REVIEW OF RURAL AFFAIRS

Punjab Water Syndrome

Diagnostics and Prescriptions
Himanshu Kulkarni, Mihir Shah

The current groundwater crisis in Punjab is a

combination of paradoxical consequences extreme
depletion in some areas and water logging in others.
This paper provides a brief description of the contours of
the crisis and pinpoints possible reasons for its
emergence in failures of policy as well as
implementation. It also proposes a package of
approaches as part of a paradigm shift for Punjab that
can simultaneously tackle the twin challenges of water
logging and a decline in groundwater levels and quality.

The authors are grateful to P S Vijay Shankar for reviewing an earlier

draft and making useful suggestions. The authors also thank members
of the High Level Expert Group on Waterlogging in Punjab set up by the
Planning Commission, Government of India, for useful discussions.
Himanshu Kulkarni (acwadam@vsnl.net) is with the Advanced Centre
for Water Resources Development and Management, Pune.
Mihir Shah (mihir.shah@nic.in) is Member, Planning Commission,
Government of India.

64

he Indo-Gangetic system is a unique hydrogeological

setting in India. It constitutes an eco-hydrological zone
related to the weathering, erosion, and deposition of large
volumes of sediments that have resulted from the tectonics
associated with the collision of the Indian and Asian plates. These
largely unconsolidated sediments, eroded and transported
from the Himalayan range by three main river systems Ganga,
Indus and Brahmaputra encompass an area of slightly under
one million square kilometres, with some 21 Indian states being
fully or partially covered under this unique setting.1
The sense of water abundance in the Indo-Gangetic alluvial
plains is derived from two factors. First, the river system that
transects this region originates in the Himalayan ranges,
which provide abundant water flows to these rivers over a
long period of time, although climatic and demographic
changes have begun to affect river flows from the source
region in innumerable ways. Second, alluvial deposits loose,
unconsolidated, eroded material, ranging greatly in size and
having high porosity and permeability are not only extensive in this region but are also quite thick, lending high storativity and transmissivity to these aquifers. Thus, aquifers in
this region have always been perceived to have abundant
groundwater storage and well-yields, providing a constant
push to develop groundwater through an increase in the
number and depth of wells and tube wells.
The state of Punjab falls under the typical setting of river
alluvium, deposited during relatively recent geological times
geologically referred to as quaternary alluvial deposits although
the south-western region of the state also has aeolian (windborne) sediments.2 The region of water abundance has been
subject to large-scale groundwater resource development, primarily with the intention of pushing the development of irrigation and crop-intensification to their very limits. Groundwater
resources development in Punjab, simply put, is a combination
of both, independent drilling of tube wells in prolific aquifers
and a consequence of groundwater command-area development,
stemming from the surface irrigation systems in the Indus subbasins. In many ways, the trajectory of water resources development has been following a simple principle of developing,
which in the case of groundwater means extracting more water
to produce more grain. The consequences of intensive water
resources mobilisation, in the absence of systematic groundwater management backed by robust water governance mechanisms, have been extreme depletion of groundwater resources
on one hand and a rising water level, leading to water logging and
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vol xlviII no 52

Accumulated rainfall anomaly in mm

Accumulated rainfall anomaly in mm

Annual rainfall in mm

Annual rainfall in mm

soil salinity, on the other (Perveen et al 2012). Figure 1: Accumulated Rainfall Anomaly, 1901 to 2000, in Hoshiarpur District, Punjab
800
1,600
Groundwater pollution due to anthropogenic
activities, often leading to urban water short 600
1,400
ages, is also cited as a serious issue (Gupta 2011)
in Punjabs overall water crisis. Incidentally,
400
1,200
both of these have also been coterminous with
groundwater contamination on wide-ranging
200
1,000
scales due to various factors.3 Hence, many
0
factors together have led to a severe water
800
crisis in the state, prompting us to label the
-200
crisis the Punjab water syndrome.
600
In many ways the emergence of the Punjab
-400
water syndrome can be seen as a classic case
400
study of the consequences of the engineering -600
construction-extraction-centred approach, based
200
on control over nature, which has dominated
-800
Indias water resource development since Inde -1000
0
pendence. Punjabs experience underscores the
need for a paradigm shift towards an ecoAccumulated rainfall anomaly in mm
Hoshiarpur annual rf in mm
10 per mov avg (Hoshiarpur annual rf in mm)
system understanding located in participatory
governance of the common pool resources of Figure 2: Accumulated Rainfall Anomaly, 1901 to 2000, in Patiala District, Punjab
1000
1,800
the region, especially groundwater. This is exactly aligned to Indias Twelfth Five-Year Plan
800
1,600
(2012-17), which recognises that India faces
daunting challenges in the water sector, with
600
1,400
conflicts between competing uses and users of
water growing by the day. The plan proposes a
400
1,200
paradigm shift in the management of water
200
resources in India, a crucial element of which is
1,000
the shift in emphasis in irrigation from con0
struction to management, with empowerment
800
of water users and improved water efficiency
-200
(Shah 2013). Such a shift makes eminent sense
600
if we are to combat the twin menace of ground -400
water over-exploitation and water logging in
400
-600
the state. Addressing this issue is imperative not
just to prevent fertile land from being laid
200
-800
waste, but also to optimise the use of surface
water and to conserve and recharge ground -1000
0
water, wherever necessary and possible. While
Accumulated rainfall anomaly in mm
Patiala annual rf in mm
10 per mov avg (Patiala annual rf in mm)
improved groundwater management is important to the reform on the operations side, building a system Hoshiarpur, Patiala, and Ferozepur districts, spread across the
of groundwater governance, including the development of a state, as representative locations. Despite data-gaps, rainfall
robust institutional mechanism, is equally critical. This is hydrographs for these three districts (Figures 1, 2 and Figure 3,
because the Punjab water crisis is not just about scarcity and p 66) show that rainfall patterns have varied over the short
contamination, but about a broader challenge of ecosystem res- term and the long term, with accumulated rainfall anomalies
toration, protection, and governance. This paper, while briefly also showing diversity across the region.4
discussing the groundwater problems in the state, attempts to
The 10-year moving average trends, for instance, indicate
suggest the contours of the water-governance approach to that the Hoshiarpur and Ferozepur rainfall hydrographs have
tackling the Punjab water syndrome.
remained fairly steady, while the hydrograph for Patiala shows
an increasing trend. In Hoshiarpur and Patiala, accumulated
Agriculture, Irrigation, and Groundwater Exploitation
rainfall anomalies dominate during the last 50 years of the
Can the Punjab groundwater crisis be attributed to changing century (compared to the first 50 years). On the other hand,
precipitation patterns? Is rainfall the real culprit behind it? there is a reasonable balance between accumulated rainfall
Rainfall data from the India Meteorological Department (IMD) anomalies and deficits, particularly in the last 50 years of the
was plotted to understand 100-year trends (1901-2000) for century for Ferozepur, despite some extreme deficit anomalies
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REVIEW OF RURAL AFFAIRS

fallout of the large irrigation demand in Punjab

has been excessive groundwater pumping across
large regions, resulting in regional declines of
400
groundwater tables. It is believed that the water
table in the state is falling by up to one metre per
200
year (Singh 2004).
Punjabs groundwater story is embedded in the
0
larger history of groundwater in India, a striking
feature of which is that the share of tube wells in
-200
irrigated area rose from a mere 1% in 1960-61 to 40%
in 2006-07 (Indian Agricultural Statistics, various
-400
issues; Central Water Commission 2007). Data
-600
from the Minor Irrigation Census 2011 shows that
three states (Punjab, Uttar Pradesh and Haryana)
-800
account for 55% of the tube wells in India. On an
average, there are 28 tube wells per square kilo -1000
metre of net sown area in Punjab alone. In 2004,
some 28% of Indias blocks were showing dangerously high levels of groundwater development
compared to 4% in 1995 (Planning Commission 2007).7 A more
recent assessment using Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) satellite data showed that during 2002 to 2008,
three states (Punjab, Haryana, and Rajasthan) together lost
about 109 km3 of water, leading to a decline in water table to
the extent of 0.33 metres per annum (Rodell et al 2009). The
stage of groundwater development in a few states of India is
either close to or in excess of 100%, implying that they face a
situation of dangerous overexploitation of their available
groundwater resources (CGWB 2006). Punjab tops this list, indicating the severity of groundwater exploitation. What is
more alarming is that the stage of groundwater development in
Punjab jumped from 145% to 170% over a period of five years in
the first decade of the 21st century (Table 1). Further out of the
138 blocks in Punjab, 81% are either overexploited or critical

Figure 3: Accumulated Rainfall Anomaly, 1901 to 2000, in Ferozepur District, Punjab

600

1,400

Accumulated rainfall anomaly in mm

1,200

Annual rainfall in mm

1,000

800

600

400

200

0
Accumulated rainfall anomaly in mm
10 per mov avg (Firozpur annual rf in mm)

Firozpur annual rf in mm

in the latter period of the last century. What is remarkable is

that Hoshiarpur and Patiala report groundwater depletion
despite increasing rainfall trends and Ferozepur shows clear
evidence of water logging, despite the deficit rainfall anomalies in the latter part of the last century. This broad analysis
clearly indicates that we need to look beyond rainfall patterns
for an explanation of the Punjab water syndrome, much of
which can be correlated to anthropocentric factors.
Punjab, which occupies only 1.57% of the geographical area
of India, contributes around 55% of wheat and 42% rice going
into the central pool (Tiwana et al 2007; Government of Punjab
2010). Nearly 83% of land in Punjab is under agriculture
compared to the national average of 43%.5 Punjab hosts three
main perennial rivers Satluj, Beas, and Ravi. In addition, the
Ghaggar, which is almost a seasonal river, flows through the
south-western region of Punjab, a region known for its water
excess than its scarcity. The waters of Satluj, Beas and Ravi are
stored at the Bhakra, Ranjit Sagar, and Pong dams, respectively.
This water is supplied through a vast canal network of about
14,500 km, including distributaries and minor canals, to irrigate
about 1.6 million hectares of land.6 The canal water supply is more
extensive in the south-western zone of the state, which receives
less rainfall and has high salinity in soils and groundwater.
A major driver for agricultural production in Punjab has
been the network of canal systems such as Sirhind canal,
Sirhind feeder, Eastern canal, Upper Bari Doab canal, Bhakra
canal, and Bist Doab canal. Punjab has also depended significantly on the development of groundwater resources from its
largely alluvial aquifers, both through the natural and induced
infiltration, the latter a consequence of the surface water irrigation systems. Punjabs success in agriculture and its major
share in the countrys food sufficiency is largely a consequence
of surface and groundwater irrigation.
Punjab is perhaps the most irrigated state of India. The ratio
of gross irrigated area to gross cropped area for Punjab is 98%
against the national average of 45% (Ministry of Agriculture
2012; Government of Punjab 2011, 2012, 2013). The biggest
66

Table 1: Punjab: Status of Groundwater Resources (2004 and 2009)

Year of Assessment Annual Replenishable Net Availability
Net Draft
Groundwater Resource
Billion Cubic Metres (BCM)

Stage of GW
Development (Net Draft/
Net Availability*100)

2004

23.78

21.44

31.16

145

2009

22.56

20.35

34.66

170

Source: CGWB (2006, 2011).

(CGWB 2009). Indias massive groundwater development, by far

the largest in the world, needs to be seen in the light that the
country, along with China and the US, has also far outpaced the
world in building large dams (World Commission on Dams 2000).
The consequences of over- Table 2: Punjab Groundwater Levels:
pumping of groundwater have Trends
Rising
Static/Fluctuating
Declining
been elucidated by various
Number of blocks in Punjab, showing
scholars (Shah 2009; Singh 2011; differentiated water table trends
34
89
Perveen et al 2012). Water level 9
1973
2006
decline across the state has not
Number of blocks for a range of depth
been uniform, with some areas to water levels
47
13
showing fluctuating trends, while < 5 m
66
36
others actually showing rising 5 to 10 m
10 to 15 m
9
39
water tables. Largely though,
15 to 20 m
5
31
water levels have declined across > 20 m
5
13
a large part of the state (Table 2). Source: Summarised from Singh (2011).
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Figure 4: Average Annual Drawdown over the Last 10 Years (metre/year)
in Punjab
32.5

0.5

0.4

32

0.3

Fazilka, Bhatinda, and Faridkot, transected by the Sirhind

canal (with the Sirhind and Rajasthan feeders running northsouth through this region). Lying in close proximity are the
areas experiencing groundwater overdraft. The lighter-shaded
areas indicate the maximum drawdown, while the darkershaded areas indicate the maximum rise in groundwater levels.

31.5
Northing

0.2
31
0.1

30.5

-0.1

30

-0.2
29.5
73.5

74

74.5

75

75.5
Easting

76

76.5

77

Source: Perveen et al (2012).

One clear indicator of this is that while in 1973 a mere 14% of

Punjabs 132 blocks had depth to groundwater levels of more
than 10 m, this figure had risen to 63% by 2006 (Figure 4).
Despite limited rainfall, the hydrogeology of unconsolidated
sediments alluvial and aeolian allows for large volumes of
groundwater storage and transmission. Transmissivity of aquifer
material is high primarily on account of the aquifer thickness.
Aquifer storage is substantial because of porous aquifer material,
its thickness and extent. Most of Punjab shows evidence of a fall
in the water level in aquifers in unconsolidated sediments. Except for a thin strip running parallel to the border with Himachal
Pradesh the north-eastern boundary of the state and the
south-western portion referred to later, decline in the water
level of the order of 20 to 40 cm per year is not uncommon in
Punjab.8 As a matter of fact, the entire belt stretching from
north-west of Amritsar, through the confluence of the Satluj and
Beas rivers, to the south-eastern boundary of the state, shows
evidence of water level decline. South-western Punjab, on the
other hand, shows evidence of groundwater level rise of various
magnitudes. The water levels in this region, particularly in the
areas that lie geographically west of the Sirhind and Rajasthan
feeders, show clear evidence of a shallow water table that has
reportedly risen over a period spanning the last 50 years or so.
Punjab, thus, presents an extreme paradox. While groundwater is declining at an alarming rate in many parts of the state,
the south-western parts are facing problems of severe water
logging and high levels of salinity in groundwater and soils. As
we shall demonstrate, groundwater depletion and water logging are perhaps two sides of the same coin. However, these
two extreme scenarios in such close proximity to one another
are a unique case of extreme ecosystem vulnerabilities that
require sustained investigation and imaginative solutions.
The darker areas in Figure 1 indicate the areas of the state
where groundwater levels have risen. The south-western part
dark shades coincides with the low-lying region facing a
severe problem of water logging and resultant soil salinity.
This waterlogged portion includes the districts of Muktsar,
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Water Logging and Soil Salinity

The extensive and prolonged use of surface water for irrigation without adequate drainage causes underlying saline
groundwater tables to rise in the naturally arid lower Indus
valley, shared between Pakistan and India, which is incidentally the largest contiguous irrigation system in the world
(Morris et al 2003). It may be noted that much of the groundwater in the Indus valley occurs in sediments of marine origin.
An area is said to be waterlogged (due to a rise in water table)
if the water table lies within 2 metres of the land surface. An area
is said to be potentially waterlogged if the water table is
between 2 and 3 metres of the land surface. And an area is
stated to be safe (from water logging) if the water table is
below 3 metres of the land surface (Ministry of Water Resources
1991). Water logging creates oxygen depletion and carbon dioxide
increase in the root zone of crops, leading to loss of plant nutrients and useful microorganisms and growth of harmful ones.
More significantly, it also causes chemical degradation due to
accumulation of salts at the soil surface, leading to an ecological imbalance. It invariably becomes difficult to carry out agricultural activities in areas affected by water logging. All these
factors result in reduced productivity of land, particularly in
its capacity to sustain agriculture. Water logging and salinity,
which have emerged as a major impediment to the sustainability of irrigated lands and livelihoods of the farmers in southwest Punjab, are the result of a multitude of factors.
The large magnitude of water influx (applied water and
seepage) to the vadose zone, compared to its out-flux (or drainage), has been the primary cause of large-scale water logging
and resultant soil salinity in the region.9 The influx is a result
of large-scale application of groundwater for irrigation, seepage from the irrigation feeders, and the intricate irrigation distribution network in the region. The influx is also a consequence of continued application of water to crops. The groundwater table, as a consequence, remains at very shallow levels
in the subsurface, with the active capillary fringe operating
between the shallow water table and the ground surface. The
root zone available to plants becomes restricted and cycles of
deposition and solution within the thin vadose zone give rise
to complex soil-water dynamics, a factor that we believe is
quite poorly understood in the waterlogged regions of Punjab.
The progressive build-up of salts in groundwater and in the
soil renders the land unsuitable for cultivation.
Interviews with farmers and discussion with government
officers revealed that in some villages of the region certain
patches of land had not been cropped for many years. The
situation of farmers affected by water logging and soil salinity
is further aggravated by a decrease in landholdings size and
heavy debt burden, leading to crop failures, groundwater
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pollution, agro-industrial sickness, and even suicides in some Figure 5: A Continuously Changing Topography alongside Development of
and Groundwater Resources Has Led to Water Logging in
cases. The farmers whose fields are waterlogged have limited Surface
South-Western Punjab
Tibba
sources of income and are forced to work as labourers. FurNatural
Vadose
ther, the contamination of drinking water in the waterlogged
drain/ditch
zone
area with uranium, arsenic and heavy metals is posing a grave
Soil
Capillary fringe
threat to the region. Uranium occurrence in shallow groundSediment
Saturated
water in parts of the state has been attributed to agrochemical
(sand, silt, clay)
zone
processes occurring in calcareous soils (Alrakabi et al 2012).
A truly alarming scenario looming on the horizon is the
Groundwater
potential threat of the saline groundwater of south-west Punjab
beginning to flow into the depleted freshwater aquifers of central
Stage 1
Punjab, the heartland of the green revolution, because of the hydraulic gradients induced by shallow water levels in the southwest and deeper water levels in the northern parts (Figure 5). AlWater
table
though this needs to be confirmed with specific studies of aquifers,
their water levels and groundwater quality, the possible threat
Feeders
from such reversed hydraulic gradients is too serious to ignore.
Groundwater
The twin problems of water logging and salinisation in southwest Punjab can be broadly attributed to the following factors.
The region lying in a depression.
Stage 2
The lack of a proper drainage system.
Poor percolation because of impervious clay strata and salt
deposition, implying that vertical drainage is constrained even
in pockets where groundwater levels are not necessarily at
Water
table
ground level.
Constant seepage from the poorly lined and ill-maintained
Feeders
Rajasthan and Sirhind feeder canals.
The intensity of irrigation.
Groundwater
Land-levelling, leading to a significant obliteration of the
natural topography and drainage.
Stage 3
Major shifts in cropping patterns and practices (such as the
The changing topography, evidenced by the disappearance of tibbas or sand dunes, with the
periods of transplanting of paddy).
development of surface water through feeders, and groundwater resources through tube
wells, along with intensive irrigation for paddy has led to large areas being waterlogged in
Our observations indicate that much of the unsaturated zone south-western Punjab.
(vadose zone) in large parts of south-western Table 3: In Situ Values of Salinity for Different Sources in the Malout-Kuttianawali-Rattakheda
Punjab has thinned as a consequence of large- Section (Muktsar and Ferozepur Districts)
Locations Tested
Salinity in ppm
Specific Observations, If Any
scale land-levelling and the rise in groundwater Source
Canal/distributary Off Malout-Gidderbaha 90-150 Freshwater Freshwater
levels. The capillary fringe now operates more
road; Rattakheda
actively in the soil zone than in the sediment
distributary
Off Malout-Gidderbaha About 2000
Natural ponds are the only visible
below, leading to a decreased hydraulic drain- Natural ponds
road
Brackish water
vestiges of the original natural
age of soils and build-up of salinity.
system of drainage lines in the area;
South-western Punjab is characterised by
these have been influenced by the
water logging in adjoining areas
intermittent high ground in an otherwise flat
but still bear a much lower level of
landscape. These high grounds are in the form
salinity than in the artificial drains
of small hillocks called tibbas, relicts of sand
Soil water
Kuttianwali; Rattakheda 1370 to >10000
Highly variable levels of salinity in
dunes within the aeolian deposits-referred to
Brackish to saline
soil water from place to place
as quaternary aeolian alluvium (CGWB 2012). Groundwater
Kuttianwali; Punjawa link 370 (fringes) to
Highly variable
Drain; TWs near tibba
3000 Fresh to
The gradual levelling out of tibbas has meant
brackish water
that there is virtually no topography left to the
Artificial drains
Malout; Kuttianwali
1500 to >15000
Highly variable
land. Natural drainage, as a consequence, is
and Rattakheda
Brackish to saline
progressively constrained as the terrain be- The in situ values of salinity show high variability in salinity of water across different water sources.
Source: Based on field measurements carried out by Himanshu Kulkarni in October 2012.
comes flat and water is stored on the surface in the monsoon and inundates large areas, compounded south-western Punjab. Table 3 clearly shows that the salinity
by irrigation and canal seepage. A quick representative moni- count is highly variable, with a maximum for the drains contoring of salinity in canal water, the so-called natural ponds, structed to remove saline water from the waterlogged root
tube wells, soil-water and artificial drainage systems indicated zone. The minimum, as would be expected, is for canal water
the great variability in salinity across two to three pockets of which is sourced from the Harike Head Works, just downstream
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Responding to the Punjab Water Syndrome: Integrating

Management and Governance

A comprehensive hydrogeological approach to managing and

governing groundwater resources in Punjab holds the key to
containing and mitigating groundwater-related problems in the
state. The common perception that hydrogeology is a science that
deals with the identification of where and how much groundwater
is available must change, generally in a high-groundwater footprint bearing country like India and more specifically in Punjab.
The discipline of hydrogeology must extend beyond mere description, measurement, and simulation of groundwater behaviour,
and become a study of how to incorporate interdisciplinary considerations and approaches to solving the human choice issues
of deciding the volume and quality of water to withdraw from
an aquifer in a specific time and place (Pierce et al 2013).
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Sangrur

TTarn Taran

Mohali

Ropar

Patiala

Nawan Shahr

Muktsar

Moga

Mansa

Ludhiana

Kapurthala

Hoshiarpur

JJalandhar

Ferozepur

GGurdaspur

Fateh Garh Sahib

500

Faridkot

Figure 6: Annual Groundwater Balance (in million cubic metres) Is Largely

Negative across Punjab

Bathinda

A hazardous by-product of the problem of water logging in

Punjab has been the contamination of groundwater and drinking water with uranium, arsenic and heavy metals. The analysis
of uranium carried out by the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre
(BARC) reported a concentration of uranium higher than the
permissible limit in the groundwater samples collected from
shallow and deep tube wells in some parts of the state (Standing Committee on Rural Development 2012).
High concentration of arsenic (more than 50 g/l) has been
reported from Muktsar, Bathinda, Mansa, and Sangrur districts
(Jain and Raj Kumar 2007). Selenium in groundwater is
mainly observed in parts of Punjab in various proportions,
sometimes exceeding permissible limits for irrigation and
drinking waters (Dhillon and Dhillon 2003). The occurrence
of nitrate in groundwater above 45 mg/l reflects contamination in drinking water. Many districts Bathinda, Faridkot,
Fatehgarh Sahib, Ferozepur, Gurdaspur, Hoshiarpur, Jalandhar,
Kapurthala, Ludhiana, Mansa, Moga, Muktsar, Nawan Shaher,
Patiala, Rupnagar and Sangrur show nitrate concentration
exceeding this limit.10 Nitrate contamination in groundwater
has been attributed to excessive application of fertilisers,
bacterial nitrification of organic nitrogen, and seepage from
animal and human wastes.
Groundwater depletion, falling water levels, and dewatering waterlogged shallow aquifer systems have meant an increased energy demand in the state. The ratio of annual
groundwater draft to unit energy consumed for 2004 and 2009
yield values of 5.19 and 3.85 cubic metres/kWh, respectively
(values derived after CGWB 2006, 2011; Perveen et al 2012).
These two values clearly indicate the pace of groundwater
depletion and the implications of a falling water level in
Punjab. In other words, a business-as-usual approach would
mean an increasing energy requirement to sustain the current
levels of groundwater draft in the state.11

Barnala

Groundwater Quality and Energy Crisis

Contrary to the common perception that water logging is a

case of excess while groundwater shortages due to falling water
levels are a case of scarcity, it is interesting to find that nearly all
districts in Punjab show a negative groundwater balance
(CGWB 2011). All districts, except Muktsar, clearly indicate that a
wide-ranging deficit exists between annual (replenishable) availability of groundwater and current magnitudes of groundwater
draft, clearly underscoring the need for a multipronged strategy that
includes a strong groundwater governance framework (Figure 6).

Amritsar

from the confluence of the Beas and Satluj rivers. The salinity
levels in groundwater also exceed the freshwater range, and fall
in the range of brackish waters, although the range for groundwater across the region is highly variable.

0
-500
-1,000
-1,500
-2,000
-2,500
The annual groundwater balance is the difference between annually replenishable groundwater

availability and annual groundwater draft. It is negative even in districts with water logging.
Source: After CGWB (2011).

An effective strategy, drawing on aquifer-based groundwater

management plans, must examine an entire range of aquifer
states, from overexploited aquifer systems that dominate a large
part of Punjab to aquifers in the waterlogged south-western
region. There is a need to shift emphasis in irrigation from construction to management, through an empowerment of water
users, introduction of participatory irrigation management, and
improvement in the efficiencies of both water use and water
application. Implementing appropriate policies to combat the
twin menace of water logging and salinity in Punjab is an essential
part of this strategy. Such a strategy must, first and foremost,
include ensuring the security of drinking water through safety
measures that address the declining water level trends in aquifers
on one hand and the serious water quality threats on the other.
All of these measures require not only managing water at different levels, but also a robust groundwater governance system.
Groundwater governance comprises the promotion of
responsible collective action to ensure socially sustainable utilisation and effective protection of groundwater resources for
the benefit of humankind and dependent ecosystems (Foster
et al 2009). Much of groundwater governance in Punjab will
involve a major shift in policies and approaches towards water
management in general, and groundwater access and use in
particular. Taking a wider ecosystem view in groundwater
governance is the very first step in finding solutions to the extremely complex Punjab water syndrome.
The high-level expert group (HLEG) set up by the Planning
Commission examined the extent and causes of water logging in
Punjab in 2012. It provided a comprehensive anti-water-logging
action plan for south-western Punjab (Planning Commission
2013b), which we believe sets the broad contours for a multipronged water management approach for the state and also
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defines the process for setting up a groundwater governance

mechanism for it. The following are nine key elements of a
groundwater management plan for Punjab.12
(1) Groundwater Recharge: The overall deficit in the groundwater balance (estimated after data from CGWB 2011) is about
14.5 billion cubic metres. This, in itself, implies that there is
great potential for augmenting recharge to Punjabs aquifers.
Considering the large extent and thickness of aquifer systems in
Punjab, groundwater recharge emerges as the single largest
component of a programme to arrest falling water levels and
address groundwater contamination. The use of programmes
such as the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment
Guarantee Act (MGNREGA) and the Integrated Watershed Management Programme (IWMP) would be the most appropriate
for this purpose and these efforts would need to be integrated
with mechanisms for managing a growing demand.
(2) Diversification towards Low-water Requirement Crops:
Concerted policy initiatives will be required to divert a significant area under paddy (and possibly wheat) to low-water requirement crops such as maize and pulses like pigeon pea. Clearly,
such a move is crucial, but also requires nuanced thinking in
terms of implications for areas with groundwater depletion and
waterlogged areas. While encouraging crop diversification,
resources are necessary for research on developing high-value,
high-yielding varieties as well as short-duration rice hybrids,
while improving the yield potential of maize hybrids. While
doing so, similar facilities of assured pricing, procurement and
marketing need to be accorded to maize as are being given to
paddy and wheat. Cotton is emerging as an alternative to paddy
and wheat in some areas of Punjab. Keeping cotton competitive
enough to offset the water footprint of paddy and wheat cultivation requires incentives. Product-specific markets for maize and
cotton need to be promoted and prioritised on the basis of some
of the current approaches in the state. Encouraging farmers to
take up crop diversification to progressively wean areas away
from paddy and wheat is a key water management step. Creating enabling factors for such weaning is largely a part of the
groundwater governance framework that is being proposed.

envisaged. An integrated subsidy regime for promoting solar

energy for pumping groundwater and applying it to crops
through drip and other associated systems of improved irrigation efficiency can be a potential option in waterlogged areas.
(5) Development of Fisheries as an Alternative to Conventional Agriculture: Large portions of the waterlogged areas
in Punjab have serious issues of soil quality that impede most
options in alternative strategies of crops and cropping. Promoting brackish water aquaculture poses challenges in Punjab,
primarily that of seed production activities. However, policies
and investments can be channelised to overcome such challenges, primarily in the form of seed production, brood banks,
and upgradation of hatcheries for maintaining and holding the
brood stock as well as seeds. Before launching a large-scale
programme, however, it is important to assess the implications
of brackish water aquaculture for relatively freshwater aquifer
systems in close proximity to such areas.
(6) Lining of Canals: Leakage from the Rajasthan and Sirhind
feeder canals in south-western Punjab is one of the major causes
of water influx to waterlogged areas. Improvement in vadose
zone conditions by reducing this flux would require systematic
lining of this feeder system, although the cost implications are
significant. However, it is also important to understand the
consequences of relining canal systems in areas where groundwater levels have declined and whether or not such canal seepage
has implications to the larger groundwater-recharge programmes in areas of Punjab that show depletion.
(7) Surface and Subsurface Drainage, Including Bio-drainage:
Currently, the major focus of the state in tackling water logging is
on drainage. This approach includes various components such as
creating new surface drains and widening old ones, pumping out
water from depressions, laying subsurface drainage networks,
pumping out and draining saline groundwater from shallow wells,
clearing obstructions to existing and new drains, and re-sectioning
of drains to avoid sloughing. To supplement these efforts, a specific programme of research on and promotion of tree species for
ensuring bio-drainage of waterlogged areas needs to be launched.
There is experience on the ground to support this effort.

(3) Dairy Development in Waterlogged Areas: There are clear

constraints in development of dairying in waterlogged areas,
where undergroundwater is saline and unfit for both crops
and animals. However, constructing water trenches to collect
rainwater or bringing in water from freshwater sources such as
canals in close proximity for meeting the drinking water needs
of animals is possible. Similarly, improving the availability of
good quality salinity-tolerant fodder, extending veterinary
services to farmers, and disseminating dairying technologies
in such areas through extension services are potential options.

(8) On-farm Water Management: Optimum use of irrigation

water given the constraints imposed by the depth of water
availability, energy costs and water quality issues is important
both in using water resources sustainably as well as in ensuring
crop productivities. Equitable distribution of water must also
go hand in hand with optimum usage. On-farm water management practices must be encouraged and must be linked to the
design, planning, and implementation of conjunctive use of
surface water and groundwater.

(4) Micro-irrigation Clubbed with Solar Energy: The waterlogged areas in Punjab have a shallow water table. On the
other hand, there is a limit to the actual water that needs to be
applied, particularly when a shift from paddy and wheat is

(9) Conjunctive Use of Surface Water and Groundwater: Conjunctive use of surface water and groundwater, depending on
whether an area has undergone large-scale groundwater exploitation, with deep-seated water levels or whether it is waterlogged

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REVIEW OF RURAL AFFAIRS

Figure 7: Declining Freshwater Availability and Increasing Trends of
Various Demands Represent Indias Water Crisis
Flood
abilit

Drought

distribution of water, and water application. This also includes

disposal of water used, whether in agriculture, industry or for
sanitation. Maintaining groundwater discharges as base flows
as part of ecosystem needs is also an important but oft-neglected element of managing demand. Managing the demand
will require both formal systems of groundwater legislation
and community-based forms of groundwater management
that has the stamp of authority and/or the formal recognition
of gram sabhas through the Panchayat system.
(3) Planning Supply: Provision of water for various needs
drinking water, agriculture and industry includes mechanisms of access, pumping systems, and distribution and augmentation measures such as artificial distribution of water and
water application. This also includes disposal of water used,
whether in agriculture, industry, or for sanitation.
Groundwater governance involves defining policy options,
translating them into goals, providing institutions, procedures,
means, monitoring and accounting, enabling stakeholder
participation, and taking responsibility for outcomes (Foster
and Garduno 2013). Given that the structure of groundwater
governance mechanism in Punjab needs to integrate resource

(1) Understanding the Resource: This means recognising the

fact that groundwater is a common Table 4: Framework for Groundwater Governance in Punjab
Supply
Demand
pool resource that occurs in aquifers. Groundwater Characterisation
and Assessment
Further, that the storage and transmis- Largely scientific and
Largely technical and
Largely scientific, with
sion characteristics of aquifers and technical but including social operational, but with strong economic and social
infusion of social inputs
inputs
groundwater quality are important el- and economic elements
Aquifer
mapping,
Large-scale
recharge
Diversified
cropping
ements in understanding the resource
characterisation and
strategies aligned to aquifer pattern, dairying, brackishand that aquifers are dynamic both in groundwater assessment at mapping and in line with water fisheries, on-farm
the proposition of using
irrigation management
space and time. Understanding the finer granularity, to aid
and energy management,
recharge and discharge characteristics village cluster groundwater non-committed surplus
management plans
monsoon runoff for this
including power pricing and
of the aquifer must also be an integral
purpose
alternative sourcing of energy
part of both the understanding of the Improved assessment of
Conjunctive use of surface Participatory irrigation
water and groundwater
management aligned to
resource as well as interventions such surface water and
groundwater at basin
aiming for equitable
investments in surface and
as groundwater recharge, groundwater and sub-basin scales
distribution of water
groundwater resource
usage, and mechanisms to regulate use.
development, access and
(2) Managing Demand: Balancing
various types of demands that determine
extraction from the aquifer, including
mechanisms of access, pumping systems,
Economic & Political Weekly

EPW

Village-level assessment
of drinking water sources,
including an inventory of
groundwater quality

december 28, 2013

vol xlviII no 52

D
wartine king
r

r avail

Industrial
ndustrial demand

Availability

Groundwater Governance Framework

Indias water crisis threatens the basic right to drinking water

of our citizens, while putting the livelihoods of millions at risk.
The demands of a rapidly industrialising economy and urbanising society come at a time when the potential for augmenting
supply is limited, water tables are falling, and water quality issues
have increasingly come to the fore (Shah 2013). Further, the
effects of a changing climate that lead to compounded effects on
water resources require strategic responses as part of various
policies and programmes (Kulkarni and Thakkar 2012). The
Punjab water syndrome can be captured by a graphic depicting
the water crisis that India faces (Figure 7), a crisis of increasingly
challenged freshwater availability. The demands from rapid industrialisation and urbanisation, along with a steadily increasing
demand from agriculture, have severely affected freshwater stocks
in our river basins and aquifers. Depletion of freshwater stocks
has also meant a decline in water quality, compounded by the
dumping of untreated effluent and sewage into our surface water
and groundwater resources. In sum, this has affected Indias
drinking water sources adversely, particularly rural drinking
water that is largely sourced from groundwater. The smallest
but most crucial need drinking water has taken the worst beating in the race to pump from deeper levels as the demand grows.
Responding to the crisis requires three broad sets of
interventions.

w a te

Agricultural demand

Fr e s h

Quality

with shallow water levels and poor quality groundwater, must

clearly be a part of a long-term water management strategy. The
concept of participatory irrigation management, employed successfully in other parts of India, may be used to draw lessons in
customising this concept to the Punjab situation. A state-led programme on participatory irrigation management, combining
surface and groundwater resources through a definition of
short- medium- and long-term goals could be the best way of
operationalising conjunctive water use.

Technologies for dedicated

sources of safe and
sustainable drinking water
supply

including power pricing

Ensuring drinking water security
as a priority, either through
regulation measures of protecting
sources from interference, with
agriculture or industry wells

Cooperating Organisations /
Institutions

Largely institutional and

legal + cross-sector policy
coordination
Central and state
groundwater boards +
agriculture-soil conservationdairy-fishery departments +
Punjab State Electricity
Board + NGOs
Central and state
groundwater boards +
irrigation and drainage
department + agriculture
department + farmers
State groundwater board
+ drinking water
department + state water
quality laboratories

71

REVIEW OF RURAL AFFAIRS

understanding with management of supply and demand, the four

types of provisions and corresponding capacities technical, legal
and institutional, cross-sector policy coordination, and operational aspects suggested for evaluating groundwater governance provisions are quite useful (Foster et al 2011; Foster and
Garduno 2013). The broad elements of resource understanding,
supply management, and demand control can be achieved
primarily by forging cooperation and coordination between
various agencies/departments/boards that operate in the state.
This becomes a starting point to form entities around clusters of
groundwater management activities listed out in Table 4 (p 71).
The complex layering of rock strata with varying aquifer
properties gives rise to specific groundwater typologies (Kulkarni
et al 2009; World Bank 2010). We must remember that while
the physical features of aquifers are important in identifying and
describing such typologies, it is important to recognise that
aquifers go with a historically governed pattern of access to
groundwater and the social processes that regulate its use. Hence,
a time dimension is also involved in the understanding of groundwater resources, a dimension that cannot be ignored if one adds
the evolution of socio-economic conditions surrounding groundwater resources in south Asia, as elucidated by Shah (2009).
Moreover, identification of typologies becomes more complex
when we bring groundwater quality into the management frame.
Punjab presents an interesting paradox in the socioecological
analysis of south Asias water anarchy.13 While Shah (2009)
labels groundwater use from the Indo-Gangetic basin as
atomistic individualism, we believe that Punjab also presents
a large dose of what he labels collusive opportunism for
groundwater use in the arid alluvial aquifers of Rajasthan and
parts of Gujarat. Reining in such collusive opportunism in the
alluvial groundwater setting of Indias groundwater typology
(ibid) is perhaps the simplest mission statement for a groundwater governance mechanism in Punjab. At the same time, unlike hard-rock aquifers, where programmes like watershed development can prove beneficial in getting water into the ground
for users to abstract through wells during an annual cycle (Gale
et al 2006), alluvial aquifers offer a different setting for recharge. In an alluvial aquifer system, the impact of an
individual users extraction on the aquifer as a whole is limited.
Hence, there is a great incentive to collude and collectively exploit
the aquifer, often through thousands, if not millions, of wells.
The recharge efforts of an individual will, by the same token,
be typically small in relation to the size of the aquifer. So there
is no point in recharge unless a large number of users collude
there as well. Recharge programmes in a hydrogeological
setting like the alluvial aquifers of Punjab, therefore, require
collective action. Hence, a statewide recharge programme must
Notes
1 Estimated on the basis of Kulkarni et al (2009),
cited in Shankar et al (2011), EPW, XLVI (2),
Map 1. Reconfirmed through CGWB (2012) in the
atlas called Aquifer Systems of India, p 7.
2 Various sources, including CGWB (2004) Aquifer Systems of India, Table 4 and Geological
and Mineral Map of Punjab by GSI (2004)
available at http://www.indiawaterportal.org/

72

include social, economic and environmental considerations

in addition to the hydrogeology of the region.
Groundwater governance goes far beyond groundwater
itself. Groundwater-specific management goals must look beyond straightjacket regulatory mechanisms and develop alternative niches in livelihoods, energy use, and opportunities offered under adaptation and coping strategies that focus on
events such as droughts, floods, economic drivers, and climate
change and variability (Moench et al 2012). Institutionalising
groundwater governance is about how the state and its citizens
cooperate in tackling the groundwater crisis. Without critically
examining policies governing choice of cropping patterns (price
and procurement support), we cannot even begin to understand
farmers choices that intensify dependence on groundwater.
Policies in this regard continue to be heavily biased in favour of
the two major water-intensive crops in India, rice and wheat,
and it is this factor that has primarily driven the groundwater
crisis in Punjab. Farmers do not get the same kind of state support when they grow less water-intensive crops such as maize
and pulses. Even if price support is available, procurement operations lack the requisite scale and outreach. What is also
clear is that overall approaches to the pricing of water and
power have greatly incentivised overexploitation of groundwater.
While liberal approaches to such pricing did form the bedrock
of the green revolution, it has in turn triggered the groundwater
crisis in Punjab. Marginal cost pricing is clearly not an option as
it threatens the livelihoods of small and marginal farmers, who
form the vast majority. However, separation of power feeders is
a middle path explored by many states across the country that
is effective in breaking what has been described as the groundwater-energy nexus (Shah 2013).
Groundwater governance, of course, requires taking a closer
look at Punjabs aquifers to assess future prospects for the
resource, particularly with regard to the extent and thickness
of aquifers and characteristics such as transmissivity, storativity,
and groundwater quality. The understanding of boundaries
and discontinuities in such boundaries is of utmost importance, given the potential threat from regional groundwater
flows that may rapidly change patterns of risks arising from
groundwater contamination.
The best opportunity for doing so is provided by the aquifer
mapping and aquifer management programme being initiated
under the Twelfth Five-Year Plan (Planning Commission 2013a).
At the same time, key initiatives such as groundwater recharge or
large-scale crop diversification must be viewed through a
groundwater governance framework (Table 4) to accommodate
multipronged approaches involving different stakeholders,
rather than being seen as standalone magic bullets.

sites/indiawaterportal.org/files/Map_Punjab_
State_Geology_and_Mineral_Maps_Geological_
Survey_of_India.pdf
3 Factors contributing to groundwater contamination in different parts of Punjab have
been discussed in various publications; much
of this discussion has been captured in the report submitted by the High-Level Expert
Group (HLEG) on Water Logging in Punjab
december 28, 2013

referenced in this article as Planning Commission (2013b).

4 Accumulated rainfall anomaly is the difference
between the annual rainfall and the long-term
average. Anomalies (or their inverses, called deficit rainfall anomalies in this paper) have significant bearing on rainwater available for groundwater recharge. These anomalies provide us with
the broader, longer-term trends of surplus and
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6
7

10
11

12

13

deficit rainfall available in an area that may or

may not have influenced groundwater recharge
and discharge patterns in a region. The analysis is
only indicative and is not corrected for data-gaps.
Estimated from data for 2010-11 in the section
Land-use Statistics at a Glance in Agriculture
Statistics at a Glance by Directorate of Economics
and Statistics, Government of India, Table 1.1,
http://eands.dacnet.nic.in/LUS_1999_2004.htm
Punjab Department of Irrigation, http://www.
pbirrigation.gov.in
Level (or stage) of groundwater development is
the ratio of gross annual groundwater draft for all
uses to net annual groundwater availability. Net
annual groundwater availability is defined as the
annual groundwater potential (total annual recharge from monsoon and non-monsoon seasons)
minus the natural discharge during non-monsoon
season (estimated at 5%-10% of the total annual
groundwater potential). These definitions can be
found in various documents published by CGWB,
for instance, CGWB (2011).
Much information regarding fall and rise of
groundwater levels in Punjab is available with
various departments, including the CGWB and
the State Groundwater Department. Over and
above this, much of what we have summarised
is also based upon interviews with farmers
from various parts of the state.
The vadose zone, also called unsaturated zone,
is the zone of the earths subsurface above the
water table (of the phreatic/unconfined aquifer).
In other words, it extends from the surface of
the ground to the water table and includes water retained by forces of adhesion and capillary
action against the force of gravity. Soil moisture
can be considered a part of the vadose zone.
http://cgwb.gov.in/gw_profiles/st_Punjab.htm
It is quite likely that the ratio before 2004
might be higher than 5.19, but it is difficult to
reconcile groundwater abstraction data before
the methodology of computing annual groundwater draft changed in 1997.
The nine elements draw heavily upon the HLEG
report for waterlogged areas but have been
modified to also include the larger context of
the Punjab Water Syndrome described earlier
in the paper.
We draw upon the scholarly work by Tushaar Shah
(2009), a consolidated attempt to describe and
analyse the groundwater anarchy prevailing in
the south Asian region. The anarchy is attributed largely to the atomistic irrigation arising
out of the fact that millions of farmers in the
region have accessed and used groundwater to
improve agriculture in their landholdings.

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