 to +80 dB. The negative value implies that signal is attenuated and
the positive values mean that the signal level increases as we move up
inside the building.

Windows and doors in general give a good penetration of RF signals.

Another important factor is the angle of arrival of RF signals in to the
building. Generally, a building facing the BTS site has better penetration
than the one that is side facing and without windows.
The furniture used in the buildings also contributes to attenuation.
Typically a furnished building gives a loss of 2-3 dB more than an empty
one.
Some typical values are given for reference in the table opposite.

Propagation.. Contd.

Some typical values for building attenuation:

Type of Building
Page 6 of 46

Sec 2

Attenuation
in dBs

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Farms, Wooden Houses, Sport Halls

Small offices, Parking lots, Independent
houses, Small apartment blocks
Row houses, Offices in containers,
Offices, Apartment blocks
Offices with large areas
Medium Factories, workshops without
roof top windows
Halls of metal, without windows
Shopping malls, ware houses, buildings
with metal/glass

Note:
These are only indicative
illustration purposes only.

values

Issue1 Rev 3.0

0-3
4-7
8-11 dB
12-15 dB
16-19
20-23
24-27

and

are

for

Propagation.. Contd.
Classical Propagation Models:
Propagation models are essentially curve fitting exercises. Propagation
tests are conducted at different frequencies, antenna heights and
locations over different periods and distances.
The receive signal data is analyzed using mathematical tools and are
fitted to an appropriate curve. Formulae to match these curves are then
generated and used as models.
Some of the major propagation models are:

Log-distance Propagation Model

Longley Rice Model (Irregular terrain model)
Okumara
Hata
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Cost 231 Hata ( Similar to Hata; for 1500 2000 MHz band.)
Walfisch-Ikegami Cost 231
Walfisch-Xia JTC
XLOS ( Motorola Proprietary Model )
Bullington
Du Path loss model
Diffracting Screens model.

Propagation.. Contd.
Classical Propagation Models:

Essentially Curve fitting exercises.

Some of the important models include:

Log-distance Propagation Model

Longley Rice Model (Irregular terrain model)
Okumara
Hata
Cost 231 Hata ( Similar to Hata; for 1500 2000
MHz band.)
Walfisch-Ikegami Cost 231
Walfisch-Xia JTC
XLOS ( Motorola Proprietary Model )
Bullington
Du Path loss model
Diffracting Screens model.

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Propagation.. Contd.
Classical Propagation Models:
In RF planning exercises for mobile networks, there are 2 important
models suggested in the literature:
The Hata Model
Walfisch-Ikegami model.
The Netplan tool of Motorola uses a proprietary model called XLOS.
The accuracy of these models depends on the propagation environment.
For example the Okumara Hata Model is good in urban and suburban
areas. The Walfisch-Ikegami model is more meaningful in dense urban
as well as microcell environments.
We will study these models in the following pages.

Propagation. Contd.

Important Classical Models:

Hata Model ( Urban/Subrban areas) ( GSM 900 band)

Cost 231- Hata Model (GSM 1800 band)

Walfisch Ikegami Model ( Dense Urban/ micro cell

areas)
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XLOS Model ( Motorola Proprietary )

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Propagation. .. Contd.
Okumara-Hata Model:
In the early 1960s, a Japanese scientist by name Okumara conducted
extensive propagation tests for mobile systems at different frequencies.
The tests were conducted at 200,453,922,1310,1430 and 1920 MHz.
The tests were also conducted for different BTS and Mobile antenna
heights, at each frequency, over varying distances between the BTS and
the mobile.
The Okumara tests are valid for:

150-2000 MHz.
1-100 Kms
BTS heights of 30-200 m.
MS antenna height, typically 1.5 m. ( 1-10m )

The results of Okumara tests were graphically represented and were not
easy for computer based analysis.
Hata took Okamuras data and derived a set of empirical equations to
calculate the path loss in various environments. He also suggested
correction factors to be used in Quasi-open and suburban areas.

Propagation. Contd.

Okumara Model: Propagation Curves:

Loss in dBs

Urban area ; hb=200m ; hm=3m

Kms

40

A
tte
n
u
a
tio
nw
.r.toF
re
es
p
a
c
eL
o
s
s

35

30

5Km

25

3Km

20

1Km

15
100

200

300

500

700

1000

2000

MHz

Propagation. Contd.
Hata Urban Propagation Model:
The general path loss equation is given by:
LP = Q1 +Q2 log (f) 13.82 log (hBTS) a (hm)
+ {44.9 6.55 log (hBTS) log (d) + Q0.
Where,
LP = path loss in dB.
f = Frequency in MHz.
d = distance between BTS and the mobile (1-20 Kms)
hBTS = Base station height in metres (30 to 100m)
a (hm)= Correction required if mobile height is more than 1.5 metres and is given by:
a (hm) = { 1.1 log(f)-0.7} hm { 1.56 log(f) 0.8} for Urban areas and
= 3.2 {log (11.75 hm) 2 4.97 for Dense urban areas
hm = mobile antenna height ( 1-10 m)
Q1 = 69.55 for frequencies from 150 to 1000 MHz.
= 46.3 for frequencies from 1500 to 2000 MHz.
Q2 = 26.16 for 150 to 1000 MHz
= 33.9 for 1500 to 2000 MHz.

Q0 = 0 dB for Urban
= 3 dB for Dense Urban

Propagation Contd.
Hata Model:
The basic equation for the 150-1000 MHz band is given by:
LP = 69.55 + 26.16 log (f) 13.82log(hBTS) a (hm) + { 44.9-6.55 log(hBTS) } log (d)
Where
f = frequency in MHz
hBTS = BTS antenna height in metres ( 30-100 m)
d = distance in Kms ( 1 to 20 Kms)
hm = mobile antenna height in metres ( 1-10m)
a(hm) = correction for mobile height if hm is > 1.5 metres
= 3.2 [log (11.75 hm) 4.97 for Dense urban and
= {1.1 log (f)-0.7} hm {1.56 log (f) 0.8} for Urban areas

Propagation.. Contd.
Cost 231-Hata Model:
The Cost 231 sub group on Propagation Models proposed an improved
propagation model for urban areas to be applied above 1500 MHz.
Hence this model can be used for planning DCS 1800 systems.
Like Hata model, the Cost 231-Hata model is also based on the
measurements of Okumara.
The general path loss equation for Cost 231-Hata model is identical to
the Hata model, excepting that the constants Q 1 and Q2 have different
values.
The general path loss equation is given by:
LP = Q1 +Q2 log (f) 13.82 log (hBTS) a (hm)
+ {44.9 6.55 log (hBTS) log (d) + Q0.
Where,
LP = path loss in dB.
f = Frequency in MHz.
d = distance between BTS and the mobile (1-20 Kms)
hBTS = Base station height in metres (30 to 100m)
a (hm)= Correction required if mobile height is more than 1.5 metres and
is given by:
a (hm) = { 1.1 log(f)-0.7} hm { 1.56 log(f) 0.8} for Urban areas and
= 3.2 {log (11.75 hm) 2 4.97 for Dense urban areas
hm = mobile antenna height ( 1-10 m)
Q1 = 46.3 for frequencies from 1500 to 2000 MHz.
Q2 = 33.9 for 1500 to 2000 MHz.
Q0 = 0 dB for Urban
= 3 dB for Dense Urban

Propagation Contd.
Cost 231- Hata Model:
The basic equation for the 1500-2000 MHz band is given by:
LP = 46.3 + 33.9 log (f) 13.82log(hBTS) a (hm) + { 44.9-6.55 log(hBTS) } log (d)
Where
f = frequency in MHz
hBTS = BTS antenna height in metres ( 30-100 m)
d = distance in Kms ( 1 to 20 Kms)
hm = mobile antenna height in metres ( 1-10m)
a(hm) = correction for mobile height if hm is > 1.5 metres
= 3.2 [log (11.75 hm) 4.97 for Dense urban and
= {1.1 log (f)-0.7} hm {1.56 log (f) 0.8} for Urban areas

Propagation.. Hata Model Contd.

The path loss equation can be rewritten as:
LP = L0 + {44.9 6.55 log (hBTS)} log (d)
Where, L0 is = [69.55 + 26.16 log (f) 13.82 log( h BTS ) a(hm).
OR more conveniently

LP = L0 + 10 log(d).
is the SLOPE and is = { 44.9 6.55 log (hBTS)} /10
Variation of base station height can be plotted as shown in the
diagram.
We can say that LP 10 log (d)
typically varies from 3.5 to 4 for urban environments.
When the environment is different, then we have to choose models
fitting the environment and calculate the path loss slope. This will be
discussed subsequently.

Propagation Okumara-Hata Model Contd.

The path loss equation can be re written as:

LP = L0 + { 44.9 6.55 log (hBTS)} log(d)

Where,
L0 = [69.55 + 26.16 log(f) 13.82 log( hBTS ) a(hm)].
OR more conveniently

LP = L0 + 10 log (d).

is the SLOPE and is = { 44.9 6.55 log (hBTS)} /10

typically varies
environments.

from

3.5

to

for

urban

Propagation.. Okumara Hata Model Contd.

Example: 1
Calculate the path loss in a BTS site in an urban environment, given the
following parameters:
Frequency:
Cell radius:
BTS antenna height:
Mobile antenna height:

900 MHz
5 Kms
30m
3m.

Also calculate the Attenuation Slope for this site.

Propagation.. Okumara Hata Model Contd.

Example 1:
Calculate the path loss in a BTS site in an urban
environment, given the following parameters:
Frequency:
Cell radius:
BTS antenna height:
Mobile antenna height:

900 MHz
5 Kms
30m
3m.

Also calculate the Attenuation Slope for this site.

LP = [69.55 + 26.16 log(f) 13.82 log(hBTS) a(hm)] +
[44.9 6.55 log(hBTS)] log(d).
a(hm) = { 1.1 log(f)-0.7} hm { 1.56 log(f) 0.8}
26.16 log(f)
= 77.28 dB
13.82 log(hBTS)
= 20.41 dB
[44.9 6.55 log(hBTS)] log(d) = 24.62 dB
a(hm)
= 3.81 dB.
Path Loss LP = 69.55+77.28 20.41 + 24.62 3.81
= 147.23 dB.
Attenuation Slope = [44.9 6.55 log(hBTS)]/10
= 35.225/10
= 3.5225.

PropagationOkumara-Hata Model. Contd.

In the previous example we worked out the Path loss for a given
distance.
It is also possible to calculate the distance ( cell radius ) for a required
RF receive signal strength(RSS). For this we should know the EIRP of
the BTS transmitter.
The receive signal strength RSS is given by:
RSS = ERP {L0 + 10 log(d)}.
The distance d can be calculated from:
d = 10 [ ERP L0-

RSS]/10

Or, from the equation for RSS,

Log (d ) = [ ERP RSS L0 ]/10
I.e., d = antilog [ (ERP RSS L0 ) /10]
Where, L0 = 69.55 + 26.16 log(f) 13.82 log(hBTS) a(hm).
Example 2:
Calculate the cell radius for a site that has:
Frequency: 900 MHz
BTS height: 30 metres
Mobile height: 3 metres
BTS ERP = 55 dBm
Expected RSS for a mobile at the cell boundary (d=R) = 75 dBm.

PropagationOkumara-Hata Model. Contd.

The receive signal strength RSS is given by:
RSS = ERP {L0 + 10 log(d)}.
The distance d can be calculated from:
d = 10 [ ERP L0- RSS]/10
Or, from the equation for RSS,
Log (d ) = [ ERP RSS L0 ]/10
I.e., d = antilog [ (ERP RSS L0 ) /10]
Where,
L0 = 69.55 + 26.16 log(f) 13.82 log(hBTS) a(hm).
Example 2:
Calculate the cell radius for a site that has:
Frequency:
900 MHz BTS height:
30 metres
Mobile height: 3 metres
BTS ERP:
55 dBm
Expected RSS at the cell boundary (d=R) = 75 dBm.

L0 = 122.61 dB;
example).

= 3.5 (calculated in the previous

122.61 75 + 35 log(d) = 55 dBm.

log (d) = 7.39/35 = 0.2111
Therefore d = antilog(0.2111) = 1.62 Kms.

PropagationOkumara-Hata Model. Contd.

Exercise 1:
Calculate the cell radius for an expected RSS of 90 dBm, assuming all
other parameters the same as in the previous example.
Example 3:
Calculate the ERP for the BTS, given the following parameters:
Frequency:
hBTS
hm
Required Cell radius
Required RSS

900 MHz
50 m
1.5m
5 Kms
90 dBm

PropagationOkumara-Hata Model. Contd.

Example 3:
Calculate the ERP for the BTS, given the following
parameters:
Frequency:
900 MHz
hBTS:
50 m
hm :
1.5m
Required Cell radius: 5 Kms
Required RSS:
90 dBm
Urban environment is assumed:
a(hm) = [ 1.1 log(f) 0.7 ]hm [1.56 log(f) 0.8]
= 0.01588.
L0 = 69.55 + 26.16 log(900) 13.82 log(50) a(hm)
= 123.34 dB.
= [44.9 6.55 log(50)]/10
= 3.377
Therefore,
ERP = L0 + RSS + 10 log(d)
= 123.34 90 + 33.77 log(5)
= 56.94 dBm
= 26.94 dBW.
If antenna gain is 17 dB and the connector/feeder
losses are 5 dB, then BTS out put is 14.94 dBW.
I.e., 31 watts!

Propagation Contd.
Corrections to the Okumara-Hata Model:
The formulae we used for the Okumara Model were for an urban
environment. The model gets modified if the environment is Semi Urban
(Suburban) or an Open area.
The corrections are:
Suburban
LSub = LP(Basic) 2 log 2 ( f/28 ) 5.4
Open:
LOpen = LP(Basic) 4.78 [log(f)]2 + 18.33 log(f) 40.94
Quasi Open:
LQuasi = LP(Basic) 4.78 [log(f)]2 + 18.33 log(f) 35.94
Exercise 2:
For the BTS site in Example 1, calculate the path losses assuming Open
propagation environments.
Does the Attenuation Slope change?
If the expected RSS at the cell boundary is 80 dBm, then calculate the
cell radius for a BTS ERP of 60 dBm.

Propagation Contd.

Corrections to the Okumara-Hata Model:

The Equation for Path loss Calculation is modified for
Suburban and Open areas.
The corrections are:

Semi Urban

LSub = LP(Basic) 2 log 2( f/28 ) 5.4

Open:

LOpen = LP(Basic) 4.78 [log(f)]2 + 18.33 log(f) 40.94

Quasi Open:

LQuasi = LP(Basic) 4.78 [log(f)]2 + 18.33 log(f) 35.94

Exercise 2:
For the BTS site in Example 1, calculate the path
losses assuming Open propagation environments.
Does the Attenuation Slope change?
If the expected RSS at the cell boundary is 80 dBm,
then calculate the cell radius for a BTS ERP of 60
dBm.

Propagation Contd.
Walfisch-Ikegami Model:
Line-Of-Sight Propagation:
This is useful for dense urban environments. The model is essentially
based on Okumara studies but takes into account several factors like
building density, average height of buildings, street widths and so on.
The simplest model is to assume that the antenna height for the BTS is
generally below rooftop so that the signals are guided through a
street Canyon. It is assumed that there exists a line of sight between
the mobile and the BTS.
The path loss is given by:
LLOS = 42.6 + 20 log(f) + 26 log(d).
This can be re written as a straight- line equation as:
LLOS = L0 + 10 log(d),
Where, L0 = 42.6 + 20 log(f) and is 2.6.
The value of is 2.0 in Free Space. In dense urban environment, under
LOS conditions, signals are actually guided between streets, thereby
causing a wave guide effect. (which is similar to free space
propagation).

Propagation Contd.
Walfisch-Ikegami Model:
Line-Of-Sight Propagation:
The path loss is given by:
LLOS = 42.6 + 20 log(f) + 26 log(d).
This can be re written as a straight -line equation as:
LLOS = L0 + 10 log(d),
Where, L0 = 42.6 + 20 log(f) and is 2.6.
Street Canyons in a Dense Urban Environment:

Propagation Contd.
COST 231 - Walfisch-Ikegami Model:
Non Line-Of-Sight Propagation:
Here, we assume that the BTS antenna is above roof level for any
building within the cell and that there is no line of sight between the BTS
and the mobile.
We define the following parameters with reference to the diagram shown
opposite:
w

the distance between street mobile and building

hm

mobile antenna height

hB

BTS antenna height

hr

height of roof.

hB

difference between BTS height and roof top.

hm

difference between mobile height and rooftop.

Propagation Contd.

COST 231 - Walfisch-Ikegami Model:

Non Line-Of-Sight Propagation:

hB

h B

h m

hr

hm
w
d

Propagation Contd.
COST 231 - Walfisch-Ikegami Model:
Non Line-Of-Sight Propagation:
Under non line of sight propagation conditions, for the sake of
simplicity, we assume that the environment has buildings of uniform
height. For a mobile on the street, the signal undergoes diffraction from
rooftops and also multiple diffraction due to the surrounding buildings.
The total path loss is given by:
LP = LFS + LRFT + LMDB,
Where,
LFS = Free space Loss = 32.44 + 20 log(f) + 20 log(d)
LRFT = Rooftop diffraction Loss
LMBD = Additional loss due to multiple diffraction due to surrounding
buildings.

Propagation Contd.
COST 231 - Walfisch-Ikegami Model:
Non Line-Of-Sight Propagation:
The total path loss is given by:
LP = LFS + LRFT + LMDB ,
Where,
LFS = Free space Loss = 32.44 + 20 log(f) + 20 log(d)
LRFT = Rooftop diffraction Loss
LMBD = Additional loss due to multiple diffraction due
to surrounding buildings.
LRFT = 16.9 10 log (w) + 10 log (f) + 20 log(hm )
+ L( ).
Where,
hm = hr - hm
L () = Losses due to elevation angle.
L() = 10 + 0.357
= 2.5 + 0.075 ( 35 )
= 4.0 + 0.114 ( 55 )

for 00 35
for 35 55
for 55 90

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COST 231 - Walfisch-Ikegami Model:

Non Line-Of-Sight Propagation Contd...

The losses due to multiple diffraction and

scattering components due to buildings are given
by:

LMBD = k0 + ka + kd . log(d) + kf . log(f) 9 log (w)

Where
K0 = 18 log ( 1+hB )
ka = 54 0.8(hB )
kd = 18 15 (hB / hr)
k f = 4 + 0.7 { (f/925) 1} for suburban areas
= 4 + 1.5 { (f/925) 1} for urban areas.
W = street width
hB = base station antenna height
hB = hB hr.
For simplified calculations, we can assume k a = 54
and kd = 18.

Exercise 3:
Calculate the path loss for a mobile in an urban
environment, using the COST 231 - Walfisch-Ikegami
Model:
f = 900 MHz; hB = 40 m; hr = 20 m; hm =1.5 m; d=2.0Km.
w = 10 m; elevation to mobile is 500

COST 231 - Walfisch-Ikegami Model:

Non Line-Of-Sight Propagation Contd.
The equations COST 231 model described above could be re written as
LP = L0 + 10 log (d),
Where
L0 = 32.4 + (30+kf) log (f) 16.9-10 log (w) +20 log (hm) + L ()

And
is the attenuation Slope given by:
= (20+kd)/10
Thus the COST 231 model also can be approximated by a straight-line
equation.
The value of depends on kd which is equal to: 18 15 (hB / hr).
If hB / hr is 1.2, then kd is 0 and becomes 2. The other extreme is when
hB is zero. I.e., hBTS = hr. In that case, becomes 3.8.
The variation of with reference to hB / hr is plotted in the diagram in the
opposite page.

COST 231 - Walfisch-Ikegami Model:

Non Line-Of-Sight Propagation Contd.
The equations for the COST 231 model could be re
written as:
LP = L0 + 10 log (d),
Where
L0 = 32.4 + (30+kf ) log(f) 16.9-10 log(w)
+20 log(hm) + L()
And
= (20+kd)/10

Exercise 4:
Calculate for the site considered in the previous
exercise.
4

A
t
t
e
n
u
a
tio
n
S
lo
p
e

0.2

0.4

0.6 0.8

1.0 1.2

hB/hr

Propagation Models.. Contd.

Micro Cellular Environment:
In a multi path environment, the signal suffers from unpredictable deep
fades. To facilitate an estimation of the Multipath effects, we have
studied various propagation models.
In all such cases we have seen that the path loss can be characterized
by a straight-line equation of the form:
LP = L0 + 10 log(d).
From the above equation we can find that there is a certain combination
of parameters for which the path loss is NOT sensitive to . But it is not
possible to achieve this in reality.
However, there exists a Fresnel Zone point within which LOS conditions
are met and beyond which multi path effects come into play.
Such a point is called the BREAK POINT.
To explain the concept of break point we use a 2 Ray model for low
power out door micro cells.
We define the following parameters with reference to the diagram
opposite:
hB
hm
d
d1
d2

BTS antenna height

mobile antenna height
distance between BTS and mobile
reflected path
direct path

Propagation Models.. Contd.

Micro Cellular Environment 2 Ray Model:

Path loss can be characterized by:

LP = L0 + 10 log(d).

There exists a point before which the path loss is

independent of .
This is called the Break Point.
Break Point occurs at the Fresnel Zone point.

The Two Ray Model:

BTS

d2

hB
d1

MS
hm
d

Propagation 2 Ray Model Contd.

From the diagram for the 2 Ray model, by using geometry, we can write
an expression for the difference between the direct and the reflected
path as:
d = { ( hB + hm )2 + d2 } { (hB hm)2 + d2 }
where d = d2 d1
The above equation can be simplified as
d = 2hB hm/ d, if ( hB hm )/d is << 1.
Fresnel Zone:
We know that radio signals get diffracted when they encounter an
obstacle. We can imagine the signal to travel with spherical wave fronts.
Looking at the cross section, Fresnel Zones are a set of concentric
circles, which are loci of all points having the same signal strength. The
Fresnel zones are /2 apart from each other.
The radius of the Fresnel Zone is dependent on frequency and antenna
height. For a given antenna height the signal will propagate further
before the FIRST Fresnel Zone touches the ground.
Also, the diffraction is maximum when the difference between the direct
ray and the diffracted ray is /2.
Therefore we can write that
d = 2hB hm /d = /2
Or d0 = d = 4 hB hm/
d0 is the break point.
The path loss slope is similar to LOS path loss within the break point.
Diffractions and Multi path phenomena usually happen beyond this
point.

Propagation
2 Ray Model Contd.

From the 2 Ray Model diagram we can say that:

d = { ( hB + hm )2 + d2 } { (hB hm)2 + d2 }
where d = d2 d1

The above equation can be simplified as:

d = 2hB hm/ d, if ( hB hm )/d is << 1.

With reference to Fresnel Zone, we can say that

d = 2hB hm /d = /2
Or
d0 = d = 4 hB hm/, where d0 is the break point.
Fresnel Zone Concept:

First Fresnel
zone Radius.

Tx

Rx

d1

d2

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Propagation 2 Ray Model Contd.

Fresnel Zone and Break Point:
Example 4:
Frequency: 900 MHz; hB = 30 m; hm = 1.5m
Compute d0.
d0 = 4 hB hm/.
= c/f = 3x108 / 900x106 = 1/3 m.
Hence d0 = 4x30x1.5x3 = 540 m.
If the base station antenna is raised to 60m, we get the
break point at 1080m.
RSS

= 2
RSS0

> 2

d
d0

Propagation contd.
Models for Micro cells: Ray Tracing Model:
The propagation of radio waves could be studied by using either
Statistical Prediction algorithms or Deterministic models. The latter are
more accurate than the former, but require large computation time.
Deterministic models relate the propagation parameters to the physical
structure of the buildings, such as the wall orientation, materials used,
their refraction and diffraction coefficients etc. The statistical models on
the other hand only look at the path losses based on measurements
made between buildings.
The Ray tracing model of the NetPlan is one such Deterministic model.
It treats the walls, roofs and floors as black mirrors. Losses in the path
between transmitters and receivers are calculated using the
mechanisms of direct transmission, reflection and diffraction.
In small areas with soft walls (few metallic frames, unglazed surfaces),
direct transmission and reflection are the most predominant
mechanisms. Larger micro cell environments where buildings provide a
canyon for propagation, diffraction is the major mechanism of
propagation.
When the beam strikes a wall, part of it gets reflected and the rest goes
through the wall. There are multiple reflections within the wall as
shown in the diagram. The ray tracing is performed by studying the
waves arrival time, intensity, phase and direction of impact. The
intensity of each beam is a function of wall material, thickness and
incident angle.
NetPlan provides conductivity constants for various types of materials
used in buildings.
Diffraction is the predominant mode of propagation when the beam
strikes the corner of a building.
Further discussions on the ray-tracing model are beyond the scope of
this course.

Propagation contd.
Ray Tracing Model:

Deterministic Model.
Treats walls and floors as black mirrors,
Direct Transmission and reflection dominant in
small areas with soft walls.
Larger micro cells where buildings provide canyons
have diffraction as the major mode of propagation.
Wall

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Propagation Models Contd.

Choice of a Propagation Model:
The following table gives a general guideline for the
choice of an appropriate Propagation Model.
Environment Type
Dense Urban
Street Canyon propagation

Model

WalfischIkegami, LOS
Non LOS conditions, Micro cells
COST231
Macro cells, antennae above rooftop. Okumara-Hata
Urban
Urban areas
Walsch-Ikegami
Mix of buildings of varying heights,Okumara-Hata
vegetation, and open areas.
Suburban
Business and residential areas, openOkumara-Hata
areas
Rural
Large open areas, fields, difficultOkumara-Hata
terrain with obstacles

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